Hybrid Learning: Third International Conference, ICHL 2010, Beijing, China, August 16-18, 2010, Proceedings

Lecture Notes in Computer Science Commenced Publication in 1973 Founding and Former Series Editors: Gerhard Goos, Juris ...

Author: Philip Tsang | Simon K.S. Cheung | Victor S.K. Lee | Ronghuai Huang

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Lecture Notes in Computer Science Commenced Publication in 1973 Founding and Former Series Editors: Gerhard Goos, Juris Hartmanis, and Jan van Leeuwen

Editorial Board David Hutchison Lancaster University, UK Takeo Kanade Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Josef Kittler University of Surrey, Guildford, UK Jon M. Kleinberg Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA Alfred Kobsa University of California, Irvine, CA, USA Friedemann Mattern ETH Zurich, Switzerland John C. Mitchell Stanford University, CA, USA Moni Naor Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Oscar Nierstrasz University of Bern, Switzerland C. Pandu Rangan Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, India Bernhard Steffen TU Dortmund University, Germany Madhu Sudan Microsoft Research, Cambridge, MA, USA Demetri Terzopoulos University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA Doug Tygar University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Gerhard Weikum Max-Planck Institute of Computer Science, Saarbruecken, Germany

6248

Philip Tsang Simon K.S. Cheung Victor S.K. Lee Ronghuai Huang (Eds.)

Hybrid Learning Third International Conference, ICHL 2010 Beijing, China, August 16-18, 2010 Proceedings

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Volume Editors Philip Tsang Caritas Institute of Higher Education Hong Kong, China E-mail: [email protected] Simon K.S. Cheung Open University of Hong Kong Hong Kong, China E-mail: [email protected] Victor S.K. Lee The Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong, China E-mail: [email protected] Ronghuai Huang Beijing Normal University Beijing, China E-mail: [email protected]

Library of Congress Control Number: 2010931107 CR Subject Classification (1998): I.2.6, H.5, H.4, I.2, H.3, J.1 LNCS Sublibrary: SL 1 – Theoretical Computer Science and General Issues ISSN ISBN-10 ISBN-13

0302-9743 3-642-14656-2 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York 978-3-642-14656-5 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. springer.com © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010 Printed in Germany Typesetting: Camera-ready by author, data conversion by Scientific Publishing Services, Chennai, India Printed on acid-free paper 06/3180

Preface

The Third International Conference on Hybrid Learning (ICHL 2010) was organized by the School of Continuing and Professional Studies of The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Beijing Normal University, Goethe-Institut China, Caritas Francis Hsu College, and Caritas Bianchi College of Careers. ICHL 2010 provided a platform for knowledge exchange on hybrid learning among educators, researchers and computer scientists, who share a common goal to enhance the quality of learning and teaching in this fast-changing knowledge world, with the support of technology innovation. Hybrid learning has been an ongoing trend for a number of years. It is not merely a simple combination of face-to-face and technology-mediated instruction, but also encompasses different learning strategies for teaching and learning. It places emphasis on outcome-based teaching and learning, and provides a diversified learning environment. Hybrid learning is probably the most efficient learning mode in the present age of globalization, when learning has to be borderless and dynamic in order to address the diverse learning needs of students. Students are given more opportunities to develop into active independent learners, and to practice practical skills for work and study. It was our pleasure to have three keynote speakers for the ICHL 2010. They were Rebecca Launer from Goethe-Institut, Germany, Bebo White from Stanford University, and Yan Ji Chang from Tsinghua University, all of whom shared with us their valuable insights in the hybrid learning field. We thank the ICHL 2010 Organizing Committee for organizing the conference, and also the Program Committee for reviewing the papers. Our sincere appreciation goes to Binlin Zhong for the support of Beijing Normal University in hosting the conference. ICHL 2010 attracted about 225 submissions, of which 44 were accepted for publication in the Lectures Notes in Computer Science series by Springer. Sponsorship for the conference was obtained from Pei Hua Education Foundation Limited, Goethe-Institut, China, School of Continuing and Professional Studies of The Chinese University of Hong Kong, and International Hybrid Learning Society. We are grateful for the generosity of all the sponsors.

August 2010

Victor S.K. Lee

Organization

Organizing Committee Honorary Chairs

Binlin Zhong (Beijing Normal University) Clemens Treter (Goethe-Institut, China) Reggie Kwan (Caritas Francis Hsu College) Victor S.K. Lee (The Chinese University of Hong Kong)

,

Conference Chairs

Joseph Fong (City University of Hong Kong) Ronghuai Huang (Beijing Normal University) Philip Tsang (Caritas Institute of Higher Education)

Program Chairs

Philips F.L. Wang (Caritas Francis Hsu College) L.F. Kwok (City University of Hong Kong) Shengquan Yu (Beijing Normal University)

Organization Chair

Shengquan Yu (Beijing Normal University)

Financial Chair Local Arrangements

Silvia Choi (The Chinese University of Hong Kong)

Chairs

Frances Kling (Goethe-Institut, China)

Registration Chair

Jonathan Diu (The Chinese University of Hong Kong)

Publication Chair

Kat Leung (Caritas Francis Hsu College) Simon K.S. Cheung (Open University of Hong Kong)

Publicity Chair

Lanqin Zheng (Beijing Normal University) Oliver Au (Open University of Hong Kong) Gary Lam (Caritas Bianchi College of Careers)

Academic Liaison Chair Wai Yin Mok (University of Alabama in Huntsville) Sponsorship Chair

Will W. K. Ma (Hong Kong Shue Yan University)

Activities Chair

Siu Cheung Kong (The Hong Kong Institute of Education)

International Program Committee Oliver Au Robert Biuk-Aghai Vic Callaghan Fun Ting Chan Kan Kan Chan

Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong University of Macau, Macau Essex University, UK The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong University of Macau, Macau

VIII

Organization

Keith C.C. Chan Giuliana Dettori Peter Duffy Joseph Fong Bob Fox Wenge Guo Wolfgang Halang Owen Hall Jr. Raquel Hijön Jianjun Hou Cordula Hunold Le Jun Alexander Kling Frances Kling Siu Cheung Kong Rebecca Launer John W.T. Lee Yan Li Yanyan Li Yi Li Will W.K. Ma Dennis McLeod Diana Perez-Marin Junjie Shang Stefanie Sieber Liana Stanescu Stefan Trausan-Matu Minjuan Wang Philips Wang Harrison Hao Yang W.L. Yeung Jiping Zhang Liming Zhang

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong ITD CNR, Italy The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Peking University, China Fernuniversitaet, Germany Pepperdine University, USA Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain Peking University, China Goethe-Institut, China Guangdong Radio & TV University, China Goethe-Institut, China Goethe-Institut, China The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong Goethe-Institut, China The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Zhejiang University, China Beijing Normal University, China Nanjing Normal University, China Hong Kong Shue Yan University, Hong Kong University of Southern California, USA Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Spain Peking University, China University of Bamberg, Germany University of Craiova, Romania University 'Politehnica' of Bucharest, Romania Shanghai Jiaotong University, China Caritas Francis Hsu College, Hong Kong State University of New York at Oswego, USA Lingnan University, Hong Kong East China Normal University, China University of Macau, Macau

Organization

Organizers

Goethe-Institut China

School of Continuing and Professional Studies, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

Beijing Normal University

Caritas Francis Hsu College

Caritas Bianchi College of Careers

Sponsors

Hong Kong Pei Hua Education Foundation

International Hybrid Learning Society

City University of Hong Kong

School of Professional and Continuing Education, The University of Hong Kong

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Table of Contents

Keynote Alternative Worlds as Teaching and Learning Environments . . . . . . . . . . . Bebo White Five Assumptions on Blended Learning: What Is Important to Make Blended Learning a Successful Concept? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rebecca Launer

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Interactive Hybrid Learning Systems Learning Performance Support System for Adult Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . Ji-Ping Zhang E-Learning: Developing a Simple Web-Based Intelligent Tutoring System Using Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment and Adaptive Testing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kenneth Wong, Kat Leung, Reggie Kwan, and Philip Tsang

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23

Hybrid Learning Systems: Meeting the Challenges of Graduate Management Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Owen P. Hall Jr. and John G. Mooney

35

An E-Class Teaching Management System (ECTMS): Strategy and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pinde Chen, Xiaojuan Li, Defeng Lin, and Harrison Hao Yang

49

Facebook – Education with Social Networking Websites for Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Herbert Shiu, Joseph Fong, and Jeanne Lam

59

Content Management for Hybrid Learning Building Teachers’ TPACK through WebQuest Development and Blended Learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harrison Hao Yang and Pinde Chen

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Hybrid Learning: “Neither Fish Nor Fowl” or “The Golden Mean” . . . . . Andreas Henrich and Stefanie Sieber

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Techniques for Enhancing Hybrid Learning of Physical Education . . . . . . Ya-jun Pang

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Table of Contents

Using New Web Technologies in Teaching Demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mirjana Devedˇzi´c and Vladan Devedˇzi´c

106

Pedagogical and Psychological Issues Best Practices in Teaching Online or Hybrid Courses: A Synthesis of Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lennon Tan, Minjuan Wang, and Jun Xiao Students’ Attitudes towards Web Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yoko Hirata and Yoshihiro Hirata Knowledge Structure of Elementary School Teacher Training Based on Educational Technology: Focus on Classroom Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jiliang Shen, Chongde Lin, Xuemin Zhang, Zhao Xia, and Qingyun Niu A Qualitative Analysis of Sub-degree Students Commentary Styles and Patterns in the Context of Gender and Peer e-Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kat Leung, Manhoe Chan, Gordon Maxwell, and Teresa Poon

117 127

137

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Outcome-Based Teaching and Learning Hybrid Learning Curriculum Development Using the ReProTool - Lessons from Ancient Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Philippos Pouyioutas Investigating Hong Kong Form 6 Students’ Perceptions towards Their Development of Critical Thinking Skills with Narrative Analysis Activities with Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paul Chi Hong Lip and Emil Ka Leung Li ROAD-MAP for Educational Simulations and Serious Games . . . . . . . . . . Jayshiro Tashiro, Patrick C.K. Hung, and Miguel Vargas Martin Enhancing Blended Courses to Facilitate Student Achievement of Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nga-Sin Lau, Lui Lam, and Bo Zhou

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171 186

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Instructional Design Issues Building an Online Course Based on Semantic Wiki for Hybrid Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yanyan Li and Yuanyuan Liu A Hybrid Learning Compiler Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M.L. Barr´ on-Estrada, Ram´ on Zatarain-Cabada, Rosal´ıo Zatarain-Cabada, and Carlos A. Reyes Garc´ıa

217 229

Table of Contents

XIII

Understanding Online Knowledge Sharing: An Exploratory Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Will Wai Kit Ma and Allan Hoi Kau Yuen

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The Eﬀects of “Facilitating” in an Online Asynchronous Teachers Training Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wenge Guo, Wen Yan, and Jianjun Hou

249

Developing a Mulitmedia Learning Model Based on Hands-On Learning: A Cognitive Appenticeship Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bo-Yen Wang, Ming-Hsiang Su, and Pao-Ta Yu

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Experiences in Hybrid Learning Hybrid Learning of Physical Education Using National Elaborate Course Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ya-jun Pang

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Key Factors of Eﬀecting Blended Learning Satisfaction: A Study on Peking University Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guodong Zhao and Shuai Yuan

282

Experience of Blended Learning in School Education: Knowledge about Perimeter of Closed Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Siu Cheung Kong, Cheuk Lin Chan, and Fu Lee Wang

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A Review of Mobile Learning in the Mobile Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jeanne Lam, Jane Yau, and Simon K.S. Cheung Hybrid Learning Mode for Industrial Engineering Specialized Courses in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shubin Si, Zhiqiang Cai, Shuai Zhang, Shudong Sun, and Junqiang Wang

306

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Improved Flexibility of Learning Processes A Practical Approach to the Teaching of Internet Programming and Multimedia Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Philip Tsang, Reggie Kwan, Vincent Tam, Paul Kwok, Steven Choy, John Wu, Kai Koong, Bob Fox, and Jonathan Tsang Use of Open Educational Resources: Challenges and Strategies . . . . . . . . . Qing Chen The Use of Virtual Classroom in Library and Information Management Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jeanne Lam, Simon K.S. Cheung, Norris Lau, and Jane Yau

326

339

352

XIV

Table of Contents

3D Virtual Classroom Based on Multi-agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minghua Li, Xin Li, and Liren Zeng

362

Computer Supported Collaborative Learning Learning in CALL Environments: An Exploration of the Eﬀects of Self-regulated Learning Constructs on Chinese Students’ Academic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Haisen Zhang and Ronghuai Huang

370

Automatic Support for the Analysis of Online Collaborative Learning Chat Conversations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stefan Trausan-Matu

383

Knowledge Construction through Discussion Forum in a Blended Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jianhua Zhao and Yinjian Jiang

395

On-Line Learning Community Based on Curricular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DanDan Gao and XiangDong Chen

407

Assessment Strategies for Hybrid Learning Comparison of Students’ Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction Factors in Diﬀerent Classroom Types in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fong-Ling Fu

415

Cognitive Load Theory Based Eﬀectiveness Evaluation on Dynamic Math Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liming Zhang, Ngaihong Chan, and Yilin Chu

427

Impact of 3D/VR Action Video Games on Players’ Cognition, Problem Solving and Its Implications in Simulation Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xuemin Zhang, Bin Yang, and Yongna Li

439

Implementing Institutional Online Assessment - Addressing the Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Esyin Chew, Norah Jones, and Haydn Blackey

453

Organisational Frameworks and Institutional Policies Hybrid Learning: Teaching for Quality Learning at University . . . . . . . . . Elsie Siu King Chan The Diminishing Inﬂuence of Age and Gender on e-Learning Readiness of Teachers in Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Koon Keung Teddy So and Paula Swatman

465

477

Table of Contents

Eﬀectiveness of E-Learning at Secondary Schools in Hong Kong . . . . . . . . Fu Lee Wang, Reggie Kwan, and Tak-Lam Wong Competency Model for Chinese Distance Education in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shuang Li, Li Chen, Bob Fox, and Philip Tsang

XV

489

501

Hybrid Learning and New Development of “IT in Education” Theory . . . Kekang He

513

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

533

Alternative Worlds as Teaching and Learning Environments Bebo White SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory 2575 Sand Hill Road, MailStop 97, Menlo Park CA 94305 USA [email protected]

Abstract. The educational community has traditionally been among the first to evaluate and adopt interactive innovations in information technology. These innovations often provide test beds for educational theorists to explore new methodologies for computer-based instruction. “Alternative worlds” is an exciting new research area for computer scientists specializing in human-computer interaction, social networking, and virtual reality. This paper speculates about how alternative world technologies might affect the future of online instruction..

1 Introduction What will online, computer-based educational systems look like in the next decade? Technological advancements in high-speed networking/computing, Web services, cloud computing, and mobile devices offer opportunities for teaching and learning that can only be imagined. Rich interfaces and social networking have redefined the way that people communicate with computing systems and with each other. How will educators best use these technologies that promise to become a part of our future? 1.1 The Current State of Educational Technology The educational community has fully embraced what are commonly known as Web 2.0 technologies. Numerous research papers and case studies have generally verified the value of blogs, wikis, podcasts, etc., as constituents in learning and teaching environments. Such technologies typically complement existing teaching methodologies by providing online and distributed mechanisms for collaborative writing, resource distribution, etc. Now students can upload assignments to a class Web site, e-mail questions to their teachers, and work on assignments with distant peers using instant messaging, online discussion forums and wikis. Widespread support of multimedia components (e.g., audio, video, animation) has increased the richness of teaching materials. In part, the success of these tools in an educational environment can be attributed to the fact that they leverage applications used by students in their personal lives. Educational applications of social networking applications, e.g., Facebook, Twitter, etc., has yet to be fully established. While these applications support a more formalized collaboration model, it is not clear that they provide a substantially improved P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 1–8, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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teaching model. Like blogs and wikis, these systems remain effectively twodimensional and page-oriented. Interestingly, two of the major ideas often associated with Web 2.0, bottom-up governance and rich interfaces, are far more difficult to implement in widespread educational applications. Systems remain somewhat traditional in their teacher/ mentor-driven (top-down) instruction methods due to limited realistic mechanisms for peer-based instruction. Interfaces in Web-based educational systems are often constrained by the limited interaction capabilities offered by basic Web services (e.g., text boxes, drop-down menus, etc.). Attempts to add rich interfaces with applications such as Flash, are often met with compatibility/accessibility and (to a lesser extent) connectivity/bandwidth issues. “New learning paradigms are forming. A summary of the paradigm shift in education is as follows:

− Educational focus is shifting from teacher-centered to student-centered; − Teaching approach is moving from lecturing monotonously to facilitating students’ autonomous and independent learning;

− Learning style is shifting from passive learning to active and collaborative learning” [1] 1.2 Alternative Worlds The educational possibilities of free applications such as Google Earth are redefining perceptions of any limitations surrounding Internet-based (not necessarily Webbased) instruction. The immersive and interactive capabilities of such applications have involved students in a way that was never previously possible (even with CDbased systems). It is not an understatement to say that in Google Earth the world becomes a student’s classroom for the study of geography (and oceanography). For the purposes of this paper, “alternative worlds” are defined as rich environments (not necessarily “real world-based”) that can be used for instruction and learning. Google Earth can be construed as an “alternative world” in that users are provided with realistic capabilities that they could never experience in real life (e.g., flying around the Earth or diving to the depths of the ocean). Given the ubiquity of broadband network access and cheap processing power, it is widely believed that “alternative world interfaces” will become increasingly common in the near future. It is important to distinguish between references to alternative worlds and the popular concept of virtual reality. Virtual Reality (VR) usually denotes a computergenerated system that allows users to become immersed in an interactive threedimensional environment. As such, VR worlds are examples of alternative worlds, but not all alternative worlds are VR worlds. Classic examples of VR worlds require special equipment (e.g., goggles, gloves, etc.) in order for users to experience the full effect of the environment. Such requirements clearly limit a widespread adoption of the technology especially in an educational context.

Alternative Worlds as Teaching and Learning Environments

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2 Technology Overviews There can be no argument that there are many terrible examples of computer/networked-based teaching and learning systems. More recently, educational systems may have been praised because they use Web 2.0 concepts rather than how well they use Web 2.0 concepts. For any new technology to be successful as a teaching and learning platform, there must be a well-accepted teaching and learning practice that is enabled by that technology. It is unlikely that the designers of Google Earth were driven by its possibilities as an instructional tool. It is, instead, the job of educators to realize how Google Earth might be used to enhance a learning experience. A review of research literature concerning new learning practices suggests six learning theories that are potentially applicable to alternative world teaching and learning environments. 1. Behaviorist learning – “learning activities that promote learning as a change in observable actions” 2. Constructivist learning – “Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge and instruction is a process of supporting that construction rather than communicating knowledge” 3. Situated learning – “Learning activities should promote learning with an authentic context and culture” 4. Collaborative learning – “Learning activities that promote learning through social interaction” 5. Informal and lifelong – “Learning activities that support learning outside a dedicated learning environment and formal curriculum” 6. Learning and teaching support – “Activities that assist in coordination of learner and resources for learning activities” As each of several alternative world technologies are discussed, it is useful to evaluate them in the context of these learning practices and what the technology might bring to that practice that is currently unavailable. 2.1 Virtual Worlds “A virtual world is a genre of online community that often takes the form of a computer-based simulated environment, through which users can interact with one another and use and create objects. Virtual worlds are intended for its users to inhabit and interact, and the term today has become synonymous with interactive 3D virtual environments, where the users take the form of avatars visible to others graphically. These avatars are usually depicted as textual, two-dimensional, or three-dimensional graphical representations, although other forms are possible (auditory and touch sensations for example). Some, but not all, virtual worlds allow for multiple users.”[8] Perhaps the most well known of the virtual world providers is Second Life. According to Linden Lab™, the developers of Second Life, there were more than 18

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million registered users as of January 2010.[9] There are, however, no reliable figures for actual long-term consistent usage. Second Life has become a popular environment for professional training and has, in some instances, replaced the Webinar as a popular mechanism for industry-customer communication. Numerous educational institutions and organizations have established presence in Second Life and support not only instruction, but also international conferences. Figure 1. shows the author’s avatar visiting a lecture theater on the virtual campus of Southern Cross University.[6]

Fig. 1. Lecture Theater in Second Life

2.2 Augmented Reality Augmented Reality (AR) is a general term used to describe computer-based systems that allow users to operate within an environment that is a combination of the real world and superimposed virtual objects. As such, AR supplements reality rather than completely replacing it. The operating domain of an AR system is limited to the real domain that it complements. This means that on a spectrum of alternative world technologies, AR lies between a completely virtual environment (whose domains have no bounds) and telepresence (with well-defined physical bounds). For example, in Figure 2., virtual representations of buildings in Kuala Lumpur are superimposed upon a textbook describing that city.[7] These components appear to someone in that environment to be interactive book content which provides functionality not otherwise available with a two-dimensional text. This environment allows students to interact with those objects (i.e., zoom in and out, move around, etc.) just as though they were real objects.

Alternative Worlds as Teaching and Learning Environments

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Fig. 2. Augmented Components in a Real-World Environment

2.3 Telepresence Any of the technologies previously mentioned can be described as immersive. The concept of immersive environments is a well-known one that has been the subject of considerable research. Telepresence or tele-immersion is typically described as any technology that enables cooperative interaction between users at geographically distributed sites. This is achieved through realistic video and sound reconstruction of the activities in threedimensional (3D) space in real time.

Fig. 3. Collaborative Telepresence

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An immersive environment is unlike any other teaching venue. Real-time meetings, classes, and collaboration, in contrast to Web pages, are far more engaging. Such an environment is believed to increase participation and improve retention. TelePresence is about more than video conferencing. It provides access to a virtual learning environment that makes students feel like they are in the same room as their educator and other students, for collaborative work in different cities, states, and countries. Figure 3. shows a common example of telepresence technology. Like AR, the domain of active telepresence is most often a real-world physical space (e.g., a meeting room, a classroom, etc.).

3 Evaluation of Alternative Worlds for Teaching and Learning Clearly education is not the only discipline that can benefit from alternative world technology. Successful applications in entertainment (e.g., multi-user networked games) and business (e.g., telepresence and video-conferencing) are widely available. As was the case with Web 2.0, the more educators become aware of these technologies and evaluate how they might contribute to teaching and learning processes, widespread adoption is likely to follow. 3.1 Alternative Worlds and Teaching and Learning Practices "Educational philosophies evolve in response to the needs of each era and in harmony with available technology.”[5] It is clear that considerable research is required to establish correlations between educational activities in alternative worlds and the learning practices described in Section 2. “Cybergogy is an adaptation of Pedagogy and Andragogy designed to accommodate the requirements of eTeaching, that is to say teaching that is computer mediated, usually conducted at a distance. Cybergogy embraces cognitive, emotional and social domains aspiring to provide an engaging online learner experience, recognizing that teaching strategies employed in face to face situations may not be appropriate or effective in online settings.”[4] Due to the immersive and social elements of alternative worlds discussed, it would appear that they compliment the constructivist theory of learning. In an alternative world environment, students can readily and individually construct knowledge by creating objects or navigating the space and/or by communicating and interacting with other avatars (if available) in the space. Simulation-based learning (SBL) theories would also find natural applications in alternative worlds. As an extension to constructivist theories, this “learning by doing” encourages students to select and pursue experiences that are constructed as they respond to various types of dynamic, moving learning events (stimuli) that encapsulate realistic experiences. It is not difficult to imagine alternative world examples of the other learning/teaching theories discussed in Section 2 (situated learning, collaborative learning, informal and lifelong learning, and learning/teaching support). Students of Shakespearean literature could experience acting on an Elizabethan stage (situated). Science students could conduct experiments without regard for their geographic location (collaborative, immersive). Distance education would take on a wider dimension

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(informal/lifelong). Student-student and teacher/mentor-student relationships could become far richer experiences (learning/teaching support). 3.2 Alternative Worlds as Teaching and Learning Environments Kapp and O’Driscoll [3] are staunch advocates of the potential of Second Life as an educational environment. They often point to the FREEDOM that Second Life offers to both students and educators where:

− F is for the flow that the environment provides through its continuous rather than discrete actions. Learners in alternative worlds are not restricted to linear (step-by-step) actions.

− R is for the repetition that is readily supported. Repetition is a key component in all learning paradigms.

− E is for experimentation. The natural actions of alternative worlds encourage experimentation and exploration. Alternative worlds expand the learning domain within which a curious and motivated learner might experiment and explore.

− E is for engagement. Engagement has been described as “a situation when learners are captured, heart and mind, in learning – or to use formal terms, are cognitively and affectively connected to the learning experience.”[2]

− D means doing. Direct manipulation is a key and common characteristic of alternative worlds.

− O represents observation. In alternative worlds, learning objects are observed, not simply referenced.

− M is for motivation. Alternative worlds promote learner curiosity that is a basic motivating human trait. While the elements of FREEDOM were originally defined to describe Second Life, it is clear that they can be generalized for a description of all alternative world implementations for education. They emphasize the interactivity and immersion common to alternative world environments. Users of these environments develop a “sense of self” as a viewer in AR environments, as an avatar in VR environments, or as an individual participant experiencing telepresence. “Story-based” teaching methods are quite natural consequences of these environments.

4 Conclusions “Alternative world” technologies are mature enough to attract greater attention by educational technologists. These technologies have the potential to put into practice many of the principles of well-accepted learning methodologies in a way never before possible. There are rich opportunities for collaboration between the computer scientists working on these technologies and the educational community. Such collaboration would likely lead to innovations in distance education, networked collaborative learning, and personalized instruction that we can only begin to imagine.

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References [1] Cheng, C.Y.Y., Yen, J.: Virtual Learning Environment (VLE): A Web-based Collaborative Learning System. The University of Hong Kong (1998) [2] Quinn, C.N.: Engaging Learning. Pfeiffer, San Francisco (2005) [3] Kapp, K., O’Driscoll, T.: Learning in 3D, http://learningin3d.info/ [4] Scopes, L.J.M.: Learning Archetypes as tools of Cybergogy for a 3D Educational Landscape: A Structure for eTeaching in Second Life, http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/66169/ [5] Shneiderman, B.: Relate-Create-Donate: A teaching/learning philosophy for the cybergeneration. Computers & Education 31(1), 25–39 (1998), http://hcil.cs.umd.edu/trs/97-17/97.17.html [6] Southern Cross University, http://www.scu.edu.au/twt/news01.html (accessed on March 27, 2010) [7] Weng, E.N.G.: Centre of Excellence for Semantic Technology and Augmented Reality, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), http://www.unimas.my/ (accessed on March 27, 2010) [8] Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_world (accessed on March 26, 2010) [9] Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_life (accessed on March 27, 2010)

Five Assumptions on Blended Learning: What Is Important to Make Blended Learning a Successful Concept? Rebecca Launer Goethe-Institut, Germany [email protected]

1 Introduction After the initial e-learning hype with all its hopes and expectations on successful learning through the support of technical achievements, now blended learning is becoming the promising learning concept. Bearing the experiences with e-learning in mind, teachers and learners alike are more cautious regarding their hopes. Nevertheless the idea of hybrid or blended learning, combining the best of several learning concepts, is indeed intriguing. But what is blended learning? It is important to acknowledge that "blended learning means different things to different people" (Discroll 2002) and therefore it is necessary to give a definition, whenever a concept of blended learning is discussed. In this paper, blended learning is defined as the combination of technology supported self or distance study settings and face-to-face settings. Regarding this definition, what is the best of the different learning concepts, that makes blended learning a successful concept? There are more and more empirical studies which try to give an answer. This paper proposes five assumptions on this question, which have a didactical emphasis and include the results of some recent empirical studies on this matter.

2 Blended Learning Is More Than Just an Offer of More Flexibility Looking at institutions offering blended learning courses, the marketing usually promises flexibility regarding the learning hours and the place of learning and the study pace. Very often also the technical adaption of the learning content to the individual learner’s needs and individual supervision through the teachers are important arguments for the marketing. For sure these are very important reasons for learners to choose a blended learning course over an in-class-course. But are these all advantages of blended learning? Blended Learning can offer more, if the learning process is well implemented into the course concept. Therefore, in the planning procedure some essential questions have to be answered: 1. 2. 3.

What kind of knowledge or content is being imparted? Which learning processes are being executed? How can a blended learning environment support these learning processes?

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 9–15, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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And if these questions can be answered, there is a didactical rationale for blended learning and therefore a didactical surplus. This assumption is illustrated through the example of learning a foreign language. The language learning process is highly individual and complex: it includes the knowledge of lexical and grammatical structures of the new language as well as the application of these structures in the communication process in order to act in the target language. The communication process itself is also very complex, as it implies speaking, listening, reading and writing and sometimes all at once. On top of this, learning a foreign language also requires the acquisition of intercultural knowledge and understanding of the target culture. The self study phases can be used for the acquisition of the structural components (e.g. vocabulary and grammar) of the foreign language. The learners can study at their own pace, slow down in the learning process where they lack knowledge or speed up and skip exercises when they feel confident. Also the reading and listening skills can be trained in the self study phases. Especially in the beginning of learning a new language one needs time to extract meaning while listening or reading. Students have different needs while training these skills. Some need to find out the meaning of words, others need to practise the global understanding. While in face-to-face settings it is difficult to satisfy the many different needs of the different learners, in self study phases each learner can train according to his or her own needs and take as much time as possible. By distributing the structural components into the self study phases, precious time in face-to-face settings is saved for communicative situation and the teacher does not have to spend to much time to explain and train lexical and grammatical structures with some students while others want to move on. When the self study phases are used to give the students the opportunity to acquire and train the foreign language structures, the face-to-face settings can be used more effectively to interact in and with the foreign language and an authentic communicative situation can be created. The blended learning concept therefore does not only offer flexibility in many ways but also supports the necessities of the learners while learning a foreign language.1 There is no consensus on how many hours of face-toface-lessons and self study time should be planned. But there is a consensus that the didactical concept is important to create a coherent learning experience (Arnold et. al. 2004). Foreign language learning might be a special case. But it is worth looking closely at each subject, may they be of school, academic or professional education, to find out how blended learning can organically support the specific ongoing learning process and blend the acquisition and the application of knowledge in an optimized way.

3 Methodology Beats Technology It seems that there are almost no limits to the development of multimedia supported learning programmes. Going to exhibitions such as the BETT (British Education and Training Technology) in London or the Learntec in Karlsruhe, every year we are 1

This is just a rough summary of the blended learning concept for the empirical study ”Blended Learning im Fremdsprachenunterricht – Konzeption und Evaluation eines Modells“. For further reading please see Launer 2008.

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confronted with a huge number of new achievements which are supposed to facilitate learning. And the World Wide Web provides an even higher number of tools. Therefore there is no lack of technical options to enrich learning processes, but there is a big challenge to find the right tool for a specific content. In the 1990s there was an important discussion going on between several scientists, mainly between Robert Kozma and Richard Clark, if media influences learning or not. The discussion goes on and still developers of multimedia learning programmes or software promise better learning success with their tools. Nevertheless the downfall of the e-learning hype has clearly shown that the technical achievements alone do not fulfil all necessities of a learning process. There is the danger of using a new tool, just because it is new or because it offers new features. Developing blended learning scenarios, we are confronted with the challenge to integrate technical, nowadays mostly virtual multimedia tools into the learning arrangement as a whole, so that the full potentials of these tools can be adapted for specific cognitive learning processes. In order to support this process and not to overload the intake capacity of the learner, multimedia tools have to be scrutinized, before used. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning by Richard E. Mayer (2005) assumes that the learning process involves two channels, the visual and the verbal channel. For meaningful learning to occur in a multimedia environment, the learner must engage in five cognitive processes: (1) selecting relevant words for processing in verbal working memory, (2) selecting relevant images for processing in visual working memory, (3) organizing selected words into a verbal model, (4) organizing selected images into a pictorial model, and (5) integrating the verbal and pictorial representations with each other and with prior knowledge (Mayer 2005: 38). Taking this theory into account, here are just some of the questions, we have to ask: -

-

-

What is the task of this tool? Does it serve the distribution of information? Does it offer training material? Is it supposed to enhance the interaction between the learners? Can the tool be used task-based? Can the learner concentrate on the given task or does the tool offer other features, which might distract the learner from the task? Does the tool offer enough features to cover all processes, when used in a complex learning situation? If not, what else has to be used additionally? What kind of feedback is offered by the tool? Does the feedback need to be complemented? Is the handling of the tool user friendly?

It is important, that the technical possibilities do not determine the learning process, but that the learning process determines the choice and the application of a certain tool. For this reason I agree with the opinion that the technique used in an e- or blended learning setting is only as good as the teacher choosing it and tutoring the learning process (Schulmeister 2007).

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4 Blended Learning Requires a Comprehensive Didactical Consideration When planning a blended learning scenario, many questions from different didactical points of view have to be asked and to be answered. When organizing a learning environment, no matter if it is face-to-face, blended or e-learning, there must be a fundamental grasp of how learning works and how teaching can assist this process. General didactical considerations integrate philosophical, sociological, psychological and nowadays also neurophysiological ideas and insights. The constructivist approach for example assumes that the learning process is highly individual and can not be controlled but only enhanced from outside. The learner is emancipated, organizes and controls his or her learning process him- or herself. Assumptions like this have an important impact on the learning situation and on the teacher-learner-relationship. On top of this fundamental grasp, each subject, such as foreign language learning or teacher training or the professional training for bank employees, has to ask specific subject related didactical questions, as I have shown in my assumption one. The third didactical influence is brought into the blended learning environment by the technical possibilities, as I have shown in my assumption two. But for successful blended learning it is not enough to acknowledge the different didactical influences. The challenge that has to be overcome, is the organic integration of them according to the specific blended learning scenario. And these scenarios are very multifaceted and span from face-to-face courses which are complemented by multimedia to e-learning courses which just have an in-class-kick-off. With the introduction of blended learning we are offered unlimited options to plan learning scenarios. But to achieve a benefit from blended learning over other scenarios it is crucial to have in mind all the parameters involved -

the learners the educational objectives the local conditions of the teaching institution the learning environment design the available and worthwhile technical tools

Just to name a few. And each parameter once again demands further scrutiny. It would go beyond the scope of this paper to go deeper into all the questioning, but what I wanted to show is, with blended learning we are offered almost unlimited options for learning and teaching and if a blended learning scenario has been planed carefully, it can be the top scenario of all options.

5 Blended Learning Requires a New Understanding of the Teacher’s and the Learner’s Role As mentioned above, with blended learning advantages come to the learners, as for example, flexibility. Nevertheless offering e- or blended learning courses, we have to deal with high drop out rates or non-constant attendance of the learners (Launer 2008, Stracke 2007). Many of our learners worldwide are still used to traditional and teacher-centered lessons. As my research has shown (Launer 2008), for them, the self

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study phases in a blended learning environment are very challenging due to the unfamiliar autonomy in this learning situation. To benefit from the flexibility regarding the learning hours and the place of learning as well as the study pace, the learners need - to plan their learning hours and to fit these into their regular life (time management), - to be aware of the learning objectives in order to aim at these objectives (self management), - to know their needs in order to choose the necessary learning steps (cognitive competence), - to reflect and evaluate the learning progress and to reorganize it if necessary (metacognitive competence), - to socialize in the learning environment, - and to motivate themselves. The communication and socializing between the learners play an important role for their motivation. Working together on assignments, exchanging questions or advice, and thereby helping each other, makes the learners feel less alone in their self study phases and can create a group dynamic and commitment, which can boost the motivation enormously. The possibilities of Web 2.0 concept offer many useful features for the cooperative learning. Learner autonomy, which is essential in the constructivist learning theory, also means to be self responsible for the learning outcome. Therefore the learners are not any longer just recipients of knowledge transfer but active parts in the learning process. This new role of the learners was of course not caused by blended learning, but it is fundamental for the success of blended learning. This extends the core task of knowledge transfer of teachers and assigns a new role to them as well. More than ever, teachers now have - to moderate the learning process by giving time frames, discuss learning objectives, providing comprehensive learning material and methods matched with the learning objectives (Reinmann 2003) as well as supporting the cooperative assignments, - to coach the learners with learning strategies, when it comes to the question of how to learn, - to be a technical contact person, when learners have technical questions or problems, - to moderate the communication between the learners, - to motivate the learners. Just as the learners have to get used to and need help to deal with the learner autonomy, the teacher has to be well prepared for his/her new role. For many teachers, who are used to more or less traditional ex-cathedra teaching, it is difficult to put the control of the learning process into the learners’ hands and to concentrate on the tasks. It is therefore essential that teacher training goes beyond the transfer of knowledge and involves the new tasks that are assigned to teachers by the constructivist learning theory and which plays an important part in blended learning scenarios. If learners and teachers cannot handle their new roles, the advantage of flexibility through blended learning backfires and becomes a hindrance for the success of

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blended learning. But if they feel accustomed to and well in their new role, the learning experience can be bigger and a gain for both, the learners and the teachers.

6 Blended Learning Is Not Cheaper Than Face-to-Face-Learning Environments The rumor that blended learning is cheaper than face-to-face-lessons is still spreading although more and more institutions organizing blended learning are having different experiences. It might be true though for learners, especially when they are participating in blended learning training within their working environment. If they have to leave their office in order to go to face-to-face classes, the way back and forth might be time consuming and since time means money in the business world, it might indeed be cheaper to do an e- or blended learning class instead. An institution does save money on costs for classrooms by conducting blended learning lessons. But the savings on this end are easily used on other necessary expenses: - If an institution changes its offers from face-to-face-classes the existing classroom concepts and curricula cannot simply be transfered but must be adapted to the new didactical and technical demands. -

Investments into the technical infrastructure are necessary in order to offer a high-quality learning environment. The costs depend on the elaboration of the infrastructure. But to be up to standard, the infrastructure needs a regular update, what also generates costs.

-

When offering courses where there is technology involved, technical support should be provided, in order to avoid that learners drop out of classes because of technical problems. The technical support of course can be the teacher, but it can also be helpful to have a technical expert at hand.

-

Sometimes it is asked if there are savings on the teacher’s fees. If the self study phases are not or are only minimally supported by a teacher, money can be saved. But this is not to be recommended. As I tried to outline in this paper, the teacher still has a very important part in a blended learning scenario. Saving costs on the teacher’s end, in my opinion means saving money at the wrong end.

Offering blended learning might not be cheaper than other options, but the money is well invested, if the blended learning concept is well and carefully conducted. Besides, by offering blended learning courses, an institution can extend its operating reach and so create a market advantage compared with other course providers. Learning processes are complex, because they involve nothing less complex than human beings, their experiences and previous knowledge and the learning object with all its specifics. Learning concepts, which try to give answers and solutions for learning processes cannot be less complex. Blended learning additionally combines different learning concepts and is therefore an even bigger challenge. My assumptions on blended learning give a rough insight in the complexity of it and show that a careful

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concept is necessary when conducting blended learning. But it is worthwhile to dedicate the appropriate care, because then blended learning can fulfil the promises and be more that just the sum of its singular parts.

References 1. Arnold, P., Kilian, L., Thillosen, A., Zimmer, G.: E-Learning. Handbuch für Hochschulen und Bildungszentren. Didaktik – Organisation – Entwicklung (2004) 2. Clark, R.E.: Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media. Review of Educational Research (4) Clark, R.E., Craig, T.G.: Research and Theory on Multi-Media Learning Effects. In: Giardina, M.: Interactive Multimedia Learning Environments (1992) 3. Discroll, M.: Blended Learning: Let’s get beyond the hype. LTI Newsline 2002 (2002), http://www.ltinewsline.com/ltimagazine/article/ articleDetail.jsp?id=11755 4. Kozma, R.B.: Learning with Media. Review of Educational Research 61(2) (1991) 5. Launer, R.: Blended Learning im Fremdsprachenunterricht – Konzeption und Evaluation eines Modells (2008), http://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/8905/1/Launer_Rebecca.pdf 6. Mayer, R.E.: Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In: Mayer, R.E. (ed.) The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (2005) 7. Reinmann, G.: Didaktische Innovationen durch Blended Learning. Leitlinien anhand eines Beispiels aus der Hochschule (2003) 8. Schulmeister, R.: Grundlagen hypermedialer Lernsysteme: Theorie, Didaktik und Design (2007) 9. Stracke, E.: A road to understanding: A qualitative study into why learners drop out of a blended language learning (BLL) environment. In: ReCALL 19/1/2007

Learning Performance Support System for Adult Learning∗ Ji-Ping Zhang East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China [email protected]

Abstract. As adults are often encountering some problems or issues in their workplace, some meaningful advices or guides are expected. Based on the advices, they solve the issues, which can also be called as a kind of "learning process". This paper discusses how to realize a learning performance support system (LPSS) based on the ideas of principle of electronic performance support system (EPSS), shows LPSS basic concept, system structure, and system implementation, including some technical issues. Keywords: Adult Learning; LPSS; Learning in Workplace; System Structure.

1 Introduction With the rapid development of technology application in education, the concept of electronic performance support system (EPSS) was put forward for supporting leaning in the early 90s. Of course, the EPSS was first used for supporting some workplaces (such as banking, consulting services), similar to an expert consultation system. With social development speeding up, new technology and knowledge update fast, people will feel their existing knowledge has almost hard to adapt to their work. It forces people to seek a kind of "learning support" way for getting solution. In addition, the modern educational ideas need highlighting learner-centered, individualized learning, and on-demand learning. In this context, the PSS concept in different fields had a rapid development, especially in some developed countries, some big companies or enterprises. Some companies was also applied the EPSS system directly for the human resource development. And in the late 1990s, many developers in CAI field were turning to the development of the EPSS. Of course, from the angle of technical support, multimedia and network technology development are completely inseparable for the development and application of the EPSS. In China, although people in educational technology field know the concept of the EPSS, its real practical function, detail principle, structure, and especially practical development and application are still a complete blank. It is meaningful to pay attentions for studying on EPSS. ∗

Shanghai Philosophy & Social Sciences Planned Project (No.2008BJY003), Year 2008 2010. (Study on Technology Support for Adult Learning).

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 16–22, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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2 Concept of EPSS The concept of EPSS has a key word "Performance" that means people to perform, execute, or do a job or task. It is an action (more clearly refers as doing a job, means a process). But, many scholars in China think performance as a result or achievement, not a process. Although the target of EPSS is to improve the result or achievement for a task, the word “performance” in EPSS is a process that also means EPSS is expected to help or support such task process. In fact, EPSS is much like an expert system (ES) or computer aided design system (CAD), they are all the aided and support systems that help or guide people to solve some problems in the process of their work. Of course, there are many educational systems similar with EPSS, such as IDS (Instruction Design System), ID Expert (Instruction Design Expert System), CMI (Computer Managed Instruction System), or even CAI (Computer Aided Instruction System). Gloria developed the performance support concept -- and works with numerous sophisticated clients in developing performance centered software applications. She given the definition of EPSS [1]: EPSS is an integrated electronic environment, more specific (any computer software), and can help employees reducing unnecessary procedures in the executing and completing tasks, it provides necessary information related to finish the task, or provide decision support to employees know the specific conditions. Also Angus and Thomas [2] was also pointed out: EPSS is a more integrated program software that can provide the required information to support work, including the expert system, hypertext, hypermedia, vivid animation, CAI courseware. This also means that EPSS is indeed a support system for information or knowledge which is embodied in the process of work. The process of support and help can simply called as "doing" or "learning by doing". Of course, because "learning by doing" has very strong purpose and direction, and providing support to help to solve the actual working problems, EPSS concept raises great interests and attentions in different fields.

3 LPSS Structure and Function As LPSS is indeed a system for supporting learning, the key point is "learning in time" and "responding on demand" function. For users (or learners), it is a "learning in time" and "responding on demand" process when he or she can timely receive help and support for the difficult problems encountered in their actual work. Here the word “learning” is to clear indicate the major function of LPSS system and its purpose is to reflect "doing" and “timely learning” characteristic. With any application system, LPSS structure is decided by its main function. As EPSS is a kind of strong purpose and direction system, the key is able to help people to solve the complicated problems in practical work. Purpose means to "can help to solve practical problems (answering difficult problems)”, and the direction refers to directly related to the actual work. Because of the strong purpose and direction, the structural design and the realization of function are more difficult than traditional system (tutoring type). Basis on "doing" and "solving actual problem", the core characteristics of LPSS system should be composed of two major parts: Problem Comprehension and

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Problem explanation. Problem comprehension refers to analyze and understand the problem posed by the user (workers or learners) in their practical work. If a support and help system can not clearly understand user’s questions, how could give a correct answer. Problem explanting means to offer users some satisfactory answers and solutions. Of course, satisfactory answers or solutions are completely depending on the clear understanding for the problems (or questions). For a usable system, a friendly user interface is an indispensable part. Figure 1 shows the core structure of EPSS. User

Interface

Figure 1 Core components of LPSS sy Problem comprehension Problem explanation

Fig. 1. Core components of LPSS system

(1) Problem comprehension As a support system, especially for solving user knotty problem at work, the most important or most basic thing is to know what users want to know, support and help (simple says what specific needs or solutions are needed). The part of problem comprehension is in order to accurately understand and identify the user’s problem. The realization of such function must be taken into account from knowledge or problem expression, and semantic understanding, etc. Currently a feasible method to solve this kind of problem is ontology methodology, because the ontology can be used for expressing knowledge structure. For a given domain, its’ ontology will constitute the core of the system of knowledge representation, but also the basic definitions (terms) or the knowledge representation vocabulary. In addition, Ontology knowledge can be shared in the same field which is not to repeat the analysis process and can also share the knowledge representation language [3]. The process of problem comprehension based on ontology is as follows: (detail processing method can refer to Wu Chenggang, etc. [4]) • Analysis question ontology (note: every ontology has already own concept - beforehand dictionary) • Filtrate ontology not related to issues, find out ontology related to issues • Rank according to the size of relevant degree • Take the biggest relevant degree ontology as first analysis choice • Figure out the problem type through pattern matching method (problem type usually divided into "What", "Why" and "How").

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Through above steps, we can draw ontology and subordinate type of user questions. After determining the ontology and types of user problems, it is easily to realize searching for the corresponding answers. Of course, because the same field can build more than one sub-ontology (or sub-domain), and every ontology can represent a unit, a section, or even whole teaching units, the concrete implementation for a domain is directly to analysis question type, then search the answers. For the ontology analysis and correlation analysis, they usually need to spend more time and memory space. At present, there are many methods to achieve problem comprehension based on the computer, but the actual application is very few. In some practical using systems of various support (including expert consultation, etc.), they are usually to show the question types to user, and then ask user to select one of them. This method in some cases can solve some problems and is more easy realized, but often many times are hard to meet the practical need to users (such case can be found everywhere in many application software). This situation is not only related to the induction for field questions by developers, but also includes the limited ways for problem representation. (2) Problem explanation An important part of LPSS system is to offer the answers to users for their actual work questions. The function of problem explanation is to provide correct answers based on the problem comprehension. In a sense, this part is equivalent to a FAQ knowledge base. Specifically, it is completely answer base according to probable problems of certain areas and created based on the ontology method. Usually, the process for building such base is mainly divided into several steps: • Sum up all possible problems for a field, and establish a complete list of questions • Create a complete set of corresponding answers according to the list of questions • Use natural language and charts to describe field model and form ontology prototype • Use knowledge representation language to code ontology model, for easy searching It is a very important step to sum up all possible problems for creating a corresponding answers base for a field. This work is generally not according to the contents of textbook and must do by several experts with abundant work experiences. It is a real induction process based on actual work experience, which reflects the characteristic of LPSS system. Based on the induction, several experts start to work on all possible answers, eventually forming a complete answers base. Following the list of questions, you can create prototype of ontology. Due to the knowledge expression in different areas could be completely different, the prototype can be fully different body. For example, a prototype body of ontology can be a word or sentence, also can be a section or paragraph. But regardless of the size of ontology prototype is big or small, it is the key to establish a keyword set based on the list of questions and how to extract a keyword. The keyword set contains all keywords, and each keyword has its number and weight value. The weight value indicates the important of that keyword. The size of each keyword weight depends on it usage frequency in the system, and is counted by the system, more use more value. Actually, the keyword is also called domain ontology or sub-ontology, and it has an important role for searching.

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From the standpoint of practical application, the problem explanation base for any field LPSS should be dynamic. Because the user questions may exceed the scope of inductive problem beforehand, and each field development will constantly make the new knowledge and problems. This requires the content of problem base with constantly updated and increased. So in LPSS system, setting up a new problem base is necessary. Experts in the field will answer new problems in time and deposit the new answers to the regular basis. (3) Basic process for problem comprehension and explanation While using LPSS system, user directly proposes own problems through a friendly user interface. Problem comprehension part will first compare ontology and extract keywords, and then determine whether understand to this problem. If it is understood, it will directly go to the answers base for searching answers. For the understood questions, they usually already are in the list of questions in advance, and the answers can be easily reached according to the list. If they are not understood, they will be stored into the new problem base and the system will inform the user that question can not temporarily be answered. The basic process shows in Figure 2.

User

Analysis & processing

Problem comprehension

No

Problem exp.

Yes

Searching

Keyword base

Field ontology

Answer base

New problem base

Fig. 2. Basic process for problem comprehension and explanation

4 Key Points of System Implementation LPSS as a strong objective and direction system, the key is "to solve or answer practical problems”, especially difficult problem solutions and directly related to actual job (for satisfying customer demands). It means the system is dynamic (questions and answers not fixed), and the development and implementation for such system are not easy, at least following points are the key: • Determining and dividing for field ontology Ontology divided and determined are not easy, because the same words or sentences in different fields can be completely different meanings. In addition, any field (for

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example, education, industrial, commercial and military, etc.) is a large range in modern society, and each of them crossed and linked. Therefore, determining and dividing ontology should be directly with the field or even working position, and limit range as short as possible. If based on the position to determine the ontology, not only can limit the scope of knowledge clearly, but also can be greatly reduced the ambiguity of understanding. This task is usually needed very good cooperation between developers and field experts. • Forming problems and answers As forming (or collecting) problems and answers is not mainly to do by LPSS developers, it must be more specific domains (even practical working position) experts to work together. But the requirements of experts should have the rich practical experiences in their domain or working position. The first step is to sum up all possible problems in that field. The all problems are not only requires comprehensive and accurate, but also pertinence and unambiguous. Based on the problems summed, forming all corresponding answers is needed. This work can be attributed to the experts summed problems or can fully please other experts in same field to do it. Of course, the system developers must design a unity standard for problems and answers in advance, so that the all experts can form a required answers and problems in same format. As different domain (areas or position), different person (experts, developers, project manager), different users, such task is also not easy to reach. • Technical implementation For LPSS system, the keys of technical implementation are a friendly interface design, creating answer base (also problem list) and searching technology. Because LPSS is a learning support system facing different fields or job positions, a friendly interface design adapted different users is not an easy job. Designers could consider a basic interface framework that allows different user can choose a satisfied interface or their individualized interface. The interface is not only concise and intuitive, but more prominent characteristics are for convenient interactive, especially to consider how can the user easy input questions and show the answers. Creating answer base can use different available database technologies, but data storage in multimedia forms and quick searches are the main factors. And the answer base should be dynamic and extensible. Using different search technology will determine whether the system can meet the customers with quickest speed to get the answer. Of course, all methods and ideas of various search engines in Internet can be referenced for realizing this, but the technical implementation is still more difficulty. These aspects must face technical difficulties for the development of LPSS system. In fact, for the concrete implementation, the system will still involves many aspects of technical problems. For example, the system core architecture, layered structure, programming language, stand-alone or online (network) use, etc. Anyhow, LPSS development is larger project, it is worth to explore many issues in engineering technology and methodology, an also it is needed to have a large team to cooperate for reaching our ultimate target.

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References 1. Gaynor, G.: Electronic Performance Support Systems. Gery Performance Press (1991) 2. Reynolds, A., Iwinski, T.: Multimedia Training. Mc-Graw-Hill, New York (1996) 3. Hu, S., Wang, K.: Language of knowledge presentation. Computer Science 30(5), 18–22 (2003) 4. Wu, C., et al.: Based on ontology and the main body of information retrieval server. Computer Research and Development 38(6), 21–27 (2001) 5. Wang, X., et al.: Real-time CORBA and application research. Computer Application Research 26(1), 16–21 (2002)

E-Learning: Developing a Simple Web-Based Intelligent Tutoring System Using Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment and Adaptive Testing Technology Kenneth Wong1, Kat Leung2,∗, Reggie Kwan2, and Philip Tsang2 1

Hong Kong Institute of Higher Education [email protected] 2 Caritas Francis Hsu College and Caritas Bianchi College of Careers [email protected]

Abstract. Language Studies are challenging for students at all levels. This paper presents the design of a Web-based Intelligent Tutoring System (WITS) based on “Computerized Adaptive Testing” and “Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment”. The system is practical and can be implemented incrementally. It is designed for teaching Chinese business writing in Hong Kong to postsecondary students. The proposed system employs self-directed, self-controlled learning ideas and, to some extent, individually packages “assessment” opportunities for individual students. The proposed ITS can be used to identify and gauge the knowledge state and ability levels of each individual student. The estimated knowledge state and ability are useful indicators for teacher and student reference. This paper delineates a prototype. A pilot study will follow in the coming academic year.

1 Introduction 1.1 Background of Study Blended-Learning opportunities are growing rapidly worldwide; more and more schools in Hong Kong are integrating e-learning systems as part of the standard pedagogy. Currently, thousands of learning materials have been made available through e-learning systems. Students can read learning materials at any time and in any place. However, many students have difficulty in locating and choosing the appropriate learning materials at a level they are comfortable with through a self-pace environment. Students are not knowledgeable and confident enough to design an individualized study plan to meet their diverse learning needs and learning pace. Moreover, most of the self-access learning resources in current e-learning systems are not well-classified according to the abilities of the learners. These factors mitigate the efficiency and desirability of independent learning. This paper proposes a Web-based Intelligent Tutoring System (WITS) which is practical within the Hong Kong context. The proposed WITS is built from the ∗

Corresponding author.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 23–34, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment (CDA) and Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) technology. The proposed system is designed to help individual students expand and customize the various approaches to learning “how to learn.” These approaches include selfdirected, self-controlled and, to some extent, individually packaged “assessment” opportunities. The proposed WITS is able to estimate the knowledge state and ability levels of each student. The Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment aims to provide formative diagnostic feedback about the learner’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses in the tested skills [1]. The diagnostic feedback information will be analyzed and will enable the development of detailed study guides with full explanations and illustrative examples, linking to appropriate learning materials. In addition extension exercises for selfimprovement purposes will be provided to students. Since such information will be useful in gauging individual student ability, strengths and weaknesses, and will, therefore, provide teachers with the diagnostic feedback to support a re-visit to topics in the face-to-face classroom and to develop follow-up prescriptive instruction. The Computer Adaptive Testing tailors a test to each individual student. In each test, students receive questions in accordance with their ability levels. The item selected next fully depends upon performance on the previous questions. If a student gives a correct answer, the next question generated will be slightly more difficult and/or subtly different from the previous one. If s/he gets the item wrong, the next item received will be slightly easier. By using the proposed system students are able to follow their own pace in learning with just-right, step by step, almost natural challenges. 1.2 Intelligent Tutoring System Intelligent Tutoring Systems are computer based systems that use the knowledge about the topic domain, the student, and about teaching strategies to support flexible, individualized learning and tutoring [2]. An ITS is usually designed to tutor students by (i) accurately diagnosing a student’s knowledge level using principles rather than preprogrammed responses; (ii) deciding what to do next and adapt instruction accordingly; and (iii) providing feedback, as the student work through a diagnostic process [3][4][5]. Feedback and guidance are based on a model of the student’s ability in the subject domain. The components of an ITS usually consist of the expert module, the student model module, the diagnostic module, the tutorial module and the user-interface module [6]. The expert module consists of domain knowledge that the system recommends learners to learn. The student model represents the past and current knowledge state of the learners. The diagnostic module includes an assessment process to provide a per-test of competence and ability. The diagnostic testing is accomplished before, during and after the assessment process. The information provided by the diagnostic module is used by the tutorial module to inform what to present next and when to interrupt the instruction process. The user-interface module provides communication between the learners, and other users, and the system.

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1.3 Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment is designed to measure specific knowledge states and processing skills in a given domain so as to provide information about student cognitive strengths and weaknesses [7]. This cognitive diagnostic feedback has the potential to guide teachers and students in their teaching and learning processes. To generate a diagnostic skill profile, test item responses are classified into a set of structured attribute patterns that are derived from components of a cognitive model of task performance. The cognitive model contains attributes, which are defined as a description of the procedural or declarative knowledge needed by an examinee to answer a given test item correctly. The inter-relationships among the attributes are represented using a hierarchical structure so the ordering of the cognitive skills is specified. This model provides a framework for designing diagnostic items based on attributes, which link test performance to specific inferences about examinee knowledge and skills. There are several founding models for providing cognitively diagnostic information in the assessment process [7][8][9]. They are the Linear Logistic Trait Model [10], Rule-Space Model [11] and Knowledge Space Model [12]. The Rule-Space Model (RSM) and the Linear Logistic Trait Model (LLTM) are based on the IRT model for their theoretical support. However, the Knowledge Space Model (KSM) is based on set theory. 1.4 Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) has been increasing adopted and shows great potential in both assessment and in teaching and learning [13] [14]. A Computer Adaptive Test (CAT) works like a good oral exam. Examinees receive the question in accordance with their ability. After the response is given, the result is calculated immediately. If an answer is correct, the next question generated will produce a more difficult item. If the answer is incorrect, the procedure will be reversed. The examinee's ability level can be estimated during the testing process [15]. Since the item selected next for obtaining ability estimates is based upon previous item performance, an algorithm must be chosen for sequencing the set of test items administered to the examinees. Most CATs are based on Item Response Theory (IRT) [15][16]. 1.5 One Parameter Item Response Theory The Item Response Theory models the relationship between an examinee’s ability level on the trait being measured by a test and the examinee's response to a test item or question. It uses the estimating scores to predict or explain items and the test performance [16]. The IRT model mathematically describes the relationship between a person's trait level and performance on an item [17]. Item response function is used for that mathematical description. For test items that are dichotomously scored, the item response function estimates the probability of a correct response for a given level of trait. There are three IRT models; commonly known as one-parameter, twoparameter and three-parameter IRT models. The Rasch model is based on objective measurement [18], and is also known as one-parameter IRT model. The Rasch model

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presents a simple relationship between the examinee and the difficulty of items. The mathematical formula of the Rasch Model is given bellow: log

1 where Pi : probability for an examinee responding correctly. θ j : ability parameter of an examinee. bi : difficulty parameter of an item. 1.6 Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT) Model There is another model for CAT, namely the Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT) model. In the standard SPRT execution, items are randomly selected, and the sequential probability ratio is calculated based on the item response [19]. The mathematical formulas are as follows: , LBM (Lower Bound Mastery) = UBN (Upper Bound Nonmastery) =

,

Probability of correct item response PR =

,

where Pm = Probability of mastery with correct item response Pnm = Probability of non-mastery with correct item response s = number of correct item responses out of the total number of items responses so far f = number of wrong item responses out of the total number of items responses so far α = Type I error, judging mastery, but in fact non-mastery β = Type II error, judging non-mastery, but in fact mastery. When an examinee responds to an item, the PR value will be instantly calculated by the system. If the PR value is greater than or equal to LBM, the result of the test is judged to be “mastery” and the test will be terminated. On the other hand, if the result is undetermined or “non-mastery” with UBN < PR < LBM, then the test goes on with a new randomly selected item. Otherwise, if PR UBN, the examinee is judged to be “non-mastery” [20].

2 W-ITS System 2.1 System Architecture Design The main modules of the WITS are: an Expert System (ES) to classify and identify the species of domain knowledge to be learnt from students; the Tutorial System (TS) to assist students in the process of learning the domain; the Student System (SS) represents the past and current knowledge state of the learner; the Adaptive Testing System (AT) is to estimate the student’s competence and abilities at current state; and the Knowledge Base (KB) which contains the information about the subject domain and the item bank which is being incrementally built by teachers or domain experts.

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The AT system consists of CAT and CDA. The AT system maintains the SS and it does the evaluation of the student before, during and after the assessment process. The information provided by the AT system is used by the TS to decide what to present next and when to interrupt the instruction process. The WWW-interface module provides communication between the users and the system. Fig. 1 shows the basic architecture of the W-ITS system.

Fig. 1. The basic architecture of the W-ITS system

WITS can be used in the following ways:

• •

Teachers and/or domain experts can use WITS to develop the tests and define topics, questions, parameters, and specifications. Teachers are able to access student records to check their competence and abilities at different state.

Students can use WITS to take the tests that are automatically generated according to the specifications provided by the test designer. As the student answers the items the new ability level is computed and the next question selected, until the stopping criterion is reached.

• • •

Students receive instant feedback, recommended study path and direct guidance when they completes a question. All test questions and content materials are in form of hypermedia. All test questions are calibrated frequently.

2.2 A Novel Approach of Adaptive Testing System Many assessment methods in Hong Kong schools rely on the conventional paper-andpencil test (PAPT) which is based on Classical Test Theory (CTT). However, the CTT places emphasis on the total score; a higher score equates to a higher representative capacity. CTT ignores potentially useful information. Consider a test with 10 questions, where the first 5 questions are related to the cognitive attribute C1 and the following 5 questions relate to the cognitive attribute C2. Students A and B complete the test. Their item response pattern are indicated in Table 1. ("1" stands for correct answers, "0" stands for incorrect answers.)

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Student A Student B

Item response pattern 1111100000 0000011111

Score 5 5

In this test both students gained the same score. In the current practice, teachers will assume they have similar ability. However, in fact they are very different. Student A answers the first 5 questions correctly but not the last 5 questions. From the item response patterns, student A shows understanding in cognitive attribute C1 but not in C2. Similarly, student B showed familiar in cognitive attribute C2. If teachers know their item response pattern, they will be more accurately informed of each individual student ability, strengths and weaknesses. In fact, CDAs are designed to measure specific knowledge structures of individual students. LLTM and KSM were adopted for the proposed system. Every examination item contains a number of cognitive attributes. Table 2 shows a 3 x 4 matrix of the relationship among items and cognitive attributes. For example, item 1 has cognitive attribute C1 and C4, item 1 has only C2, and item 3 has C3 and C4. Table 2. Relationship among items and cognitive attributes

Items 1 2 3

C1 1 0 0

cognitive attributes C2 C3 0 0 1 0 0 1

C4 1 0 1

According to KSM, personal knowledge can be described as a structure of a given domain of knowledge. Knowledge domains are interconnected to form a network or structure according to the prerequisite relations between them. The knowledge network represents a whole body of knowledge while providing a representation of the learner’s current state of knowledge. Methods for adaptive knowledge assessment and for suggesting a personalized learning path can be developed from this structure [21]. The knowledge domain structure used in the proposed system is showed as Fig. 2 and Table 3.

Fig. 2. Knowledge domain structure

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Table 3. Knowledge domains K1

Understand the key components of Chinese business writing.

K2

Use appropriate format (e.g. salutation, closing phrases and greeting) in Chinese business writing. Use appropriate vocabulary, phrases and terms that express deference and humility in Chinese business writing. Uses appropriate mechanics (e.g. form of Chinese characters, punctuations, numerals) in Chinese business writing. Recognize the similarities between Chinese business writing and English business writing in formatting. Identify the differences between Chinese business writing and English business writing in formatting. Recognize the similarities between Hong Kong Chinese and Standard Mainland Chinese in the use of character form, punctuation and use of numerals in business writing. Identify the differences between Hong Kong Chinese and Standard Mainland Chinese in the use of character form, punctuation and use of numerals in business writing.

K3 K4 K5 K6 K7

K8

2.3 Partial Credit Model In most CAT forms, items are only scored as correct or incorrect. Therefore, the proposed model tries to obtain as much information as possible from the student response. Each response should be considered in terms of the estimation of knowledge level and in the item selection. For example, if a student response is an incorrect answer, it does mean he/she knows nothing about the item. Each distracter in the item should contain some information of knowledge states. See Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Example of a test item including a question with a correct answer and three distracters

In Fig. 3, although a student selects answer B which is wrong, it is clear that he/she could obtain a partial ability score in that item. Therefore, this information can be considered in estimating knowledge.

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2.4 Item Bank An item bank is a database of items. The size of the item bank should be big enough to cover the wide range of test content. Normally, the questions in CAT are drawn from an item bank. In an IRT based CAT, all individual items are carefully calibrated and ranked in difficulty. However, there are several disadvantages of building an item bank in an IRT based CAT. The items in an item bank must be continually re-calibrated. Therefore, every item in the bank must continually maintain its standard. Such ongoing work requires significant resourcing. Nevertheless, Frick [22] challenges the IRT-based CAT as being too rigorous to implement and maintain. The IRT requires a large number of examinees ranging from 200 to 1000 for estimating item parameters and demands special expertise in item bank maintenance. The rigorous IRT is only possible in educational institutes or professional testing centers. He proposes another model for CAT – the Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT) model. The advantage of adopting SPRT is the fact that there is no need to calibrate the items in the pool and thereby avoids involving a large number of examinees [23]. An empirical study [23] indicated that SPRT is a fairly robust model for providing the examinee’s mastery result mastery. From the above perspectives, SPRT seems to be a practical alternative for the CAT application in schools. In preparing the item bank for the proposed system, about 100 new items will be developed by subject experts. Initially, items will be stratified into 6 levels of difficulty according to skill attributes and knowledge states. Each expert will provide a scale first and a Delphi approach will be used to gain consensus. 2.5 Item Selection Algorithm in CAT The main objective of the study is to develop a solution for CAT to be used in typical classrooms. The proposed approach to CAT will adopt the Rasch model and the SPRT model. When an examinee responds to an item, the θ j (tentative student ability) and PR values are instantly estimated by the system. If an examinee gives a correct answer for a given item, the system will generate an item from the pool one level higher. Similarly, if the examinee gives the incorrect response the next item received will be easier by one level of difficulty. Then the best next item will be selected with some constraints from this item pool based on the knowledge states and skill attributes. If the instant PR value is greater than or equal to LBM, or less than UBN, the test will be terminated. The administrative process is shown as Fig. 4. When an examinee completes the CAT, the final ability level is estimated. The examinee will gain an immediate score, solutions to items, and feedback. Moreover, detailed study guides with full explanations and illustrative examples, linking to appropriate learning materials and suggesting follow-up exercises for self-improvement purposes will also be provided to the examinee according to his/her current knowledge states and skill attributes.

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Fig. 4. The administrative process of the adaptive test

3 Research Methodology To evaluate the effectiveness and significance of the proposed system, the evaluation framework adopted for the study will be based on Stufflebeam’s Context Input Process Product (CIPP) Model [24]. The pre-test and post-test non-equivalent comparison group design and interrupted time-series design will also be adopted. In the context evaluation stage, there will be a survey and interview conducted with beneficiaries (students, teachers and school leaders) to identify background information, needs, willingness to use e-assessment, and their attitudes towards e-learning. The context evaluation findings will be used to assess the effectiveness and significance of the proposed system in meeting assessment needs. In the input evaluation stage, a diagnostic test (pre-test) will be prepared for students, including an experimental group and a control group, to identify their ability level and existing knowledge states. Some student information will be obtained from the school: social and educational background, and pre-existing test scores. Moreover, subject experts will help to develop an item bank and evaluate the validity of the items. In the process evaluation stage, there will be periodic student, teacher, and project leader interviews to obtain implementation feedback. Student performance, from both groups, will be monitored. These include, but not limited to, using rate in the system, tentative ability level and knowledge states. Some students from the experimental group will be selected as in-depth case studies. Several pre-tests and post-tests will be conducted on the experimental group students. Researchers will compile regular written implementation reports. The process evaluation findings will be used to maintain a record of the program's progress. In the product evaluation stage, there will be interviews with key stakeholders, including the project leaders, students and teachers, and other interested parties, to

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determine the positive and negative outcomes. A diagnostic test (post-test) will be prepared for both groups. The results of the pre-test and post-test from the two groups will be analyzed. The result patterns of each group in the Interrupted time-series design will also be analyzed. Those results will also be compared with the existing student performance.

4 Potential Significance of Proposed Research and Possible Outcomes Since many ITS combine CAT and CDA [25][26][27], most are based on complicated mathematical models and may therefore be too cumbersome to develop. Indeed there is little use of ITS in Hong Kong. This study aims to find a practical way to develop an ITS that meets the needs of students and teachers. The potential outcomes of the study are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Student performance will be enhanced. The efficacy of the proposed ITS will be tested across learning contexts. The developing of a cost effective ITS for the Hong Kong context. The validity and reliability of the proposed CDA and CAT will be verified. Adoption of the ITS will enhance the adoption of e-learning. The attitude of teachers and students already using an e-learning system will be enhanced.

5 Conclusion We have proposed a Web-based Intelligent Tutoring System (WITS) based on CAT and CDA system. The main advantage of the model is its ease of development and deployment. WITS provides the user with anytime and anywhere access. The CAT system is a method of assessment where the computer selects and presents test items to examinees according to the estimated examinee's ability levels. Using the adaptive test, the system can effectively estimate the student’s ability. This estimated ability measure is a useful indicator for teachers. A prototype of the system will be established and followed by a pilot-test. The feedback from teachers so far is positive and encouraging. We hope to establish the fact that WITS in general can be easily employed in many courses not only for assessment but as a useful learning aid.

References 1. Nichols, P.D., Chipman, S.F., Brennan, R.L. (eds.): Cognitively diagnostic assessment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah (1995) 2. Brusilovsky, P.: Adaptive Hypertext and Hypermedia. In: Brusilovsky, P., Kobsa, A., Vassileva, J. (eds.), pp. 10–11. Kluwer Academ, Dordrecht (1998) 3. Shute, V.J., Psotka, J.: Intelligent tutoring systems: past, present, and future. In: Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology, pp. 570–600. Macmillan, New York (1996)

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4. Guzmán, E., Conejo, R.: A Model for Student Knowledge Diagnosis Through Adaptive Testing. In: Lester, J.C., Vicari, R.M., Paraguaçu, F. (eds.) ITS 2004. LNCS, vol. 3220, pp. 12–21. Springer, Heidelberg (2004) 5. Timms, M.J.: Using Item Response Theory (IRT) to select hints in an ITS. In: Luckin, R., et al. (eds.) Artificial Intelligence in Education, p. 213. IOS Press, Amsterdam (2007) 6. Siddappa, M., Manjunath, A.S.: Knowledge representation using multilevel hierarchical model in intelligent tutoring system. In: Proceedings of the third IASTED International Conference, Advances in Computer Science & Technology, April 2-4 (2007) 7. Leighton, J.P., Gierl, M.J.: Cognitive diagnostic assessment for education: theory and applications. In: Leighton, J.P., Gierl, M.J. (eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2007) 8. Bolt, D.: The Present and Future of IRT-Based Cognitive Diagnostic Models (ICDMs) and Related Methods. Journal of Educational Measurement 44(4), 377–383 (Winter 2007) 9. McGlohen, M., Chang, H.H.: Combining computer adaptive testing technology with cognitively diagnostic assessment. Behavior Research Methods 40(3), 808–821 (2008) 10. Fischer, G.H.: The linear logistic test model as an instrument in educational research. Acta Psychologica 37, 359–374 (1973) 11. Tatsuoka, K.K.: Rule space: An approach for dealing with misconception based on item response theory. Journal of Educational Measurement 20, 345–354 (1983) 12. Doignon, J.-P., Falmagne, J.C.I.: Spaces for the assessment of knowledge. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 23, 175–196 (1985) 13. Linacre, J.M.: Computer-Adaptive Testing: A Methodology Whose Time Has Come, MESA Memorandum No. 69, Institute for Objective Measurement, Inc. (2000), http://rasch.org/memo69.htm 14. Wong, K., Kwan, R., Chan, J.: A Preliminary Evaluation of a Computerized Adaptive Test System on the Web. In: Kwan, R., et al. (eds.) Web-based Learning: Men & Machines, pp. 123–134. World Scientific Publishing, New Jersey (2002) 15. Rudner, L.M.: An On-line, Interactive, Computer Adaptive Testing Mini-Tutorial. In: ERIC Clearing house on Assessment and Evaluation (1998) 16. Lord, F.M.: Applications of item Response Theory to Practical Testing Problems. Erlbaum, Hillsdale (1980) 17. Stocking, M.L.: Item Response Theory, Educational Research, Methodology, and Measurement. In: Keeves, J.P. (ed.) p. 836 (1997) 18. Keeves, J.P., Alagumalai, S.: New Approaches to Measurement. In: Masters, G.N., Keeves, J.P. (eds.) Advances in Measurement in Educational Research and Assessment, pp. 23–48. Pergamon, Oxford (1999) 19. Tao, Y.H., Wu, Y.L., Chang, H.Y.: A Practical Computer Adaptive Testing Model for Small-Scale Scenarios. Educational Technology & Society 11(3), 259–274 (2008) 20. Frick, T.W.: Bayesian adaptation during computer-based tests and computer-guided practice exercises. Journal of Educational Computing Research 5(1), 89–114 (1989) 21. Conlan, O., O’Keeffe, I., Hampson, C., Heller, J.: Using Knowledge Space Theory to support Learner Modeling and Personalization. In: Reeves, T., Yamashita, S. (eds.) Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, pp. 1912–1919 (2006) 22. Frick, T.W.: Computerized adaptive mastery tests as expert. Journal of Educational Computing Research Systems 8(2), 187–213 (1992) 23. Frick, T.W.: A comparison of three decision models for adapting the length of computerbased mastery test. Journal of Educational Computing Research Systems 5(1), 89–114 (1990)

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24. Stufflebeam, D.L.: The CIPP model for program evaluation. In: Madaus, F.G., et al. (eds.) Evaluation Models, pp. 117–140. Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing, Boston (1998) 25. Hockemeyer, C., Albert, D.: The adaptive tutoring RATH: a prototype. In: InternationalWorkshop Interactive Computer aided Learning ICL 1999, Villach, Austria (1999) 26. Conejo, R., Guzmán, E., Millán, E., Trella, M., Pěrez-De-La-Cruz, J.L., Ríos, A.: SIETTE: A Web-Based Tool for Adaptive Testing. In: International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, vol. 14, pp. 1–33. IOS Press, Amsterdam (2004) 27. Pilato, G., Pirrone, R., Rizzo, R.: A KST-Based System For Student Tutoring. Applied Artificial Intelligence 22, 283–308 (2008)

Hybrid Learning Systems: Meeting the Challenges of Graduate Management Education Owen P. Hall Jr. and John G. Mooney Pepperdine University, Graziadio School of Business and Management, 24255 Pacific Coast Highway, Malibu, California, USA {owen.hall,john.mooney}@pepperdine.edu

Abstract. Distance learning has come a long way since Sir Isaac Pitman initiated the first correspondence course in the early 1840s. Today the challenges of globalization call for new and innovative learning systems for management education. To meet these challenges the traditional classroom model for delivering business education is giving way to a more holistic learning paradigm in which both the pedagogical and andragogical focus are on knowledge acquisition and application. The one-size-fits-all educational approach of the past is being augmented by hybrid learning systems. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the overall hybrid learning model design that combines the best of both web-based learning and time-honed classroom practices for delivering cost-effective graduate management education. One of the major benefits of the hybrid learning model is that it supports economic, social and environmental sustainability. Keywords: Hybrid learning, sustainability, graduate management education, Internet.

1 Introduction Providing world-class graduate management education in today’s global environment is an ongoing challenge, especially to working business professionals and executives. One stratagem for meeting these challenges is through the increased use of learning support technologies.[35] Hybrid learning systems (HLS), in particular, offer both a customized and an integrated learning experience through the use of traditional face-to-face classroom sessions combined with the power of the Internet.[6] Hybrid learning environments, also characterized as blended learning, embrace many options for presenting content and interacting with students in both individual and collaborative contexts including a substantial e-learning aspect.[48] HLS are well-suited to meet the challenges associated with graduate management education since they provide instructional content at a time, location and pace convenient to the student. Today, the use of hybrid systems throughout graduate management education is growing rapidly.[32], [51] P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 35–48, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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Hybrid learning represents approximately a half way point on the pedagogical spectrum. These learning systems are designed to leverage the strengths of face-toface instructional contacts with web-based knowledge acquisition which focuses on distance learning and virtual collaboration. The degree and nature of blending depends heavily on the goals and characteristics of the specific graduate management program. For example, most executive MBA programs tend to focus on broad based issues like leadership and strategic management. This is in contrast to the more “technical” focus of a residential MBA program. One of the advantages of HLS is that it provides a flexible learning environment that can be customized to meet the needs of a wide portfolio of graduate management programs. One strategy that recognizes the need for an integrated yet flexible learning approach is the Instructional Management System (IMS) cooperative initiative.[26] This initiative is designed to promote systematic thinking regarding the delivery of higher education, to improve learning outcomes, and to increase return on instructional investments. Specific principles of the IMS initiative are: 1) Education involves more than a single course; 2) A course is more than content; 3) Content is more important than lecture notes; 4) Convenience is important, and 5) Quality assurance requires an integrated learning approach. The IMS initiative calls for the increased use of Internet resources like HLS to promote integrated learning and to improve learning outcomes. The E-Learning Success Model is another initiative that supports hybrid learning.[19] The model design, highlighted in Figure 1, suggests that the overall effectiveness of hybrid learning depends on the attainment of success at each of three stages: system design, system delivery, and system outcomes. The efficacious use of this paradigm will require the integration of all three stages.

Fig. 1. E-learning Success Model

Each stage consists of a number of specific performance metrics. For example, service quality can be measured using availability, reliability, and response time. Assessment rubrics can be used for evaluating each performance metric. This article is organized as follows 1) a review of the current trends in MBA programs; 2) an overview of hybrid learning systems; 3) an assessment of empirical results associated with hybrid learning technologies; and 4) a discussion on the linkage between hybrid learning and economic, environmental, and energy sustainability.

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2 MBA Program Trends MBA programs come in a variety of shapes and sizes that are designed to take into account diverse student backgrounds and requirements. Table 1 provides an overview of the basic characteristics associated with three of the most common types of MBA programs: executive, professional, and residential. The primary difference between these programs is the level of student work experience. The cohort group in most residential programs consists of students in their mid-twenties with nominal work experience. Students in professional MBA programs are generally in their early thirties with at least five years of experience. For executive programs, the students are in their mid-forties with extensive managerial know-how. Typically, executive MBA (EMBA) programs involve a lock-step process in which the entire student cohort remains together throughout the course of study. A key feature common to many EMBA programs is the andragogical orientation. The term andragogy was coined by Malcolm Knowles in the 1970s to emphasize that the learning process for adults is different from that for children.[18] Knowles viewed the teacher as a facilitator who aids adults in becoming self-directed learners. This characteristic of self-learning and peer learning from other students is a particular characteristic of many MBA programs.[9] In this regard, executive and professional curricula tend to have less emphasis on the traditional lecture and more emphasis on experiential learning opportunities such as business simulations.[36] Table 1. MBA Program Types Overview

Characteristic Lock-Step Lecture Andragogical Schedule Electives Learning Focus

Executive √√√ √ √√ Weekends Strategic

Professional √ √√ √ Weeknights √ Technical

Residential √ √√√ Weekdays √√ Technical

√ = level of intensity.

Table 1 underscores the fact that one size does not fit all when it comes to MBA programs. In fact, the rapidly changing global landscape is causing many business schools to continually realign MBA curricula with evolving student requirements and business practices. Some current directions include: • • • • •

Expanded opportunities for international studies Increased potential for education-to-business (E2B) experiences Greater focus on ethics, values-centered leadership, social, and environmental responsible business practices Increased use of Internet-based and mobile learning technologies More emphasis on experiential learning

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MBA program designers recognize the need for content integration.[20] The focus of an integrated business-learning environment is on how core management functions such as operations, finance, and marketing are linked. Accordingly, the educational direction is moving away from “course silos” and towards “content and theme integration.”[49], [16] For example, EMBA programs have taken the lead in utilizing a thematic approach to curriculum design as illustrated by the following integrating elements: • • • • •

Leadership: To inspire and work with others to achieve common goals. Change Management: To improve critical thinking and decision-making skills and to formulate cost-effective plans with specific performance metrics. Innovation: To foster an appreciation of the growing reliance on technology. Globalization: To develop an international mindset including an awareness of different belief structures and cultural sensitivities. Strategic Perspectives: To integrate economic, social, technological, and political trends into a holistic approach to business management.

This EMBA thematic template can be used in the other types of MBA programs.[34] In this regard, the debate continues on the appropriate level of technical emphasis in graduate management education. Interestingly, many “new” MBA curricula have reduced the number of credit hours for “technical” type courses in favor of the integration themes listed above.[33], [44], [4] The compelling argument is that the practice of management is inherently qualitative. That being said, the pedagogical issue is how to keep the curriculum focused on these major themes, while at the same time developing the detailed skills required for daily management operations. This is particularly the case for students enrolled in a residential MBA program who are interested in obtaining employment after graduation. Another emerging theme in graduate management education is the move to more entrepreneurship oriented programs.[12] In this regard HLS can deliver technical content as well as support thematic perspectives consistent with the nature and characteristics of the student cohort group. Virtual internships illustrate the flexibility inherent in the HLS design strategy and accordingly are finding widespread application throughout higher education.[8], [31] Web-based internships (WBI) provide students at remote or smaller institutions with the capability to obtain work experience with firms that are operating on a worldwide basis. Additionally, with the growth of electives and emphases in many MBA programs WBIs provide students with the opportunity to match their business interest with an appropriate firm. Furthermore, WBIs offer both the firm and the student more flexibility in addressing specific work assignments. WBIs also are an effective recruiting vehicle for both the employer and student. Virtual facility and process tours represent an important WBI variation. The web offers a wide range of virtual sites that can be easily integrated into the lesson plan. These tours provide students with direct insight into the integrative nature of business management. In the near future learners will be able to experience real-time guided operations oriented facility tours that feature the ability to interact directly with onsite management and staff. In contrast to the need for residential students to acquire relevant work experience, there is the increasing demand for senior managers trained in making decisions

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involving supply chain management (SCM) and information systems (IS). This learning requirement is based on the growing role of SCM and IS throughout business and government. SCM information planning systems are used to improve the flow and efficiency of the supply chain. These systems are intended to automate the different steps of the supply chain into a single seamless application. Connecting the supply chain of a business with its suppliers and customers into a single integrated network both optimizes costs and opportunities for finding additional competitive advantages. This development has been a major driver for the business-to-business explosion. The basic issue is to identify the most effective approach for introducing SCM and IS into the curriculum. Again, this is where the web can help. Internet-based supply chain simulations provide a context for managers to explore the dynamics of supply operations, which would not be possible in the traditional classroom setting.[3] For example, one business simulation designed for graduate management education is the “Global Supply Chain Game.” This simulation operates on a continuous timeframe with ongoing events and interactive outcomes. Results show that students have been consistent in appreciating the value of the game as a tool in simulating the complexities of a global supply chain and facilitating learning about how to successfully manage this environment.[15] SCM simulations are not limited to large scale enterprises but are also available for learning about small-to-medium size businesses (SMB). The advent of new cost-effective information technologies including virtual networking and the allure of expanding markets provide ample opportunities for SMB managers to more fully align their business models with the overall global supply network through network-based simulators.

3 Hybrid Learning Systems Hybrid learning systems (HLSs) are educational constructs that combine the best practices of both traditional classroom and Internet-based educational platforms. Specific characteristics of the hybrid learning model include: • • • • •

A balanced approach between traditional and Internet formats Archival performance data gathered throughout the entire program Opportunities to engage in extensive virtual collaboration Proactive learning diagnostics Remedial instructional support

This last characteristic is of particular importance since many students enrolled in MBA programs do not have an undergraduate degree in business. Therefore, specific topics such as statistical reasoning and accounting basics can be presented via a webbased “boot-camp” on a customized basis. A hybrid learning approach enhances the learning experience for students with a variety of backgrounds by providing selfpaced customized content.[42], [41] 3.1 System Design One of the main attributes of hybrid learning is providing course content in an integrated format via one convenient portal. Figure 2 illustrates the most common

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Fig. 2. MBA Hybrid Learning Paradigm Overview

components of a hybrid learning system for MBA programs. In this setting, the learning net serves as a conduit that connects students with the course content, peers, instructors, and the external business environment.[24] A major learning objective in graduate management education is enhancing decision-making skills, including the ability to develop cognitive competencies. These competencies involve problem solving, critical thinking, searching for relevant information, making informed judgments, using information efficiently, conducting observations, and creating new ideas. Invariably, business decisions are outcomes of multi-disciplinary discussions featuring extensive interactions. The hybrid learning system outlined in Figure 2 provides a vehicle for enhancing students’ experiences in understanding how to capture inputs from a distributed group.[5] 3.2 Mobile Learning Mobile learning represents one important ingredient of the HLS model. Tyically mobile learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge through conversations across multiple contexts via interactive technologies. For example, the traditional classroom setting tends to be effective for team presentations that require a great deal of face-to-face interaction while a threaded chatroom learning experience supports the student’s requirement for flexibility. The HLS model also supports student group analysis via linear, threaded chatrooms, virtual tours, and blogging. Developing a sense of community (SOC) is an essential ingredient for a lock-step degree program such as an EMBA. Blogs and other social media technologies provide a vehicle for maintaining SOC in a virtual environment and for facilitating team assignments.[22] Social media also facilitates individual or group views on a particular subject (e.g., current events) or the development of a personal journal. Furthermore, social media allows students to maintain an electronic log of learning challenges and insights which can be helpful to other members of the class or group.[43] Another learning focus for students is to develop a comprehensive understanding of sources of business information. The continuing enhancement of search engines and digital libraries provides an opportunity for students to “drill down” on topics such as industry analysis, technology, and globalization.

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Another perspective on hybrid learning is illustrated in Figure 3. This paradigm shows how instructional content and know-how can be delivered in a variety of settings (i.e., time, location, and learning pace). The hybrid learning cube structural design is based, in part, on the IMS initiative.[26] This learning construct represents a natural extension to the two dimensional model (time and location) by adding learning pace as a third dimension.[17] For example, the customized distance learning mode (different location, different time, and different pace) is the primary mode for delivering personalized content. Student testing, for example, can be used as the vehicle for identifying the appropriate content level.

Fig. 3. Hybrid Learning Cube

3.3 Customized Learning with Artificial Agents A fundamental tenet of the HLS approach is that one size does not fit all. That is, students do not learn at the same pace and they are impacted differently by the learning environment. One key to effective learning via HLS is a customized lesson plan wherein the specific strengths and weaknesses of each student are identified and measured and appropriate feedback is provided. This is where artificial intelligence (AI) systems can play a helpful role. AI can be used to design lesson plans and learning experiences based on student performance and background. The use of AI to assist in the learning process is receiving increased attention.[37] More specifically,

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synthetic agents, a major branch of AI, can generate customized learning plans derived from student accomplishments, backgrounds, and expectations using a set of conditional rules. For example, if a student is having difficulty mastering a particular subject or theme as detected by testing, simulation or self-assessment, then the synthetic agent would prescribe specific additional learning content to the student. This content can take the form of videos, computing tutorials, or simulations. Generally speaking, synthetic agents should possess the following four basic characteristics: autonomy, proactive, adaptability, and sociability. A well-designed synthetic tutor should be able to assess the student’s current knowledge state and to modify both the lesson plan and content level. Additionally, the “social” interface between the agent and the learner should be highly visual. It is within this type of design context that the specific learning objectives can be achieved and maintained.[38] In a typical agent supported learning application the student is guided through a series of prompts regarding the application and explanations are provided for each prompt. The consultation can be taken more than once since, among other things, some of the prompts are randomized. The use of this approach is not limited to entering students requiring preparatory work but can also be used as a refresher by continuing students. This type of learning construct has been used successfully in a variety of business disciplines including the field of accounting.[39] Specifically, an auditing expert system was constructed to assist students to better understand and apply GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles). The reported results show that students who used this system performed better on course examinations. Another agent, called AutoTutor, engages in a conversation with the student using threedimensional interactive simulations.[25] This system has demonstrated a nearly one letter grade improvement in the learning process. 3.4 Empirical Evidence A number of surveys have been conducted on student performance and perceptions of hybrid learning.[32], [14]. The general consensus of these investigations is summarized below: • • • •

HLSs offer a high degree of interaction and collaboration that can be more effective than traditional classroom methods. HLSs provide students with a dynamic and scalable learning experience. HLSs provide the learner with a purposeful entry to the Internet and to online learning resources. HLSs connect learners and instructors on a 24/7 basis. They also underpin the development of new patterns of relationships between education and business through virtual learning arrangements.

Additionally, students reported that web-based learning support systems allow them to remain current with assignments and in contact with their study teams even while on extended travel status. Similar findings were discovered in a study conducted by one of the authors on a hybrid based graduate management course.[27] The results of a post-class survey revealed: •

69 percent reported that the course fully met their expectations (only 5 percent indicated that the course did not).

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43

80 percent of the respondents indicate that this was their first hybrid-based course and that they spent an average of 4.83 hours/week reviewing the course materials online. 67 percent of the students found the hybrid course design more effective than traditional instructional methods. 93 percent of those responding to the survey indicated that they found this course design supported their work schedule.

These results are consistent with the notion that HLS fosters new and robust learning patterns.[29] HLS provides a vehicle for moving from a teaching-centric towards a learning-centric educational paradigm, which is particularly attractive for working adults pursuing graduate management education. The evidence suggests that subject mastery is not eroded as a result of Internet-based learning as long as students remain persistent.[40] The results from a similar study showed a statistically significant positive correlation in students with above average self-directed learning (SDL) and information systems competency.[47] The study data also indicate that motivation is an important factor for learning technology in an online course, regardless of the students' SDL ability. Additionally, students with a high SDL ability are likely to exhibit higher level of self-efficacy for learning and performance. Improving retention and identifying “at risk” learners is another challenge that can be addressed in a hybrid learning environment.[30] Another course level study, this one in business communications, found that students in a hybrid learning environment demonstrated a higher rate of active learning practices and yielded similar levels of measurable improvement in writing as did those students in a traditional classroom setting.[46] In terms of future trends and directions, a recent comprehensive survey on the extent and promise of hybrid education found the following general patterns:[2] • • •

•

Hybrid courses are not more prevalent than fully online courses. The proportion of schools offering Hybrid and online courses is nearly identical. Academic leaders do not regard Hybrid courses as holding more promise than fully online courses regardless of size and type of school. Hybrid courses are not just a stepping stone to offering online courses or programs. There are far more hybrid courses and programs being offered than would be present if institutions were using them only as a transition to fully online courses. The market for online/Hybrid delivery has a lot of room for growth. Student preference for online and Hybrid delivery far exceeds available capacity.

Further research is needed at the course, curriculum, and delivery levels to continue to assess both the effectiveness and direction of hybrid learning compared with traditional and online delivery modes.[7] Additional work is also needed in assessing the efficacy of artificial learning agents as related to graduate management education.[10]

4 Hybrid Learning Systems and Sustainability Institutions of higher learning are becoming increasing concerned regarding economic and environmental sustainability.[13], [23] One strategy for helping ameliorate this

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growing challenge is the delivery of “green-based” learning. Rising gasoline prices has generated increased interest in blended learning education. The inefficient use of fossil fuel energy in commuting to campus coupled with the high energy content associated with the production and distribution of printed materials suggests an expanded role for hybrid learning. Increasing the use of HLS throughout higher education can contribute to the goal of achieving sustainable growth in a globalized economy as well as improve learning outcomes. With respect to environmental sustainability, U.S. universities have taken a lead role with the founding of the American College & University Presidents Climate Committee (ACUPCC) and the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education (AASHE). The mission of the AASHE is to advance the efforts of the entire campus sustainability community by uniting diverse initiatives and connecting practitioners to resources and professional development opportunities. The United States government has also gotten on the sustainability bandwagon. Congress recently passed the Higher Education Sustainability Act (HESA), which creates a "University Sustainability Grants Program" at the U.S. Department of Education. This legislation offers competitive grants to institutions and associations of higher education for developing, implementing, and evaluating sustainability curricula, practices, and academic programs.[1] HESA also directs the U.S. Department of Education to convene a national summit of higher education sustainability experts, federal agency staff, and business leaders to identify best practices and opportunities for collaboration in sustainability. However, there has been little attention paid to the role of blended learning in regard to these initiatives. One area receiving specific attention from ACUPCC and AASHE is student commuting. This activity represents a significant sustainability issue, especially for those participating in non-residential programs. Another university-oriented opportunity for enhancing sustainability is the print book and print materials industries. Presently, the print book sector alone emits approximately nine pounds of carbon per book, with most of the impact connected to forest carbon loss.[28] E-books represent a basic alternative to the traditional print book (p-book). An e-book is a digitized learning resource that is both readable and downloadable. E-books need only contain the required material for the specific course as compared with the often unused material in many p-books. The transition from printed materials to electronic based materials in higher education, for example, can reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions associated with the print industry by upwards of 90 percent.[21] Furthermore, ebooks, in particular, and digital material, in general, can be easily distributed via distance learning networks. A recent study found that distance learning higher education programs consumes 87 percent less energy and 85 percent lower CO2 emissions compared with full-time campus-based courses.[45] The study also discovered that part-time campus programs reduce energy and CO2 emissions by 65 and 61 percent, respectively, compared with full-time campus courses. The lower impacts of part-time and distance compared with full-time campus courses is mainly due to a reduction in student travel and elimination of much energy consumption of students’ housing, plus economies in campus site utilization. E-books appears to offer only relatively small energy and emissions reductions (20 and 12 per cent, respectively) compared with mainly print-based distance learning courses, primarily because online learning requires more energy for computing and paper for printing. However, these estimates are based on the assumption that

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students will print the instructional material distributed via the web. There is a growing body of evidence that students are becoming more comfortable in reading on line.[50] In this case the amount of energy and emission savings could rival those associated with reduced driving. From a HLS perspective one could assume that the energy and environmental savings might be on the order of one-half of those reported for a completely on-line program. Furthermore, e-books also provide a low cost alternative to expensive p-books.[11]

5 Conclusions Hybrid learning systems hold out considerable promise for enhancing graduate management education in a changing global environment. As a result of these developments, many MBA programs are increasingly focused on customization, experiential learning, and results assessment. HLSs provide an opportunity for collaborative learning that can have a positive impact on the educational experience. Another feature of the HLS is real-time feedback. This capability can be provided in a variety of ways, including business simulations and related experiential learning assignments. Realtime feedback presents the student with insights into subject areas that require more in-depth attention. Providing the broadest range of tutorial instruction optimizes students’ opportunities for effective learning. Asynchronous real-time feedback is particularly attractive for working managers engaged in extensive travel and other work-related assignments. The HLS strategy outlined herein is designed to significantly alter the three pillars of traditional MBA instruction—fixed time, fixed location, and fixed learning pace—with a more flexible and customized learning process. The hybrid learning net also can be used to improve the delivery and effectiveness of traditional MBA programs Specific benefits of the HLS paradigm for MBA programs includes the following: • • • • • • • •

Affords an integrated perspective on the course/program Presents instructional-rich content including real-time feedback Offers courses designed for specific learning applications Increases student team participation and interaction Improves quality control through content integration Supports quality through learning assurance Provides direct linkage with Internet and library resources Supports economic, environmental, and energy sustainability

Higher education, in general, and management education, in particular, is undergoing a fundamental shift from a teacher-centric process to a learning-centric environment that focuses on customized learning. In graduate management education this transformation is being fueled by the need to produce educated managers that can compete on a global basis. The vehicle for facilitating this reformation is the Internet. Hybrid learning nets, which combine the best in classical learning with web-based support systems, provide both the rigor and flexibility to meet the challenges and requirements of today’s and tomorrow’s managers.

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References 1. Alexsson, H., Sonesson, K., Wickenberg, P.: Why and How Do Universities Work for Sustainability in Higher Education? International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education 9(4), 469 (2009) 2. Allen, I., Seaman, J., Garrett, R.: Blending. In: The Extent and Promise of Blending Learning in the United States. Proceedings of The Sloan Consortium (2007) 3. Aquino, K., Serva, M.: Using a Dual Role Assessment to Improve Group Dynamics and Performance. Journal of Management Education 29(1), 17 (2005) 4. Bennis, W., O’Toole, J.: How Business Schools Lost Their Way. Harvard Business Review 83(5), 96 (2005) 5. Begiri, M., Chase, N.: Online Course Delivery: An Empirical Investigation of Factors Affecting Student Satisfaction. Journal of Education for Business 85, 95 (2010) 6. Bonk, C., Graham, C.: The Hand Book of Hybrid Learning. John Wiley & Sons, New York (2006) 7. Brannon, T.: Learner Interactivity in Higher Education: Comparing Face-to-Face, Hybrid and On-line Instruction. Distance Learning 2(2), 1 (2005) 8. Brookshire, R., et al.: An End-User Information Systems Curriculum for the 21st Century. Journal of Computer Information Systems 47(3), 81 (2007) 9. Brown, R., Murti, G.: Student Partners in Instruction: Third Level Student Participation in Advanced Business Courses. Journal of Education for Business 79(2), 85 (2003) 10. Changchit, C.: An Investigation Into the Feasibility of Using an Internet-based Intelligent System to Facilitate Knowledge Transfer. Journal of Computer Information Systems 43(4), 91 (2003) 11. Christopher, L.: Academic Publishing: Digital Alternatives to Expensive Print Books. The Seybolt Report 8(19), 11 (2008) 12. Clarysse, B., Simon, M., Lambrecht, I.: New Trends in Technology Management Education. Academy of Management Learning Education 8(3), 427 (2009) 13. Clegg, P.: Creativity and Critical Thinking in the Globalised University. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 45(3), 219 (2008) 14. Condone, S.: Reducing the Distance: A Study of Course Websites as a Means to Create a Total Learning Space in Traditional Courses. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication 47(3), 190 (2004) 15. Corsi, T., et al.: The Real-Time Global Supply Chain Game: New Educational Tool for Developing Supply Chain Management Professionals. Transportation Journal 45(3), 61 (2006) 16. Cotner, J., Jones, R., Kashlak, R.: Effectively Integrating an International Field Study into the EMBA Curriculum. Journal of Teaching in International Business 15(1), 5 (2003) 17. Cukier, W., Grant, K., Susla, J.: The Costs and Benefits of Learning Technologies. In: ISECON 2003, San Antonio (November 2003) 18. Davenport, J., Davenport, J.: A Chronology and Analysis of the Andragogy Debate. Adult Educational Quarterly 35(3), 152 (1985) 19. Delone, W., Mclean, E.: The Delone and Mclean Model of Information Systems Success: A Ten-Year Update. Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4), 9 (2003) 20. Doering, A., Veletsianos, G.: Hybrid Online Education: Identifying Integration Models Using Adventure Learning. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 41(1), 23 (2008) 21. Engelhaupt, E.: Would You Like that Book in Paper or Plastic? Environmental Science & Technology 42(12), 4242 (2008)

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22. Flatley, M.: Blogging for Enhanced Teaching and Learning. Business Community Quarterly 68(1), 77 (2005) 23. Forrant, R.: Globalization, Universities and Sustainable Human Development. Development 45(3), 102 (2002) 24. Garrison, R., Vaughan, N.: Hybrid Learning in Higher Education: Framework, Principles, and Guidelines. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco (2007) 25. Graesser, A.: Auto Tutor: An Intelligent Tutoring System with Mixed-Initiative Dialogue. IEEE Transactions on Education 48(4), 612 (2005) 26. Graves, W.: The Instructional Management System Cooperative: Converting Random Acts of Progress into Global Progress. Educom Review 34(6), 32 (1999) 27. Hall, O.: Enhancing Management Education Using Hybrid Learning Nets: A Perspective from Working Adults. Journal of Business Management 12(1) (2006) 28. Healy, M.: Environmental Trends and Climate Impacts: Finding from the US Book Industry. Book Industry Study Group, New York (2008) 29. Hitz, S., Turnoff, M.: Education Goes Digital: the Evolution of Online Learning and the Revolution in Higher Education. Communication of the ACM 48(10), 59 (2005) 30. Hughes, G.: Using Hybrid Learning to Increase Learner Support and Improve Retention. Teaching in Higher Education 12(3), 15 (2007) 31. Kerfoot, B., Conlin, P., Travison, T., McMahon, G.: Web-based Education in Systemsbased Practice. Archives of Internal Medicine 167(4), 361 (2007) 32. Kim, K., Bonk, C.: The Future of On-line Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Educause Quarterly 4 (2006) 33. Kleiman, L., Kass, D.: Giving MBA Programs the Third Degree. Journal of Management Education 31(1), 81 (2007) 34. Latham, G., Latham, S., Whyte, G.: Fostering Integrative Thinking: Adapting the Executive Education Model to the MBA Program. Journal of Management Education 28(1), 3 (2004) 35. Li, F., Liu, W.: Emerging eLearning Technologies. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies 5(2), 2 (2007) 36. Li, T., Greenberg, B.: Examination of a Discontinuous Innovation Adoption in an MBA Marketing Curriculum. Review of Business 29(2), 51 (2008) 37. Lin, F.: Designing Distributed Learning Environments with Intelligent Software Agents. Information Science Publishing, Hershey (2005) 38. Matsatsinis, N., Moraitis, P., Psomatakis, V., Spanoudakism, N.: An Agent-based System for Products Penetration Strategy Selection. Applied Artificial Intelligence 17(10), 901 (2003) 39. McDuffie, R., Smith, S., Murphy, L.: Impact of an Audit Reporting Expert System on Learning Performance: a Teaching Note. Accounting Education 15(1), 189 (2006) 40. Mclaren, C.: A Comparison of Student Persistence and Performance in Online and Classroom Business Statistics Experiences. Journal of Innovative Education 2(1), 1 (2004) 41. Mortera-Gutierrez, F.: Faculty Best Practices Using Hybrid Learning in e-Learning and Face-to-Face Instruction. International Journal on E-learning 5(3), 313 (2006) 42. Normand, C., Littlejohn, A., Falconer, I.: A Model for Effective Implementation of Flexible Program Delivery. Innovations in Teaching and Education International 45(1), 25 (2008) 43. Oravec, J.: Blending by Blogging: Weblogs in Hybrid Learning Initiatives. Journal of Educational Media 28(2), 225 (2003) 44. Richards-Wilson, S.: What Every Business School Needs to Know About its Master of Business Administration. Journal of Education for Business 82(2), 95 (2006)

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45. Roy, R., Potter, S.: Designing Low Carbon Higher Education Systems. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education 9(2), 116 (2008) 46. Sauers, D., Walker, R.: A Comparison of Traditional and Technology-Assisted Instructional Methods in the Business Communication Classroom. Business Communication Quarterly 67(4), 430 (2004) 47. Shinkareva, O.: The Relationship Between Adult Students’ Instructional Technology Competency and Self-directed Learning Ability in an Online Course. Human Resource Development International 10(4), 417 (2007) 48. Shroff, R., Vogel, D., Coombes, J.: Student E-Learning Intrinsic Motivation: A Qualitative Study. Communications of the Association for Information Systems 19, 241 (2007) 49. Steiger, D.: Enhancing Knowledge Integration: An Information System Capstone Project. Journal of Information Systems Education 2091, 17 (2009) 50. Tang, M., Byme, R.: Regular Versus Online Versus Blended: A Qualitative Description of the Advantages of the Electronic Modes and a Quantitative Evaluation. International Journal on ELearning 6(2), 257 (2007) 51. Vaughan, N.: Perspectives on Hybrid Learning in Higher Education. International Journal in e-learning 6(1), 81 (2007)

An E-Class Teaching Management System (ECTMS): Strategy and Application Pinde Chen1, Xiaojuan Li1, Defeng Lin1, and Harrison Hao Yang2 1

South China Normal University Guangzhou, 510631, China Pinde [email protected] 2 State University of New York at Oswego Oswego, NY 13126, USA [email protected]

Abstract. This paper presents an e-class teaching management system (ECTMS), which is a software supporting the synchronization of classroom teaching and learning activities. The system looks upon a class as a sequence of e-teaching-events. By controlling the operation of the e-teaching-events, the teacher monitors and manages the process of teaching. This paper describes the design strategy, architecture and typical application mode of ECTMS, and then provides a case study of applying this system in a real-world classroom. The survey results show that the teacher is satisfied with the concepts of ECTMS and agrees with that ECTMS has many advantages for the classes in which there are many exercises and curriculum evaluation processes. Keywords: e-class, e-teaching-event, teaching management system.

1 Introduction The development of information technologies, especially computer network, enriches learning environments. How to use computer network to improve teaching and learning in the classroom is an important mission of educators. Traditionally, in the classroom the teacher dominates the learning process and teaching process flows over time. In recent years, the teacher-centered teaching modes are transferring to learnercentered learning mode. In a learning-centered learning mode, students can actively participate in the learning process through inquiry-based learning (i.e. WebQuest), problem- or project-based learning, task-based learning etc. However, many teachers have discovered that, in the classroom, they are often lack of sufficient time to complete these student-centered learning activities. In some degree, it is because of the lack of effective learner-centered teaching support systems. Therefore, computer network applications need effective integration into teaching methods. As shown in Fig. 1, in the current learning management systems (such as Blackboard [1], Moodle [2]), after teachers have developed teaching contents and distributed them, the students read learning contents and self-control their learning paces. P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 49–58, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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These systems are usually not suitable for the synchronization of teaching and learning in the traditional classroom. There are some multi-media classroom management systems which support broadcasting the teacher's computer screen to students’ computers. In such a classroom, students can only passively receive the contents which the teacher broadcasts to them. During this period, students lost the control of the computer. In this way, teachers and students can not only use the computer technology effectively, but also lose the advantages of face to face interaction in the classroom. An e-class teaching management system (ECTMS) presented in this paper is a software which supports classroom teaching and learning activities synchronization. The system takes the classroom as sequence of e-teaching-events, and use e-teachingevents to reconstruct the teaching process. The teacher controls the operation of the eteaching-events, as well as monitors and manages the process of teaching.

Teacher

Authoring tool

Student

Teaching Content

Learning tool

Fig. 1. Application mode of learning management system

2 Related Work 2.1 Learning Management System It is becoming increasingly common in higher education institutions to sustain elearning activities [3], and so does in k-12 schools. According to the previous studies [4], there are two representative learning management systems (LMS) which have been widely used: the Proprietary LMS and the open source LMS. Blackboard has been selected here as an example of the Proprietary LMS, due to its time-proven reliability and widely applied in the academic world. Blackboard allows a teacher to create a wide range of teaching resources available on-line. Learning materials may include module guides, lecture notes, overheads and even sound and video clips. The module manager may enable a variety of other tools such as online discussion forums (bulletin boards), a virtual classroom and a drop box (online submission of coursework). The advantages of Blackboard are as shown below [1]: (a) Enable learners learn anytime and anywhere. (b) Create personalized learning experiences. (c) Assess learning at all levels. Whether at the individual, course, program or institutional level, Blackboard helps track outcomes and improves the students. (d) Keep flexibility with an open platform. Blackboard is open and plays well with other technologies, and its function can be enhanced continually.

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Thus, Blackboard can help teaching and learning by providing a foundation for engaging and assessing students’ activities inside and beyond a classroom. It is used to support students’ study beyond a classroom by its variety of resource-centric modules. The most popular open source LMS is Moodle. It is a free and open-source elearning software platform, and has a significant user base with 52153 registered sites and 30176528 users in 2770832 courses (by November, 2009) [5]. Moodle is constructed by modulars and can be easily extended by creating plugins for specific new functionality. It supports learning objects according to IMS QTT [6]. The learning content can be presented in different formats: .pdf, .txt, .html, .doc, graphical files, flash movie, presentations, interactive simulations etc. Unfortunately, the learning objectives can not be associated with the learning activity. The learning objectives are passively carried out only for reading by students. There are many services in Moodle. The basic delivered services are: chat, discussion forums-text, audio or video (with the aid of additional modules), workshop for collaborative work, assignment, notice board, events calendar etc. Learning units can be structured according the following hierarchy: course, module (theme), learning activities and resource [3]. In general, Moodle is an activity-center learning supporting system. It is easy to provide individualized feedback to all assignments and easy to track each student’s activity in the learning process. However, when Moodle is applied in the classroom, the teaching process can be difficult to manage and control synchronously. Concisely, both BlackBoard and Moodle are LMS with strong features to support e-learning activities. But they are more proper to support online learning asynchronously than teaching in the classroom synchronously. Usually, in these systems students are completely free to learn by themselves. 2.2 Teaching Event In the sixties and seventies in the last century, Gagne, on the grounds of the idea of "for learning to design teaching", classified classroom teaching activities into nine different types of teaching events. Smith and Lagan extended and deepened Gagne's nine events of teaching. They subdivided classroom teaching into four major parts, namely, Introduction, Body, Conclusion, and Assessment, a total of 15 kinds of learning/teaching events [7]. These teaching events are aimed at face to face interaction in the classroom teaching strategies. They do not take into account the change of condition and environment when computer and network enter the classroom.

3 Strategy The concept of teaching events in this paper is raised from the computation point of view, so it is called e-teaching-event. It is a class formed by data structure and its

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operation method. It not only can be looked as a software implementation of the teaching events, but also can be considered to provide technical support for teaching events. In the face to face teaching environment, not every teaching activity requires the support of computer, so, in the practical application, teaching activity can be dealt with flexibility, either the teaching event or the e-teaching-event. 3.1 E-Teaching-Event After analyzing a variety of course videos, seven e-teaching-events have been extracted: Showing, Upload, Download, Surveying, Exercise, Evaluation, and Discussion Events. Table 1. E-teaching-event list Name of ETeaching-Event

Event Description

Monitoring Information

Showing Event

Teaching materials which are demonstrated to students , such as text, images, animation, video, audio and other multimedia material

Visitors statistics

Upload Event

According to teachers’ requirement, for students to upload the related files to the ECTMS server

Monitoring uploading, if necessary, to act as evaluation object of the next Evaluation Event

Download Event

According to learning tasks and the teacher's request, to download learning resources from the ECTMS server A survey in the teaching process, usually a yes/no question or a multiple-choice question Simple tests in the classroom teaching process, including the question of objective and subjective questions

Monitoring downloading

Teacher’s or student’s evaluation on the uploaded content or the answer of subjective question Evaluation mode can be teacher evaluation, student peer assessment, self-evaluation, etc. Also known as collaborative events, refers to communication activities between teacher and students, or between students and students

Monitoring results of the evaluation

Surveying Event

Exercise Event

Evaluation Event

Discussion Event

Statistical analysis survey results

of

Statistical analysis of the test, result of subjective questions handled by the evaluation event

Monitoring the content of communication

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E-teaching-events are not limited to the ones listed in Table 1. They can be added with the expansion of the ECTMS. Each e-teaching-event contains two components: creating component, carrying-out component. Creating component includes creating method, and carrying-out component includes showing method and monitoring method. Monitoring information of the e-teaching-event is also shown in Table 1.

4 System Framework and Application Mode of ECTMS 4.1 System Framework of ECMS ECTMS consists of four units as shown in Fig. 2. (1) Educational Administration unit. Complete the general educational administration tasks, such as student management, curriculum management, teacher management and other tasks. (2) System management unit. It is used by the system support personnel to finish eteaching-event management. E-teaching-event can be added or deleted from the system. (3) Instructional design and content management unit. Teachers use it to complete the design of e-class teaching schema, also be responsible for the teaching schema and teaching content management. (4) Teaching carrying-out unit. This unit consists of two modules: class interpretation module is responsible for the interpretation of e-class teaching schema and present teaching content to the students; another module is for teacher to use and responsible for controlling the teaching process. 4.2 Typical Application Mode of ECTMS System Typical application mode of ECTMS is shown in Fig.3. Before teaching in the classroom, the teacher use authoring tool to design the teaching schema which is a collection of e-teaching-events. And meanwhile the teacher can set the execution sequence of the e-teaching-events. During the classroom teaching, the teacher can control the operation of e-teachingevents in real time by controlling and analysis components. He can turn on or off the e-teaching -events, reset the execution sequence of them and monitor the result of carrying-out of e-teaching-events. When the e-teaching-event carries out, the teacher's computer screen is as shown in Fig.4 (2). When the e-teaching-event carries out, the screen of student’s computer is basically similar to teacher’s computer screen. But there are only two areas. The left area is the sequence area only showing the e-teaching-events teacher has turned on. The right area is presenting area of e-teaching event. In this way, students’ learning activities are controlled by the teacher in order for the teacher to control the classroom. System is developed under B / S mode with C # and Ajax technology.

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Instructional Design and Content Management Unit

Educational Administration Unit

Design of Teaching Schema

Student Management

Teacher Management

Management of Teaching Schema

Curriculum Management

Management data

Resource Management

Teaching Schema

E-teachingevents

Teaching Material

System Management Unit. Teaching Schema Interpretation

Class Monitor Analysis Teaching Carrying-out Unit

Fig. 2. ECTMS framework

Student Teacher

Authoring Tool

Teaching Schema

Interpretation Module

Monitoring Module

Teacher

Fig. 3. Typical application mode of ECTMS

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5 A Case Study Teacher X’s two classes, which are from a national exemplary senior high school in the south region of China, participated in this pilot study. ECTMS was used in the information technology courses, "the text and coding” and "multimedia technology applications". 5.1 An Example of Task-Driven Class Teaching Content: the Healing Brush Tool of Photoshop. Teaching Goal: students can – (1) imitate and repair the image by the use of repair tools, (2) correctly select sampling points, and (3) set the properties of Healing Brush tool. Table 2. The process of task-driven teaching model based on ECTMS Teaching Process 1. to create situation: showing pre- and post- images. 2. to tell learning goal: to imitate and repair the image by the use of repair tools 3. to teach the prerequisite knowledge: (a) investigating students’ mastery degree of target skills in Healing Brush Tool. (b) showing knowledge of Healing Brush Tool.

4. to tell task: The task is removing the red girl on the bridge in the picture "Pedestrian Bridge", in order to make the picture more beautiful. 5. to finish task: providing the learning resources, and guiding any student who need help. 6. to submit the artifacts and display: Students are asked to submit the completed artifacts by upload event. 7. to evaluation the artifacts peer evaluation on students’ artifacts.

8. to summarize: Make comment on the mastery degree of students. summarizing teaching content.

E-teaching Events Showing Event: Showing comparison of photos before and after treatment to it. Showing Event: showing the learning goal. Surveying Event : investigating students’ mastery degree of target skills, and deciding the teaching emphasis. Showing Event: showing the functions of the Healing Brush, and showing the process of the operating examples. Showing Event: showing the requirements of the basic task and the difficult task. Download Event: providing students with the learning resources(such as the source image, the electronic course of tools and so on ) Upload Event: showing the requirements of uploading, and collecting the students’ artifacts. Evaluation Event: showing the requirements and standards of the evaluation; providing a list of students’ artifacts for evaluation. Surveying Event: investigating mastery degree of students Showing Event: showing the teaching content in order to strengthen knowledge

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Presenting area of eteaching event

Showing event

Eteaching –events sequence area

1. Creating situation by showing event

Monitoring area

2 Investigating students’ mastery degree of target skills by surveying event

Downloading event List of students’ artifacts

. 3. Providing the learning resources by downloading event

4 Evaluating students’ works by evaluating event

Fig. 4. Several typical e-teaching events in the teacher’s coputer screen

Teaching Method: the task-driving method is used. The teaching task is that using the Photoshop’s Healing Brush tool to make a woman on the beautiful hanging bridge disappear. The teaching process is shown in Table 2. Several pictures of typical e-teachingevents in the teaching process are shown in Fig. 4. 5.2 Findings To assess the effectiveness of the ECTMS system, 94 students from both courses received a questionnaire at the end of the term. Among 94 retuned questionnaires, eight of them were invalid, the remaining 86 (91.5%) questionnaires were valid and used for this study. As shown in the Table 3, the vast majority of students considered that ECTMS make a class clear and innovative, and ECTMS supported effectively to evaluate and practice. There were 86.0% of the students satisfied with the way of using

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ECTMS, and 87.2% of them agreed with the class with smooth flowing. As to the system's support to practice in the class, the consent of the students was 87.3%. At the same time, 81.4% of the students satisfied with the function of ECTMS’s evaluation event. Based upon his experience, Teacher X made the following reflections and comments on the role of ECTMS in class teaching: “As for preparing lessons, ECTMS can complete all kinds of formats of information presentation, which meet the different requirements of teachers.” “During the classroom teaching, ECTMS make the teaching process clearly and concisely. Because of its features of non-linear, real-time update, ECTMS meets the demand of sudden events in the teaching and learning process, and controls the teaching progress flexibly.” “With the ECTMS, teachers can organize the teaching process by e-teaching– events, and the sequencing of events just shows the teaching process. Moreover, the convenience of uploading and downloading and the timely feedback of evaluation make the teaching process very handy.” Table 3. The questionnaire results of ECTMS’s application

Satisfaction Strongly disagree Disagree

Count 0

% 0

The lesson with smooth flowing

Practice event

Evaluation event

Count 0

Count 0

Count 0

% 0

% 0

% 0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

Undecided

12

14

11

13

10

12

16

19

Agree

40

47

39

45

47

55

37

43

Strongly agree

34

36

42

28

33

33

38

40

6 Conclusion ECTMS system is based on the concept of e-teaching-event which provides a new way for the integration of technology with teaching process in the classroom. This paper points out that the e-teaching-events, especially Surveying Event, Exercise Event, Upload Event, Download Event, and Evaluation Event provide good support for activity-based and collaborative-based teaching mode. The findings of the case study indicate that teaching tasks which may be difficult to complete in the limited classroom time, can be successfully accomplished by ECTMS. On the other hand, in the face-to-face teaching environment, not every teaching activity requires the support of the computer, so in a real classroom, the more important thing might be to exert the advantages of face-to-face communication.

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References 1. Blackboard, http://www.blackboard.com/ (visited on November 21, 2009) 2. Moodle, http://moodle.com/ (visited November 21, 2009) 3. Mihailescu, E.: An Overview of Open Projects in Contemporary E-Learning: A Moodle Case Study. SCI, pp. 271–281 4. Graf, S.: Beate List, An Evaluation of Open Source E-Learning Platforms Stressing Adaptation Issues, http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/ g/Graf:Sabine.html (visited on November 20, 2009) 5. Modules and Plugins, http://moodle.org/mod/data/view.php?id=6009 (visited on November 18, 2009) 6. Moodle Documents, http://docs.moodle.org/en/About_Moodle (visited on November 18, 2009) 7. Smith, P.L., Ragan, T.J.: Instructional Design. In: A Framework for Instructional Strategy Design, Ch. 7. John Wiley& Sons, Inc., Hoblken (2005)

Facebook – Education with Social Networking Websites for Teaching and Learning Herbert Shiu1, Joseph Fong1,∗, and Jeanne Lam2 1

Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 2 HKU SPACE, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong [email protected]

Abstract. This paper is a study of using social networking websites, in particularly Facebook, for conducting courses as a replacement of expensive traditional electronic learning platforms. At the early stage of the Internet community, Internet users used electronic mail as the main communication mean. Although email is still the core way of communication in a convenient but offline mode, other facilities were introduced, such as many Instant Messaging (IM) software applications like I-Seek-You (ICQ) and MSN, which enable people to communicate in a real-time mode. However, the communication between people was further enhanced to the next stage, when Facebook came to existence as a social networking website that supports many features. People do not only communicate with others, but also organize all kinds of interactions among them. Facebook provides rich features for organizing relationships. The framework of Facebook actually provides free of charge software that were provided by traditional electronic learning. This paper studies how people use Facebook for teaching and learning, together with recommendations provided. Keywords: Education, Facebook, Social networking website.

1 Introduction Internet provides software applications of the necessary communication media for computation purposes. Due to its popularity, it has become a necessity of modern people for communication and information sharing purposes. For example, casual Internet users are using email as a replacement of sending letters via postal. Although emails arrive at the mailboxes of recipients instantly, emails are to be read only when the recipients check their accounts. At the early stage, computers allow instant messaging among Internet users using software talk [6] on UNIX operation system. It enables Internet users to communicate in real-time by sending textual data character by character. However, these applications were not popular among casual Internet users, because they must access to host machines.

∗

Contact author.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 59–70, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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The invention of I-Seek-You (ICQ) in 1996 brought about the popularity of Instant Message (IM) software among all people, including casual Internet users. After ICQ, there have been other IM software applications such as MSN. Since then, people can communicate anytime and anywhere provided that they can access to the Internet. Facebook was introduced by Mark Zuckerberg and his roommates in 2006 as a social networking website that allows any person to organize his/her relationships with other friends. Currently, there are 400 million users worldwide and is ranked the most used social network followed by MySpace [7] and Twitter [8]. Compared with the number of total Internet users that counts 1,734 million [9], roughly one out of four Internet users are active Facebook users, not to mention that the penetration of Facebook since its launch is substantial and amazing. The extensive use of Facebook is not only due to its popularity, but also the support by various devices. Facebook is a web application that can be accessed via any web browser. Besides, many mobile phones are equipped with web browsers, such as Opera Mini (a mobile phone version of Opera web browser), and some are even equipped with dedicated software solely for accessing Facebook, such as Apple iPhone, Ultra-mobile PC’s (UMPC), various netbooks and the Apple iPad. The support of Facebook by these mobile devices is a definite advantage of using Facebook for education purposes.

2 Facebook Features Facebook is a social networking web application that supports the following features, which are for education purposes: • • •

•

•

•

• • •

No prerequisite - Any Internet user with a valid email address is allowed to register Free - The use of Facebook is free of charge. Group - It supports user-defined groups so that users can be divided into groups. There are private groups and public groups. The former can only be joined by users via invitation and the latter is open to all. On the other hand, Facebook page enables any student to join the page for accessing the teaching materials and to be notified by any update of the page. Page – It enables users to create Facebook pages for particular organizations, so that other users can join the group and will be informed of all updates to the Facebook pages. Privacy - It supports the control of privacy in terms of items posted, users and groups. In other words, it is possible to set the access control privileges of individual items posted, users and groups. Notifications - It supports user notifications of all updates of items, users and groups via emails. If there is any update of an item, a user or a group, emails are sent to the related users for notifications. Photo albums - It supports user and group level photo albums. Discussions - It supports discussions with respect to a message, a photo, a photo album or an article. Emails - It supports internal emails between any two Facebook users, and it is possible to send an email to all users of a group.

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•

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Events - It supports events and is possible to create events for a group. Users to indicate whether they will be present or absent from the events. User main page - The main page of a Facebook user shows all the updates to friends, the groups joined, and all the upcoming events. Chatting - Facebook support real-time chatting through the web browser. User-defined software – There is a well-defined Facebook API (Application Program Interface) so that software developers can develop software to be executed within the Facebook webpage. For example, quiz creator software enables any Facebook user to create a survey, questionnaire or quiz easily. Furthermore, applications for file sharing allows users to share their own documents with any other users. Besides, some Facebook applications are educational [10]. Activity log – All operations by any Facebook user are logged with timestamps and can be traced.

3 Facebook as an Education Platform It is conceivable to use Facebook as a social network for education purpose as follows: User creations - Teaching staff and students need to access the Facebook website for registration. Preferably, they all use their email accounts granted by the universities, so that it is easier for them to locate one another. Furthermore, each of them can keep their own personal Facebook accounts for their own casual uses, whereas the Facebook student users created by using university accounts are for teaching and learning only if they would like to prevent lectures from accessing their private life in the social networking website. The limitation is that the students may not log on their Facebook that is associated with their university email account daily. Course preparations - Teaching staff can create a Facebook page for each course with their Facebook accounts1. Each Facebook page can create multiple photo albums and multiple discussions. Therefore, teaching staff can make use of the facilities provided by Facebook to enrich their Facebook page for the course, such as adding links to references materials, discussions or photo albums. Teaching materials preparation - For teaching purposes, the most important teaching materials to be distributed are lecture notes or slides. Usually, teaching staff uses Microsoft PowerPoint to prepare the PowerPoint files for students to download. Although there are free Microsoft PowerPoint viewer applications for Windows platforms released by Microsoft, there are platforms and mobile devices that cannot display PowerPoint files properly. Instead, image file format is the universal format for display purposes. It is therefore preferable to convert all PowerPoint files into sequences of images, and upload them as Facebook page photo albums. There are freeware applications that can convert Microsoft Office files into sequences of 1

Facebook users can create their Facebook page, but it is the teaching staff who are responsible to create the Facebook page for the course.

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images. Then, Facebook users will be notified the existing of new slides, which can be accessed by any web-browsing enabled devices. For presentation files other than Microsoft Powerpoint, lectures can also using different applications to convert the files into images for uploading. Most mobile devices can be used for web browsing. Some mobile phones, such as Apple iPhone, are equipped with dedicated components for accessing Facebook. With the existence of mobile network technologies, such as GPRS and HSDPA, students can view the lecture notes as photo albums on the Facebook page for the course anywhere. The teaching materials in Microsoft Office formats can be uploaded to a web server and their URLs can be posted to the Facebook pages. As a result, Facebook student users can determine whether to download the original files. Besides, it is possible to post links of videos or upload video files to the course Facebook page, such as the videos for the lectures or demonstrations. Conducting lectures and tutorials - Teaching staff can use the PowerPoint or other presentation files to conduct lectures and tutorials. With Facebook, they have an alternate way to present the notes, which is showing Facebook photo albums for the presentation files. There is an extra benefit of showing a photo album compared with presenting a presentation file, which supports discussions on the entire photo albums and individual slides. Furthermore, while showing a slide as Facebook image, students can add comments to the slide which will notify the teaching staff the existence of comments for immediate feedbacks. It facilitates the discussions among teaching staff and students, especially those who are unwilling to speak in front of other students. Furthermore, if a student has any problem on any slide, he or she can add a comment, and a notification email will be sent to the teaching staff. Then the teaching staff can simply click the link embedded in the email to locate the slide (image) the student mentioned and provide feedbacks. Discussions - Whenever there is any update to the course group or course page, all involved Facebook student users are notified and can access those changes, such as a posting of links referring to online reference materials, videos and a creation of photo albums. Then, all users can access to those items and leave comments which can be read by other users for discussions. By consolidating the reference materials which originally scattered in the Internet, students time for searching the materials by themselves can be saved. For example, lecture notes can be released as Facebook photo albums, so that all students can access these albums for viewing them. Whenever they have any comments or questions regarding any slides, they can leave comments or questions to them. Teaching staff and other students will be notified of such comments or questions by emails, and leave responses on the slide. Since Facebook is informal, users are more willing to leave messages on them. It actually motivates students to share and discuss for peer-to-peer learning. In fact, there are many interactive applications developed for Facebook. Lectures can make appropriate use of those external applications to facilitate interactions among lecturers and students.

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Assessments - Facebook provides application programming interface (API) for software developers to develop Facebook applications. As such, there have been a lot of applications available for Facebook users. There are several Facebook applications which enable Facebook users to create quizzes, such as the Quizzes and Quiz Creator applications. By using these softwares, teaching staff can create a quiz, such as for each lecture, and post the link to the course page, and inform students to take the quiz to examine their understandings on the course materials. In addition, file sharing applications allow students submit assignments to teachers easily. As Facebook can be accessed by any web browser, students can increase their understanding on the course materials, anytime and anywhere. Personal notes and private files – Students can make use of notes function in Facebook to keep their personal study notes. They can either keep the notes private or share the notes with others. Private files can be sent using the private message function with attachment. Privacy, security and legal issues - Facebook provides customization in course account setting that protect privacy and ensure security of course access. The course creator can set the access of content to their students only by using the “add friend” function and “controlling how you share” function properly. Account and privacy setting can be performed under the “Account” session in Facebook. Regarding the legal issues of posting teaching materials in the social networking website, the lecturers should well aware of the terms and agreements listed in Facebook. By using Facebook appropriately, education functions can be delivered via this platform effectively.

4 Case Study In this case study, a course with code CS3462 is used for illustration purposes. Upon the creation of Facebook account by a teaching staff, the lecturer can create a Facebook page for the course “Introduction to Database System” with course code CS3462. For creating the course account, the teaching staff, clicked the option “Ads and Pages” and then “Pages” to create a new page for the course CS3462 as shown in Figure 1. By clicking “Create a Page to start creating the page for the course”, the teaching staff can specified the course details on the webpage as in Figure 2 below. Finally, the teaching staff clicked “Create Page” to create the course page. Then, the lecturer could create photos albums for the lecture notes. The lecture clicked “Photos” to create a new photo album as shown in Figure 3. The lecturer then started uploading the lecture notes images to the photo album. Since different web browsers support different approaches of uploading images to a photo album, for example, Microsoft Internet Explorer and Google Chrome can make use of a Facebook plugin whereas FireFox uses a Java based component, the lecturer would experience different interface when using different web browers. Once the photo album was created, the lecturer reviewed the images and rearranged the sequence of the images as necessary. Then, the photo album with lecture notes was ready to be accessed by students.

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Fig. 1. Facebook page for personal profile creation

Fig. 2. Facebook page for course main menu

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Fig. 3. Facebook page for course description

For those students who would like to receive notification of course notes publishing, the lecturer could instruct them to use the function of adding themselves as fans of the course page. The lecturer could either rearrange the images or add new images by clicking “Organize Photos” or “Add Photo” buttons. For any further updates of the album, students with the role of fans of the course page would receive new notifications about the changes. The overview of the album is shown in Figure 4 and a screen showing the course content is shown in Figure 5..

Fig. 4. Facebook page for course slides

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Fig. 5. Facebook page for course slide presentation

The lecturer could make use of other Facebook features in the main profile of the course page to provide further support to the students: • Link – teaching staff can add the reference materials on the web page with a link, such as reference articles, videos and so on. • Event – teaching staff can create events for lectures and tutorials, so that students users will be notified and their main page will show the schedules of the lectures and tutorials whenever the students users log on Facebook. • Video – if the lecture, tutorial or demonstration is recorded, it is possible to update it to the Facebook page, so that it is accessible easily by the students. If the presentation file does not involve any transition effects, teaching staff could use the Facebook photo album web page to conduct the lecture/tutorial. The benefit was that if students wanted to raise any question and provide any feedback on the slide, they could post their comments for such slide and the teaching staff would be notified immediately. Such feature was especially useful to students who were passive in the class. The comments posted were specific to individual slide and it therefore facilitates the discussion among teaching staff and students. Students could also access to the photo album with their own mobile devices, such as mobile phones. Although the devices were small, they support zooming and enabled the students to provide feedbacks or comments similar to a computer. For

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example, Figure 6 shows the same lecture note slide to be shown by an Apple iPhone and a LG mobile phone respectively. For slide with text in smaller typeface, most mobile phones enable users to zoom the images for better readability. When students wanted to leave comments or questions regarding the slide, they used their mobile device to do so. For example, Figure 7 shows the user interfaces of an Apple iPhone and a LG mobile phone, which enables Facebook student users to post comments to a slide.

Fig. 6. The image for a lecture note slide is shown by an Apple iPhone and a LG mobile phone

Fig. 7. The user interface for Facebook users to post comments by an Apple iPhone and a LG mobile phone

In fact, mobile devices are capable of viewing the slide and enable students to leave comments or questions to particular slide. Upun receiving comments or questions, all members in the course, including teaching staff, would be notified. As soon

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as teaching staff received a notification emails from Facebook, they could click the embedded link that navigates the web browser to the referred slide, and leave another comment for the same slide as responses. Teaching staff could create quizzes to assess students’ understandings of the lecture. For example, Figure 8 and Figure 9 illustrate the use of Quiz Creator Facebook application by a teaching staff to create a quiz.

Fig. 8. Specify the quiz name and details with Quiz Creator

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Fig. 9. Specify the quiz questions and answers with Quiz Creator

5 Conclusion Facebook is the most popular social networking web site, and student Facebook users do not need any training on its usage. Besides, it can be easily accessed by any computer and mobile device with web browsing capability. Therefore, Facebook is therefore an excellent supplementary education framework that can replace some features of traditional classroom learning. In summary, the use of Facebook for education has a number of advantages. First, true cross platforms and cross devices such as computers and mobile devices support Facebook. Second, course teaching materials are easily distributed. Third, blog-like discussion on individual items as well as online quizzes and assessments are supported. Fourth, it is user-friendly and no special trainings are required. All these provide some insights for one to develop a studentfriendly information sharing platform.

References 1. Wikipedia, Instant Message, Online Article, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_message 2. Homepage of ICQ, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://www.icq.com/ 3. Wikipedia, Articles on MSN, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/msn 4. Homepage of Facebook, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://www.facebook.com 5. Wikipedia, Social Network Service, Online Article, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_service 6. Wikipedia, Talk (software), Online Article, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk_(software)

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7. Homepage of myspace, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://www.myspace.com/ 8. Homepage of Twitter, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://www.twitter.com/ 9. Wikipedia, List of countries by number of Internet users, Online Article, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ List_of_countries_by_number_of_Internet_users 10. CollegeDegree.com, The Facebook Classroom: 25 Facebook Apps That Are Perfect for Online Education, Online Article, Retrieved from the Internet at, http://www.collegedegree.com/library/college-life/ 15-facebook-apps-perfect-for-online-education

Building Teachers’ TPACK through WebQuest Development and Blended Learning Process Harrison Hao Yang1 and Pinde Chen2 1

State University of New York at Oswego, Oswego, NY 13090, USA [email protected] 2 South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China [email protected]

Abstract. Integrating technology in K-12 classroom is a complex challenge for teachers. This article provides an overview on the conceptualization of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), project-based learning and WebQuests, and blended learning. It presents how an instructional approach which incorporated WebQuest development and blended learning process is implemented into one educational technology course at a university in the northeastern region of the United States. The effectiveness of such an instructional approach on TPACK among participants of the course has been confirmed in this study. Discussion and conclusion of building a stronger pre- and in-service teachers’ TPACK for educational technology courses are included. Keywords: TPACK, WebQuest, Project-Based Learning activity, Blended Learning.

1 Introduction The importance of preparing future teachers to integrate technology continues to be a critical concern at our teacher preparation programs. Studies reveal that even in schools and districts committed to technology integration, teaching practice remains largely unchanged [1] [2] [3]. It appears that the traditional way of conducting educational technology courses is considered inadequate for the needs of the 21st century classroom. Researchers have reported that a formal didactic transmission approach caused students to learn just enough to be successful in the context of the course they were studying; yet, the acquired skills were quickly diminished. They found in subjects a lack depth of conceptual understanding and an inability to construct meaningful applications [4] [5]. Therefore, finding ways to prepare pre- and in-service teachers to use technology in meaningful ways and to integrate it authentically into their teaching has been very much needed. This paper reviews notions and issues of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), project-based learning and WebQuests, and blended learning as gleaned from the literature. It then provides a study which incorporates WebQuest development and blended learning process into one educational technology course in terms of building pre- and in-service teachers’ TPACK. P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 71–81, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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2 Related Work Building on Shulman’s framework of Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Koehler and Mishra developed the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) approach which attempted “to capture some of the essential qualities knowledge required by teachers for technology integration in their teaching, while addressing the complex, multifaceted and situated nature of teacher knowledge” [6]. As indicated in Fig. 1, TPACK has the complex interplay of three primary forms of knowledge: Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogy Knowledge (PK), and Technology Knowledge (TK).

Fig. 1. The TPACK framework (source: http://tpack.org/).

According to Koehler and Mishra [6]: The TPACK approach goes beyond seeing these three knowledge bases in isolation. On the other hand, it emphasizes the new kinds of knowledge that lie at intersections between them. Considering P and C together we get Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), Shulman’s idea of knowledge of pedagogy that is applicable to the teaching of specific content. Similarly, considering T and C taken together, we get Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), the knowledge of the relationship between technology and content. At the intersection of T and P, is Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), which emphasizes the existence, components and capabilities of various technologies as they are used in the settings of teaching and learning. Finally, at the intersection of all three elements is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). True technology integration is understanding and negotiating the relationships among these three components of knowledge. Koehler and Mishra’s view of integrating technology in teachers’ teaching has been well supported and documented. For the past five years, there have been more than

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one hundred and forty presentations and publications related to the TPACK framework [6]. Correspondingly, educators have long concerned with technology integration toward project-based learning. Related studies show that project-based learning can capture the complexities of real life situations. Not only does it provide an effective way for pre- and in-service teachers understanding the connection of knowledge to the contexts of its application, but it also provides them with opportunities for selfreflection and a sense of agency. Essentially, project-based learning is based on tasks, groups, and sharing. It provides a practical method of combining many of the elements of authentic activities and collaborative learning [7] [8]. Among those teaching with technology projects, the WebQuest is probably one of the most talked about and widely used Web-based learning projects in today’s classrooms [9]. According to Dodge [10], the founder of WebQuest, “a WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which most or all of the information used by learners is drawn from the Web. WebQuests are designed to use learners’ time well, to focus on using information rather than looking for it, and to support learners’ thinking at the levels of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.” A WebQuest usually includes six essential components: introduction, task, process, evaluation, conclusion, and teacher page. In this way, WebQuests allow the educators to make an easier transition into using Internet technology with minimal stress [11], and allow students to experience learning as they form their perceptions, beliefs, and values out of their experiences [12]. While the effectiveness of WebQuests for teaching and learning in general is well documented, the challenge of how best to guide those non-experienced pre- and inservice teachers designing and developing effective WebQuests still remains. As researchers indicate a valuable WebQuest project is not simply a fun game or a change-of-pace event for learners who have been pushed through homework assignments, lectures, and tests. It is imperative that the WebQuest project is accountable and it incorporates high standards, rigorous challenges, and valid assessment methods [13]. As a result, guiding pre- and in-service teachers to build WebQuests can be too problematic and too multi-contextual to rely on traditional face-to-face instruction. The development of a WebQuest involves gathering information and Internet resources, reviewing contents, reflecting on the learning process, elevating questions and tasks, etc. which may take over an extended period of time for developers to put all of components together and to construct a deep understanding through their learning experience [13]. There is no doubt that the widespread adoption and availability of digital learning technologies has led to increased levels of integration of computer-mediated instructional elements into the traditional face-to-face learning experience [14]. Consequently, blended learning emerges as perhaps the most prominent delivery mechanism in higher education, business, government, and military settings. Blended learning combines face-to-face (F2F) instruction with computer-mediated learning (CML) and instruction, which provides three main benefits for teaching and learning: (1) improved pedagogy, (2) increased access and flexibility, and (3) increased costeffectiveness [15]. In 2002, the Chronicle of Higher Education quoted the president of Pennsylvania State University as saying that the convergence between online and residential instruction was “the single-greatest unrecognized trend in higher education today” [16]. In 2003, the American Society for Training and Development identified

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blended learning as one of the top ten trends to emerge in the knowledge delivery industry [17]. Furthermore, blended learning has been boosted by Web 2.0 applications. Web 2.0 applications, such as blogs, wikis, social bookmarking, and podcasts, have emerged in a rich, interactive, user-friendly application platform that allow users to read, write, create, share, remix, repurpose, and exchange content to the Web. These applications have transformed the computer-mediated learning environment into a learning network community where every user is invited to exchange ideas and thoughts, to demonstrate creativity, and to create new knowledge [18].

3 Research Questions Despite an array of studies appeared in the literature, which provide various strategies and suggestions independently on how to develop teacher’s TPACK, WebQuest project, and blended learning in general, the literature has not addressed how to build teacher’s TPACK through project-based learning activities with blended learning process. In light of the lack of specific teaching models and approaches that can be studied and implemented for blended learning courses in terms of building teacher’s TPACK, the present study expanded upon earlier research by presenting how a practical approach, which incorporated project-based learning activities and blended learning process, was implemented into one educational technology course. It also examined the effects that the use of such an approach was having on the course – in particular, on the TPACK among participants. The following questions guided this study: 1. How to implement an instructional approach which incorporated projectbased learning activities such as WebQuest development and blended learning process? 2. What were the effects of such an instructional approach on TPACK among pre- and in-service teachers?

4 Methodology To obtain specific information about the development of the instructional approach and participants’ perceptions on TPACK, one educational technology course was selected for this study. It should be noted that the participants were selected by the way of convenience sampling because one of the researchers for this study was also the instructor of this course. The sample size was relatively small. Therefore, instead of any strict inferential attempts, the descriptive research design was utilized in this study. 4.1 Participants and the Course The participants of this study came from two sections of students (n = 29) who were enrolled in the hybrid course entitled Computer Applications and Resources in Teaching, offered at an university in the northeastern region of the United States during the fall semester in 2009 (n = 13) and the spring semester in 2010 (n = 16). All of participants were pursuing graduate level education programs in content areas of literacy, biology, chemistry, earth science, mathematics, social studies, technology, etc. More

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than half of them (62%) were in-service teachers located in the same geographical area. The course entitled Computer Applications and Resources in Teaching focuses on combining integration of computer applications and resources into teaching and learning. It is a required course for students who are in the Master of Science in Education program at the university. The course includes a series of technology integration activities. WebQuest design and development is a part of these learning activities. Since fall 2006, this course has been using the State University of New York Learning Network (SLN) ANGEL online learning system as one of hybrid courses in the university, which two-thirds of the course learning activities had been moved to the computer mediated learning (CML) environment while the contact time in traditional face-to-face (F2F) teaching and learning had been reduced to one-third of the course. 4.2 Procedure As shown in Fig. 2, a structure with five consecutive segments incorporating both blended learning process and WebQuest project development was designed and then implemented.

Fig. 2. Segments incorporating both blended learning process and WebQuest project development

Segment 1: Scaffolding. Previous research indicates that it is crucial to create a foundation of necessary concepts and skills for project-based learning activities and development [4]. Establishing and elaborating appropriate goals which make connections between activities and the underlying conceptual knowledge, can help participants to realize there are things that are important to find out, and they are willing to learn how to achieve related knowledge. The basic idea of scaffolding is “to gradually ease students into what are likely to be challenging tasks by creating a supportive structure to guide their work. In other words, as the educators we would initially do some of the

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work for students” [8]. From this perspective, in the F2F classroom environment, the instructor challenged participants by asking how to implement the relevant Internet resources into teaching and learning, and how to engage their students in “active” involvement with those Internet resources. To seek the answers: (1) the rationale, key point, and components of WebQuests were deliberated and introduced; (2) examples and applications of WebQuests were analyzed and discussed; (3) related materials and online resources were distributed and provided. This scaffolding served two ends: the first end was to share the related concepts/knowledge and basic technological skill that students needed to prepare their undertaking actual WebQuest project development; the second end was to help students reflect and discuss the possibilities for extending the ideas and technologies into their content areas. Segment 2: Self-Directed Learning. Self-directed learning, which has its roots in adult education, develops domain-specific knowledge as well as the ability to transfer conceptual knowledge to new situations [19]. It seeks to bridge the gap between school knowledge and real-world problems by considering how people learn in real life [20] [21]. Previous research indicates that self-directed learners demonstrate a greater awareness of their responsibility in making learning meaningful and monitoring themselves [22]. They are curious and willing to try new things [23], view problems as challenges, desire change, and enjoy learning [24]. They are motivated and persistent, independent, self-disciplined, self-confident and goal-oriented [24]. Self-directed learning allows learners to be more effective learners and social beings. Researchers noted that the self-directed learners in a Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) program demonstrated the ability to search for information in multiple texts, employ different strategies to achieve goals, and to represent ideas in different forms (drawing and writing) [25]. From this perspective, in the CML environment, participants began their WebQuest projects on the more flexible levels of skills, understanding, and complexity. They focused on: (1) reviewing online WebQuest projects and related resources; (2) forming their own topics of WebQuests; (3) developing components of their WebQuests. The instructor mainly staged in the role of resource providing “just-in-time” suggestions/guidance on the aspects of contexts and technical parts via SLN online learning system. Segment 3: Formative Assessment and Transaction. Previous research indicates that formative assessment and coordinated transaction provide numerous benefits to both the instructors and learners on the project-based learning activities and development. On one hand, instructors can get a clear view of what is and what is not being learned by learners, and how to adapt their further instruction accordingly. On the other hand, learners can have the opportunity to assess their peers’ work, to receive feedback from peers, and to revise their learning processes as necessary, etc [26]. From this perspective, the instructor and participants of this study met in the F2F classroom environment and worked on: (1) sharing and assessing what participants had done on their WebQuest projects during the second segment; (2) discussing challenges, questions, and concerns that participants experienced; (3) obtaining possible and potential solutions, strategies, resources, and steps to enhance participants’ WebQuest projects; (4) exploring features, components, applications, and resources of educational blogs; (5) setting up individual’s blog for publishing the WebQuest project, creating the

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template/layout, and linking participants’ blog addresses to the course website and SLN ANGEL learning system. Segment 4: Reinforcement. There are many ways to support active, reflective, and collaborative learning. Group interactions, opportunities to contribute, peer review, and having-access to similar projects that others have thought about and developed are powerful manners discussed in previous research [26]. From this perspective, participants’ WebQuests were developed and accessible to their peers in the CML environment where participants engaged in continuous, thoughtful analysis of their learning process and outcome. They reinforced the WebQuest project development by: (1) publishing their WebQuests on their blogs; (2) reviewing peers’ work online and revising their own WebQuests. Segment 5: Presentation and Reflection. Previous research indicates that allocating time for students to present their ideas, methods, and products is very crucial for active/reflective learning and the project development. This is essential not only as the conclusion of the present project, but also as the stimulation for the next project [26] [27]. Presenting projects is an authentic activity that provides an enormous motivation for students [7] [8]. According to Barron and the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1998), “presentations, coupled with authentic outcomes and fairly explicit criteria for what counts as a good plan, can provide a strong incentive to prepare and revise” [26]. From this perspective, in the F2F classroom environment, participants presented their final WebQuest projects and their reflection of their learning experiences in front of the class. Class interactions and classmates’ evaluations were generated during and after the presentations. The instructor encouraged participants to continue implementing WebQuests into their own classroom teaching and learning, and then started to initialize and scaffold the next learning activity. WebQuests created by participants have been accumulated and organized as the “Student’s Cafe” on the Internet (www.oswego.edu/~hyang2/edu506/student.htm). 4.3 Data Collection and Instrumentation To assess the effectiveness of the approach which incorporated WebQuest development and blended learning process on pre- and in-service teachers’ knowledge of teaching and technology, all 29 students from two sections of the course received the Survey of Teachers’ Knowledge of Teaching and Technology (TKTT) at the end of the fall semester in 2009 and the spring semester in 2010. Among the returned surveys, 24 out of 29 students’ responses (83%) were completed and usable. The TKTT survey was originally developed by Schmidt et al who reported the internal consistency reliability on Technology Knowledge (TK), Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogy Knowledge (PK), Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) ranging from 0.82 to 0.92 [28]. Changes were made to better fit the purpose of this study. For examples, the statement “based upon my experience, the blended learning process (combination of face-to-face and online activities) of developing my WebQuest helps me -” was added at the beginning of all items; the items which were more particular to individual content areas were combined to one item which represented the content area in general, such as: items “I have sufficient knowledge about mathematics,” “I have

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sufficient knowledge about social studies,” and “I have sufficient knowledge about science”, were combined as the item “I have sufficient knowledge about my content area.” The modified survey consists of twenty-nine items with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In addition, an open-ended item which allowed students to report their learning experiences was added at the end of TKTT survey.

5 Findings Overall, the majority of participants reported that their experiences on the approach incorporating WebQuest development and blended learning process were exceedingly positive, as was evident in the following participants’ comments: I liked how we were introduced to how to do the different sections then were able to go and do it on our own, with our own ideas. It allowed for us to put our own creative style to use as well as go back and ask for help if we needed it [comment from an in-service teacher]. Professor really provided a great learning environment for me. We worked on relevant technology and web tools. This experience and his hybrid class meeting style worked out really well and empowered me to work on the project on my own [comment from a pre-service teacher]. 5.1 Technology Knowledge, Content Knowledge, and Pedagogical Knowledge Most of the participants indicated positive and favorable feelings toward their technology, disciplinary, and pedagogical knowledge from the course. Based upon the experience on the blended learning process of developing WebQuests, on the TK subscale, respondents overwhelmingly agreed/strongly agreed (A&SA) on all of seven items: item 1 “know to solve my own technical problems” (M = 4.38, SD = 0.65), item 2 “learn technology easily” (M = 4.63, SD = 0.58), item 3 “keep up with important new technologies” (M = 4.58, SD = 0.65), item 4 “frequently play around the technology” (M = 4.67, SD = 56), item 5 “know about a lot of different technologies” (M = 4.54, SD = 0.72), item 6 “have the technical skills I need to use technology” (M = 4.71, SD = 0.46), and item 7 “have had sufficient opportunities to work with different technologies” (M = 4.46, SD = 0.83). Similar to the TK subscale, respondents exceedingly agreed/strongly agree on all three items of the CK subscale: item 8 “have sufficient knowledge about my content area” (M = 4.71, SD = 0.62), item 9 “can use content way (such as a mathematical way) of thinking” (M = 4.63, SD = 0.65), and item 10 “have various ways and strategies of developing my understanding of my content area” (M = 4.56, SD = 0.67). While respondents overwhelmingly agreed/strongly agree on the first five items of the PK subscale (items 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15), some of them remained “neutral” on the last two items (items 16 and 17): item 11 “know how to assess student performance in a classroom” (M = 4.71, SD = 0.55), item 12 “can adapt my teaching basedupon what student currently understand or do not understand” (M = 4.67, SD = 0.64), item 13 “can adapt my teaching style to different learners” (M = 4.83, SD = 0.48), item 14 “can assess student learning in multiple ways” (M = 4.71, SD = 0.55), item 15 “can use a wide range of teaching approaches in a classroom setting (collaborative

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learning, direct instruction, inquiry learning, problem/project based learning etc.)” (M = 4.75, SD = 0.44), item 16 “be familiar with common student understandings and misconceptions” (M = 4.13, SD = 0.99), and item 17 “know how to organize and maintain classroom management” (M = 3.92, SD = 1.02). 5.2 Pedagogical Content Knowledge, Technological Content Knowledge, and Technological Pedagogical Knowledge The results from the TKTT revealed that the approach which incorporated WebQuest development and blended learning process helped participants on building their pedagogical content knowledge, technological content knowledge, and technological pedagogical knowledge. Based upon their experiences, on the subscales of PCK (item 18), TCK (item 19), and TPK (items 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24), respondents overwhelmingly agreed/strongly agreed on all of items: item 18 “know how to select effective teaching approaches to guide student thinking and learning in my content area” (M = 4.50, SD = 0.66), item 19 “know about technologies that I can use for understanding and doing my content” (M = 4.75, SD = 0.44), item 20 “can choose technologies that enhance the teaching approaches for a lesson” (M = 4.83, SD = 0.38), item 21 “can choose technologies that enhance students’ learning for a lesson” (M = 4.78, SD = 0.42), item 22 “think more deeply about how technology could influence the teaching approaches use in my classroom” (M = 4.83, SD = 0.38), item 23 “think critically about how to use technology in my classroom” (M = 4.75, SD = 0.53), and item 24 “can adapt the use of the technologies that I am learning about to different teaching activities” (M = 4.70, SD = 0.56). 5.3 Technology Pedagogy and Content Knowledge Finally, participants indicated that the approach which incorporated WebQuest development and blended learning process helped them greatly to capture the essential knowledge required by teachers for technology integration in their teaching. Based upon their experiences, on the TPACK subscales, respondents overwhelmingly agreed/strongly agreed on all of items: item 25 “can teach lessons that appropriately combine my content, technologies and teaching approaches” (M = 4.79, SD = 0.41), item 26 “can select technologies to use in my classroom that enhance what I teach, how I teach and what students learn” (M = 4.74, SD = 0.54), item 27 “use strategies that combine content, technologies and teaching approaches that I learned about in my coursework in my classroom” (M = 4.75, SD = 0.53), item 28 “can provide leadership in helping others to coordinate the use of content, technologies and teaching approaches at my school and/or district” (M = 4.63, SD = 0.77), and item 29 “can choose technologies that enhance the content for a lesson” (M = 4.83, SD = 0.48).

6 Conclusion The findings of this study lead to several conclusions about building teachers’ TPACK for educational technology courses. This study yields results consistent with previous research related to technology integration, project-based learning activities, and blended learning. Instructors of blended/hybrid courses can build up pre- and inservice teachers’ TPACK through implementing consecutive segments in F2F and

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CML environments: (1) scaffolding; (2) self-directed learning; (3) formative assessment and transaction; (4) reinforcement; and (5) presentation and reflection. This study also indicates that in order to build a stronger teachers’ TPACK through educational technology courses, project-based learning activities, such as WebQuest development which has an enormous capacity of teaching with technology, should be considered and implemented. The effectiveness of the instructional approach on TPACK among pre- and inservice teachers, which incorporates project-based learning activities such as WebQuest development and blended learning process, has been confirmed in this study. It is interesting to note that while the rest of the items in TKTT survey received very high means of rating, items 16 and 17 (“be familiar with common student understandings and misconceptions” and “know how to organize and maintain classroom management”) received relatively low means from participants. Perhaps participants need to apply their developed learning activities and projects into the real-world teaching and learning in order to perceive such pedagogy knowledge. In this particular case, this study suggests that instructors should make efforts to encourage pre- and in-service teachers to implement WebQuests which they have designed and developed, into their professional practices. As Koehler and Mishra stated, “effective technology integration for pedagogy around specific subject matter requires developing sensitivity to the dynamic, [transactional] relationship between all three components” [6]. One study focusing on one approach can not completely capture the dynamics that happen within teachers’ TPACK development. In that sense, this study suggests more teaching models and instruction techniques to be investigated for further research.

References 1. Cuban, L.: Oversold and Underused: Computer in the Classroom. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (2001) 2. Pflaum, W.: The Technology Fix. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria (2004) 3. Hofer, M., Swan, K.O.: Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Action: A Case Study of a Middle School Digital Documentary Project. J. Research on Technology in Education 41, 179–200 (2008/2009) 4. Yang, H., Shindler, J., Keen, A.: Minds On, Hands On: The Linear-Nonlinear ProblemSolving Approach to a Multimedia and Internet Course. In: Willis, D., et al. (eds.) Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2000, pp. 738–743. AACE, Chesapeake (2000) 5. Cooper, P.A., Hirtle, J.S.: A Constructivist Approach to Technology Literacy for Preservice Teachers. In: Proceedings of SITE, San Antonio (1999) 6. TPCK – Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge, http://www.tpck.org/ 7. Wheatley, G.: Constructivist Perspectives on Science and Mathematics Learning. Science Education 75, 9–21 (1991) 8. Grabe, M., Grabe, C.: Integrating Technology for Meaningful Learning, 5th edn. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston (2007) 9. Creating a WebQuest: It’s Easier than You Think, http://www.educationworld.com/a_tech/tech/tech011.shtml

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10. Dodge, B.: Some Thoughts About WebQuests, http://webquest.sdsu.edu/about_webquests.html 11. Watson, K.L.: WebQuests in the Middle School Curriculum: Promoting Technological Literacy in the Classroom. Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies J, 2 (1999), http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/jul99/webquest/index.html 12. Beane, J.A.: Curriculum Integration Designing the Core of Democratic Education. Teachers College Press, New York (1997) 13. Yang, H., Pun, S.W.: Beliefs and Concept Mapping on WebQuest Development. In: Kidd, T., Song, H. (eds.) Handbook of Research on Instructional System & Technology, pp. 272–286. Idea Globe, Hershey (2007) 14. Mishra, P., Koehler, M.J.: Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A New Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Teachers College Record 108(6), 1017–1054 (2006) 15. Graham, C.R.: The Blended Learning Systems: Definition, Current Trends, and Future Directions. In: Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R. (eds.) Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local designs. Pfeiffer Publishing, San Francisco (2005) 16. Young, J.R.: “Hybrid” Teaching Seeks to End the Divide between Traditional and Online Instruction. Chronicle of Higher Education A33 (March 22, 2002) 17. Rooney, J.E.: Blending Learning Opportunities to Enhance Educational Programming and Meetings. Association Management 55(5), 26–32 (2003) 18. Yang, H., Yuen, S.C.-Y.: Collective Intelligence and E-Learning 2.0: Implications of WebBased Communities and Networking. IGI Global, Hershey (2009) 19. Abdullah, M.H.: Self-Directed Learning, http://www.indiana.edu/~reading/ieo/digests/d169.html 20. Bolhuis, S.: Towards Active and Selfdirected Learning. Preparing for Lifelong Learning, with Reference to Dutch Secondary Education. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York (1996) 21. Temple, C., Rodero, M.L.: Active Learning in a Democratic Classroom: The Pedagogical Invariants of Celestin Freinet (Reading around the World). Reading Teacher, pp. 164–167 (1995) 22. Garrison, D.R.: Self-Directed Learning: Toward a Comprehensive Model. Adult Education Quarterly 48(1), 18–33 (1997) 23. Hunt Jr., Lyman, C.: The Effect of Self-Selection, Interest, and Motivation upon Independent, Instructional, and Frustrational Levels. Reading Teacher 50(4), 278–282 (1997) 24. Taylor, B.: Self-Directed Learning: Revisiting an Idea Most Appropriate for Middle School Students. Paper Presented at the Combined Meeting of the Great Lakes and Southeast International Reading Association, Nashville (1995) 25. Guthrie, J.T., Solomon, A., Rinehart, J.M.: Engagement in Reading for Young Adolescents. J. of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 40(6), 438–446 (1997) 26. Barron, B.J.S., Schwartz, D.L., Vye, N.J., Moore, A., Petrosino, A., Zech, L., Bransford, J.D.: The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt: Doing with Understanding: Lessons from Research on Problem- and Project-Based Learning. J. of the Learning Sciences 7(3&4), 271–311 (1998) 27. Yang, H.: Mission Possible: Project-Based Learning Preparing Graduate Students for Technology. In: Price, J., et al. (eds.) Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2001, pp. 2855–2857. AACE, Chesapeake (2001) 28. Schmidt, D.A., Baran, E., Thompson, A.D., Koehler, M.J., Mishra, P., Shin, T.: Survey of Preservice Teachers’ Knowledge of Teaching and Technology, http://mkoehler.educ.msu.edu/unprotected_readings/ TPACK_Survey/Schmidt_et_al_Survey_v1.pdf

Hybrid Learning: “Neither Fish Nor Fowl” or “The Golden Mean” Andreas Henrich and Stefanie Sieber University of Bamberg, D-96047 Bamberg, Germany {andreas.henrich,stefanie.sieber}@uni-bamberg.de www.uni-bamberg.de/minf/

Abstract. Traditionalists will argue that conventional classroom lectures have been and always will be the most eﬀective form of teaching. In contrast, people focusing on progress will put pure e-teaching on a pedestal. Confronted with these two extremes, a natural reﬂex is to search for a compromise. Hybrid learning could be such a compromise. However, the important question is whether this is only a compromise for the anxious, an interim arrangement on the transition to pure e-teaching, or the best conceivable solution, that is meant to stay. In the present paper we are giving evidence for the latter position based on practitioners’ experiences of more than ten years of technology enhanced teaching. We address the need for university wide learning management systems and advocate simple, cost-eﬀective, and sustainable solutions not asking too much from lecturers, but—nevertheless—causing a signiﬁcant added value for the students.

1

Motivation

Buzzwords are a problem in computer science—and of course in other ﬁelds as well. Usually, many promises are associated with buzzwords and, unfortunately, very often only a few of them are kept. E-learning is one of the current buzzwords in computer science and even some other domains. E-learning was promised and expected to allow for an individual learning style and learning speed. It was also introduced as overcoming the need for lecturers and students to meet at a given time in a given place. Moreover, it was also seen as remedy for more eﬃcient teaching at one and the same time reducing the costs. Of course, none of these promises is completely wrong, but at least each of them brings along a lot of preconditions to be met. To show that there is no such thing as a free lunch we would like to go back to the early 1980s when the ﬁrst author studied information systems. Programming assignments had to be prepared in card puncher pools with 10-15 card punchers in a small room. There were only very few card punchers for a lot of students. Therefore a reservation for a short time slot had to be made days in advance. Although this was annoying, the situation also had positive side eﬀects. The maybe most important one—with respect to this paper—is, that all the time there were many people together in these card puncher rooms working on similar P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 82–93, 2010. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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tasks. Whenever a student had a problem, he or she was able to easily ask the students sitting next to him for help. This fostered a very communicative learning style. Therefore, in situations where a student was stuck in his working progress due to a minor mistake help was usually just one desk away. Obviously, personal computers—becoming a commodity—at ﬁrst glance seemed to be a big gain in convenience to the students. However, now every student was sitting at home alone and immediate help was hard to ﬁnd. Interestingly, there are now two developments promising to combine the advantages of both scenarios. The ﬁrst step is the availability of cheap and lightweight netbooks and laptops with comparatively long battery life. Now one can see students, sitting together in small groups in the university, solving their programming tasks or other exercises. Although this is a positive development, it brings with it another problem that remains to be solved: the availability of software for these student-owned portable computers. At least for special software, the license conditions of the software vendors hardly allow for an aﬀordable availability on student-owned computers. The second development are instant messaging tools and social networks which allow to collaboratively solve problems without the necessity to meet physically. However, this is just a beginning. What is missing in most cases is an easy and secure possibility for desktop sharing, at best integrated into these tools. The main message so far is that technological progress alone does not help or improve an existing situation a lot. It is very important to envisage all implications arising from the use of a technology with respect to the learning situation. An elaborated combination of technologies—considering the situation of lecturers and students—is needed to assure the success of hybrid learning. In the following, section 2 will advocate the straightforward use of a university wide learning management system (LMS), also called course management system (CMS), learning content management system (LCMS), or virtual learning environment (VLE). We will argue for a low-threshold approach appealing for all lecturers and—as a consequence—employed all over the university. More advanced forms of hybrid learning eﬀorts which can thrive on this ground will be discussed in section 3. Finally, section 4 complements hybrid learning with new participants and sketches a project aiming at the easy incorporation of practitioners and industrial partners into teaching activities using LMS. Section 5 concludes the paper and points out future directions.

2

Compulsory: Enabling Hybrid Learning by Using a Learning Management System

The idea of supporting teaching with digital supplements is not new. In the 1990s, the ﬁrst colleagues started providing their course materials and supplements in digital form throughout the internet. Roughly spoken, the following years were characterized by three groups of lecturers: 1. Colleagues, maintaining the teaching approach of the previous years, who did not provide any supplementary material in digital form. They simply

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continued to provide folders containing master copies of slides or scripts available in the secretary’s oﬃce. 2. Colleagues providing supplementary material in digital form using some type of web site—personal or oﬃcial. These websites where often only accessible for a group of people, protected by .htaccess ﬁles. 3. The maybe most important group: Ambitious colleagues who developed their own e-learning system to use the new media in a more elaborate way. Over the time, this variety and heterogeneity brought with it some problems for the students. They had to manage various user names and passwords, and were faced with diﬀerent user interfaces and functionalities. Fortunately, in recent years, a market adjustment took place. Out of thousands of more or less ambitious individual projects—motivated by the lack of convincing oﬀ the shelf solutions—a small number of systems, which are now stable and powerful, arose. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that all of these early projects contributed to today’s LMS. The few commonly accepted systems today would not have been possible without this grassroots process. 2.1

The Need for a University Wide Learning Management System

What has become obvious during the last decade of research and teaching is the need for technology enhanced learning. Since LMS—or the wide group of LMS, CMS, LCMS, and VLEs—have proven to be successful in lots of diﬀerent scenarios and settings, it is a tenable statement to claim LMS as enabling technology for learning nowadays. Obviously, this claim leads to the necessity of providing supplementary material and communication means via a LMS to students for every teaching unit. Looking at the requirements and demands arising when hosting, maintaining, and supporting a LMS, it is apparently not possible to do so for every teaching unit on its own and—regarding costs—not very eﬀective. Therefore, it is our ﬁrm conviction that it is one of a university’s duties nowadays to provide a university wide LMS as part of the IT infrastructure. Nevertheless, it is also crucial to give the lecturers the free choice on how to integrate this opportunity into their teaching concept. Yet, there is work to be done. The main challenge today is to convince—nearly all—colleagues (1) to put their hybrid learning content and (2) also expend their eﬀorts into a uniﬁed, university wide system which is centrally administered, has a high availability and oﬀers the students access to all digital learning assets through one portal in a single sign-on manner. 2.2

Retrospect: Introducing a LMS at University of Bamberg

At the University of Bamberg a major relaunch of the university’s website in 2006 brought with it a great chance [1]. The previous website—which was simple and manually created and administrated—was replaced by a new website based on the content management system TYPO31 . Shortly before launching the new 1

TYPO3 — http://typo3.org/, last visited February 19, 2010

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website, we noticed that there would be the need for password protected areas in the new web presence very soon, because in the old website many colleagues used areas protected by .htaccess ﬁles to provide supplementary material for their lectures in digital form. In a meeting—scheduled at short notice—it was decided that, from now on, general information on the university and its institutions should be clearly separated from content directly related to a particular course. Teaching material should not be included in the new website but in a specialized course management system. Unfortunately, the new website was scheduled to be relaunched soon. Hence, a good solution for a course management system was needed urgently and, to be honest, no time for a profound project with a comprehensive requirements analysis was left. For that reasons, it was decided to extend a moodle system2 , that was running at a single teaching unit since two years. This proceeding automatically led on to a bottom-up approach instead of an imposed top-down order. Nevertheless, this course of action has proven to be successful. During a very short period of time, roughly one year later, about 75% of the teaching units at the University of Bamberg were using the system— more or less intense. Figure 1 gives an impression of the system today, which is four years later. Please note that the statistics on the right side point out that the moodle system had 2,850 (resp. 6,600) distinct active users during the last 24 hours (resp. week) at a university with about 9,000 enrolled students. Looking back with today’s perspective, there were at least the following crucial factors, inﬂuencing the success of this solution: – Due to the change in the university’s website, the colleagues previously using their website to provide teaching resources had to change their habits anyway. Also, it was much easier to move the content to moodle than to move it TYPO3. – Some colleagues who maintained their individual e-learning solutions beforehand had already noticed that the maintenance eﬀort for an individual solution increases over time. For these colleagues the new system was a nice opportunity to reduce their eﬀort—especially in cases where the research focus had already stirred in other directions. – After a short period of time students started asking lecturers to provide material in the moodle system, and the colleagues willing to try noted that it was easy to use. – Another important aspect might have been that the system was labelled Virtual Campus and not particularly established as an e-learning platform. From the beginning on, the system was promoted as low-threshold opportunity. The potential users were not discouraged by pretentious e-learning plans and scenarios. Instead, the system was introduced as a platform to provide PDF ﬁles and links to students. Forums were seen as a nice add-on—and of course, there were further functionalities which were nice opportunities for the future but did not bother the occasional user. 2

Moodle — http://moodle.org/, last visited February 19, 2010

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Fig. 1. Virtual Campus of the University of Bamberg (http://vc.uni-bamberg.de/): Moodle in action or—from another point of view—yet another moodle system

To sum up, it turned out that the introduction of a university wide LMS was appreciated by lectures and students. Among others, this has been proven by oﬃcial, Germany-wide evaluations that are accomplished by the independent Centre for Higher Education Development (CHE)3 every year. The CHE prepares independent rankings of universities by conducting comprehensive surveys among students—including a rating of the e-learning oﬀer available at a university. This year’s evaluations involved six diﬀerent study paths at the University of Bamberg—all of them from the group of humanities, psychology and pedagogics. Three out of six rankings rated our e-learning oﬀer as being in the leading group, the other three conﬁrmed the oﬀer as being in the midﬁeld. These are very pleasant and convincing results, considering that the usage of our Virtual Campus in departments belonging to these groups is very often still at a basic level. Students obviously appreciate the broad and consistent provision of supplementary material and communication means via a uniﬁed LMS. Meanwhile, the system is used for other purposes such as committee work, bulletin board for job oﬀers, or internal knowledge management as well. Even if today’s usage patterns show that the system is mainly used for resource provision 3

Centre for Higher Education Development (CHE) — http://www.che-concept.de/ cms/?getObject=302\&getLang=en

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Table 1. Most frequently used activities (based on the analysis of 5,780 courses) Activity No. of uses Avg. no. of uses per course Forum 7,900 1.367 Assignment 1,135 0.196 Database 539 0.093 Choice 479 0.083 Wiki 346 0.060 Quiz 300 0.052 Glossary 59 0.010 Chat 52 0.009 Questionnaire 47 0.008 Lightbox Gallery 36 0.006

and forum discussions, the system can be seen as an enabling platform for the whole spectrum of hybrid learning and even pure e-learning. To illustrate the use of the system, some statistics are presented in ﬁgure 2 and table 1. In order to interpret these statistics, please keep in mind that the University of Bamberg has about 9,000 enrolled students and about 130 professors. 1,465 courses in the LMS are explicitly assigned to the winter semester 2009/10. 2.3

A Short Guideline: Steps to Introduce a University Wide LMS

Learning from our experiences and looking at related and similar projects, we propose a clear two step strategy when introducing a university wide learning management system. In order to do so, we would like to refer to the continuum of blended learning as deﬁned by Norah Jones [2] and shown in Figure 3. 1. In the ﬁrst phase the main issue should be to convince as many colleagues as possible to simply use the system to whatever extent. Here, the voluntary

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Fig. 3. Continuum of Blended Learning [2]—http://celt.glam.ac.uk/ Enhancing-Learning-Teaching/Technology-Enhanced-Learning

and ﬂexible character of the system is indispensable to foster usage and utilisation. No one should be forced to use the system. It has to be an easy to use system everyone is able to try out. Of course, there should be a centralized support infrastructure such as short online instructions, video tutorials, a support forum, a hotline, face to face introductory courses etc. And—most important—the support should, at this stage, primarily support the simple use of the system which corresponds to blended or hybrid learning in the left part of the continuum of blended learning. 2. The second step can be taken if the system is commonly accepted and a considerable proportion of colleagues is using the system, an additional focus now can be on advanced concepts of hybrid learning using the LMS. It is not until this point in time that hybrid learning on the more right part of the continuum of blended learning should be pushed. Again, appropriate support is crucial for a successful progress. Before doing this step, support needs to be taken to the next level. New trainings introducing more advanced features of the LMS and possible concepts for hybrid learning need to be designed as well as promoted throughout the university. Also, fostering an exchange of best practices among diﬀerent teaching units of the university can be helpful.

3

Voluntary: Augment Your Teaching

Obviously, the use of a university wide LMS allows for a wide variety of hybrid learning scenarios. A basic scenario—building on a traditional face-to-face lecture—includes at least the provision of digital content and, in our opinion, the establishment of a digital communication channel. According to our experience, the provision of slides or scripts as PDF ﬁles and the utilisation of forums for communication forms a valuable foundation. It turned out that, since the provision of content is maybe the most important aspect, this is not as trivial as it might seem. It is not that natural and easy to provide a “good” PDF ﬁle with a reasonable ratio of ﬁle size and presentation quality. Therefore, it is a good idea to include instructions for this aspect into the basic support oﬀers of the university wide LMS. However, moving on to the proposed second phase of introducing a LMS, there has to be more. If a lecturer is willing to go beyond this level diﬀerent opportunities arise for the provision of content. Built-in content formats of the

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LMS, such as a Book or a Lesson in moodle, or alternative external tools can be used to prepare the content units and integrate them into the LMS. Before making this decision, three important aspects have to be considered: 1. First of all, it is important to consider which type of hybrid learning scenario is aspired. If pure e-learning scenarios—which are according to the continuum of blended learning also part of hybrid learning—have to be supported, the whole content has to be prepared in an appropriate way. If only selected aspects should be augmented, target-oriented additional digital resources— such as specialized applets—might be appropriate. 2. Secondly, there are topics with diﬀerent half-life periods in teaching. Some basic principles in a ﬁeld can be stable over ten or more years. If such content has to be prepared in digitalized form and there is also a huge target group, the preparation of well designed interactive multimedia presentations can be reasonable. In contrast, for more unstable ﬁelds—where the typical content of a lecture might change almost every year—a more rapid approach is need. In this case lecture recordings—as discussed in more detail in the following— might be a good solution. 3. Last but not least, the content presentation has to be in accordance with the teaching style of the lecturer—and the content to be presented. While some lecturers might prefer well elaborated and precise text forms, others might be more comfortable with a more personal, interactive, and emotional presentation style. In summary, there is no single content preparation method which ﬁts all needs. In [3,4] we have, for example, discussed the usefulness of diﬀerent digital content presentation formats for various aspects of the ﬁeld of information retrieval. To show that the extension of classical teaching scenarios does not necessarily require a lot of time and eﬀort, the present paper concentrates on our current favourite for many situations—lecture recordings. Lecture recordings can be assigned to the group of rapid e-learning approaches [5] and oﬀer an excellent beneﬁt-cost ratio in many situations. 3.1

Best Practice: Lecture Recordings

In our experience, this rapid e-learning approach gives a good compromise between creation eﬀort and presentation quality. The combination of a traditional lecture supplemented with slides—which is the only precondition to be met—and the easy creation of blended learning or pure e-learning content makes this approach attractive. Furthermore, universities are facing the need to deal with diﬀerent target groups and a huge variety of personal living situations. For that reason it gets more and more important that we are able to support a broad spectrum of learning models respecting the individual situation of our students.

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There are various tools to record slide-based presentations on the ﬂy. To give some examples, Camtasia4, Lecturnity5 , or Acrobat Connect Pro6 are familiar representatives. The focus of these tools stretches from screen grabbing through more elaborated lecture recordings to collaborative work. An elaborate presentation and discussion of thoughts on lecture recordings can be found in [3]. To include the most important aspects, three main issues are now brieﬂy discussed. Please note that some of the following remarks are system-speciﬁc and—since we decided to use Lecturnity—at that point only tenable for Lecturnity. Requirements to run the system. Lecture recording software can be used oﬀ the shelf. Even more important, no speciﬁc—and therefore expensive— recording equipment is needed. A tablet PC (or a notebook with an attached pen tablet) connected to a projector is needed to present the slides. An ordinary web camera can be used to record video and audio streams. The result of a recording. The recording software combines slides, comments, and the corresponding video recording to a single ﬁle. The standard result is a proprietary format which can be viewed with a free player. Exports to other standard formats exist as well. Viewing the recording, a split screen is shown. This way the actual slide, the corresponding video recording and additional components to allow navigation within the recording are available all at once, as shown in ﬁgure 4. After all, the ﬁle size of a recording for a 90 minutes lecture is about 200 MB with reasonable parameter settings. Usage of Lecture Recordings. In summary, lecture recordings can be used in two diﬀerent settings. Of course, recordings can be employed in typical hybrid learning scenarios and provided in addition to classical lectures. That way the typical classroom setting remains unchanged but the whole learning scenario is extended. In addition the students can use the recordings to strengthen the content of the lecture or to prepare for the exam. Secondly, lecture recordings are also a valuable basis for pure e-learning oﬀers such as in further education programs. The recordings are then supplemented with a support concept mainly based on an intense use of forums. Evaluations have shown that these students are very pleased with this form of e-learning because the recordings mediate real “university feeling”. However, it also turned out that recordings taken without any audience are not as precise, interactive and vivid.

4

One Step Ahead: Integrating External Partners

The previous considerations (cf. section 2) have pointed out that a university wide LMS is an enabling infrastructure for hybrid learning. Currently, the communication between teachers and students as well as the communication among 4 5 6

TechSmith Camtasia Studio — http://www.techsmith.de/camtasia.asp (visited May, 21st 2010) imc Lecturnity — http://www.lecturnity.com/en/com/ (vvisited May, 21st 2010) Adobe Acrobat Connect Professional (formerly Macromedia Breeze) — http://www. adobe.com/uk/products/acrobatconnectpro/elearning/ (visited May, 21st 2010)

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Fig. 4. Lecture recordings: an easy way to digital learning content

students themselves is in the main focus of those LMS. In this section we want to give an outlook on potential future enhancements by describing a project on how to integrate external partners into the teaching and learning process. The ESF-funded7 project LMS4KMU 8 investigates if, how, and to which extent LMS can be used as an enabling technology to involve companies into academic teaching. Personally, we are convinced that LMS can be an enabling technology for knowledge transfer between universities and companies as well. The need for knowledge transfer and co-operations is well-known and accepted on both sides. Even though a lot of eﬀort has already been invested to intensify co-operations and knowledge transfer between universities and companies, the potential is not fully exploited by now. On the one hand, companies often simply do not know (1) which topics are researched and taught at universities, and (2) the opportunities to integrate real-life business problems into the process of teaching and learning. On the other hand, lecturers at universities—willing to co-operate with partners to increase real-life focus of their research and teaching as well as to provide business contact to their students—face the problem to ﬁnd companies with a matching proﬁle. Our project focuses on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) as they often lack the possibilities to accomplish professional training for their employees. Furthermore, taking part gives 7 8

European Social Fund — http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/esf/index_ en.htm (last visited May, 21st 2010) LMS4KMU — http://tinyurl.com/LMS4KMU (last visited May, 21st 2010)

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companies the opportunity to get to know future university alumni and also to present themselves as potential employers. LMS are used widely for sharing and transferring knowledge within one organization—the university in our case. Whereas using LMS for knowledge transfer, communication, and team work among universities or universities and companies is not usual at all. However, established LMS oﬀer interesting opportunities in this context. Companies, interested in co-operating can apply to access the LMS and choose from courses that are opened for SMEs. Figure 5 depicts the aspired future use of LMS researched and fostered within the project LMS4KMU. As a ﬁrst step, we developed a platform helping to provide information about possible co-operation partners, available topics, people, and possibilities on the “other side”. Moreover, diﬀerent kinds of co-operation models are currently developed. Summarizing, the possible scenarios are dependent on the course of a lecturer, the amount of time and eﬀort each party is willing to spend, and the choice of an active or passive role for the company. Typically, a co-operation will start with one of the less intense forms and maybe evolve in the course of time. Since there are a lot of inﬂuencing factors in this overall process, it is certainly necessary to mention and consider some critical success factors in this context: matching partners with common interests/topics, minimizing the initial eﬀort to use the platform, legal aspects, costs, and incentives for joining the project. Of course, opening a course in a LMS for company representatives will be an

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exception and only applicable in particular cases. However, for these special courses and lecturers, it is a nice opportunity that beneﬁts all parties involved.

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Conclusion and Outlook

The present paper has depicted that university wide LMS are an important enabling technology. Nowadays, they are an indispensable part of each university’s infrastructure. Speaking about learning content to be transferred to the “world of hybrid learning” and its creation, an interesting and cost-eﬀective solution for digital content provision are lecture recording systems. That way students can be provided with content, ﬂexible for diﬀerent usage opportunities and therefore adaptable to their individual situation. Finally, taking a step ahead, we sketched our project LMS4KMU which tries to foster the integration of external partners into a LMS to beneﬁt teaching and learning with all its participants. All these aspects demonstrate that hybrid learning comes in various forms— each of them suitable and useful for a particular purpose. It is not possible to make a judgement or recommendation for the best form of hybrid learning. Each, ideal form and ideal usage depend on the individuals involved, on the course topic, and on various other factors. That is why we, personally, prefer teaching and hybrid learning arrangements providing students with the freedom to arrange their learning process according to their personal learning style and their individual needs. Still, some students rely on traditional lectures and use additional material for reinforcement. Whereas others appreciate the independence of time and place and prefer selfstudy arrangements. Mature hybrid learning supports all these learning styles without huge additional eﬀort for the lecturer. Having said this, we regard hybrid learning as “the golden mean” and a big window of opportunities for everybody.

References 1. Henrich, A., Wolf, S.U.: Virtual campus of the university of bamberg: a comprehensive e-learning system based on moodle. In: Proceedings of the 4. Workshop on e-Learning (WEL 2006), HTWK Leipzig, Fachbereich Informatik, Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften (July 2006) (in German) 2. Jones, N.: E-college Wales, a case study of blended learning. In: The Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs, pp. 182–194. Pfeiﬀer, San Francisco (2006) 3. Henrich, A., Sieber, S.: Blended learning and pure e-learning concepts for information retrieval: experiences and future directions. Inf. Retr. 12(2), 117–147 (2009) 4. Henrich, A., Sieber, S.: Concepts of blended learning for diﬀerent content types. In: Fong, J., Wang, F.L. (eds.) Workshop on Blended Learning 2007, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, pp. 150–161. Pearson Prentice Hall, London (August 2007) 5. Ottmann, T., Trahasch, S., Lauer, T.: Systems support for virtualizing traditional courses in science and engineering. In: Davies, G., Stacey, E. (eds.) Quality Education @ a Distance, Boston, pp. 73–82. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (2003)

Techniques for Enhancing Hybrid Learning of Physical Education Ya-jun Pang Department of Physical Education,Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology, Henan Province, P.R.China, 471023 [email protected]

Abstract. Hybrid learning is becoming one of the important applications by integrating e-learning and traditional face-to-face instruction together. The paper presents the architecture of PEHLP which can create an environment where the hybrid learning of physical education can be accomplished eﬃciently using the national elaborate physical education course resources. To integrate the heterogeneous learning resource of diﬀerent education platforms, the learning course is logically divided into the present part and the content part and the Smart Deliverer is devised. To realize the visibly communication and intercourse during the hybrid learning process, the Video-editor is proposed. Adopting the Video-editor, the teacher can review students’ action video and makes comments on the action which is wrong, and the student can ﬁnd out the mistakes from his/her action video. To promote the review functioning, the algorithm for key frame extraction is proposed and the results show the algorithm is eﬃcient. Keywords: Hybrid learning, physical education, smart deliverer, video editor, key frame extraction, heterogeneous information.

1

Introduction

Hybrid learning is not a new concept, but, as an eﬀective instructional method, hybrid learning is increasingly popular throughout the world over the past couples of years [1]. Hybrid learning focuses on Face-to-Face (F2F) instructions combining with e-learning, so it comprises more elements that have advantages over the traditional F2F teaching mode and e-learning. Physical education plays a very important role in Program of Education for All-around Development in China. Although hybrid learning has been well studied in other disciplines, as far as the hybrid learning of physical education is concerned, the practice is scarce. Nowadays, however, most universities adopt the traditional F2F instruction in China. The main reason is that physical education course focuses on the teacher’s standard demonstration action and the students’ self-practice or self-experience. And the F2F instruction is convenient

This work is sponsored by the Youth Foundation (2009QR26) and Educational Innovation Foundation (09-JY019) of Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 94–105, 2010. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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for both teachers and students to interact and thus can promote the process of learning and teaching. But we can not ignore the disadvantages of the traditional instructional mode of physical education, such as: – Course time is too little. Generally speaking, the physical education course is once a week in universities in China, lasting 110 minutes. Since the course time is little, teachers usually lay much emphases on sports tactics and skills, with few contents related with sports theory and health care. According to [2], 69.5% of students think that the course time is too little and 37.4% of students think that the traditional F2F instruction fails to meet their requirements. – Learning is limited by time and space. In the F2F instruction context, the learning can be carried out in classroom, while the learning would not be guided out of class. With the development of information and communication technology (ICT), there are a lot of textual and multimedia documents in the internet, but it takes more time ang energies for the students to get the appropriate information. The disadvantages of traditional F2F instruction mode can be complemented by e-learning of physical education, where the teaching and learning is carried out through the ICT. In the e-learning context, the teaching and learning can be synchronous or asynchronous, so the physical education can be extended from the traditional class to the virtual class. In the 1980s, the e-learning of physical education was implemented in the Queensland University of Australia and Stanford University of USA. Today, the e-learning of physical education becomes heavily learner-centered. As one kind of strategic measure for educational innovation and application of e-learning in the higher education, the NPWDEC (National Program of Web-Delivery for Elaborate Courses) was promulgated by the China’s Ministry of Education in 2004, which asked the university to publish all national elaborate course materials on the website and make them free and sharing [3]. The core of NPWDEC is to promote quality education and have students get the best education. Up to September 2009, 2208 national elaborate courses were evaluated and published including 31 physical education courses (http://www.jingpinke.com). But some educationists argue about that there are signiﬁcant diﬀerences between the physical education course and the content-delivery-focus courses, which is delivered and acquired by reading and writing, for example, language learning, mathematic learning. The physical education is one special course delivered by the students’ self-practice and the teacher’s directions. The common scenario of physical education course in China’s university is: ﬁrstly, the teacher presents standard demonstration actions; secondly, the teacher shows decomposed actions and explains main instructions of each decomposed actions; and then the teacher repeats standard demonstration actions; ﬁnally, the student practices by himself/herself following teachers’ instructions or separately acting with the teacher’s or classmates’ help. During the last process, the teacher’s main duty is to ﬁnd out students’ mistakes or non-standard actions and then to put forward improved instructions. In this education context, the cooperation

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and F2F intercourse between teachers and students take very important role. From this point, some educationists argue that the e-learning instruction mode is not feasible for the physical education. As both the traditional F2F learning and the web-based learning oﬀer strengths and suﬀer from limitations, it is now a trend for F2F instruction to combine the strengths of the two into hybrid learning [4]. Hybrid learning was well practiced in many China’s universities and lots of experiences have been acquired [5,6,7]. For the reasons above, experiences and frameworks, including computer-based educational platforms, would not be directly adopted by physical education course. Research on hybrid learning of physical education in Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology has been carried out since 2008. The aim of the project is to provide an eﬀective physical education instruction mode through using national elaborate course resource and to promote the learning eﬀect of physical education. And the PEHLP (Physical Education Hybrid Learning Platform with video editor) was constructed to accomplish the hybrid learning of physical education. In this paper, we focus on the two core techniques of PEHLP, that is, the Video-editor and the Smart Deliverer. The former helps the PEHLP to provide a visible and convenient communication tool, which can provide the virtual learning and teaching context something like the traditional classroom. Adopting the Video-editor, the teacher can review students’ actions video and give comments in video, so that the hybrid physical education course can be synchronous or asynchronous. And the Smart Deliver is a system with a set of agents, which responses to gripping and transmitting learning resources of the national elaborate physical education course to the PEHLP.

2

Description of Physical Education Hybrid Learning Platform

As one kind of strategic measure for educational innovation, the all-around physical education learning modal is proposed by our research (refer to Figure 1). In the proposed modal, the physical education learning is composed of physical education class room, outside physical education and campus culture of physical education, which extends the traditional classrooms. Due to space and purpose limited, the detail of these three components will not be illustrated in this paper. It is obvious, however, that the traditional F2F instruction mode is not feasible to the proposed learning model. In our research, the PEHLP was adopted to accomplish hybrid learning. The system architecture of PEHLP is composed of two main parts: the Physical Education Course Deliverer and the Dynamical Learning Space (refer to Figure 2). 2.1

Deliverer of Physical Education Course

As we have mentioned above, the education platform for national elaborate physical education course is a set of comprehensive e-learning system, which can supply learners with the excellent physical education class in China. One national

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Fig. 1. All-around Physical Education Learning Modal

elaborate physical education course is usually entailed by the famous physical education professors of the ﬁrst level university in China. Therefore, the national elaborate physical education course resource can not only provide students of the general universities with excellent physical education course but also can promote the learning eﬀect of physical education. The physical education course deliverer is a system composed of four main components (refer to Figure 2). They are – Theory Material Learning Space: providing primary theory knowledge of sports science and health care, such as anatomy, nutrition for exercise and sport, movement and physical, principles of exercise, sports science, and so on; – Courseware Warehouse: which is the library of lecture used by teacher in the classroom; – Multimedia Library: supplying students with video or audio documents which are live record of real classroom; and – Item Bank : evaluating students’ learning experience by himself/herself or by the teacher. The Smart Deliverer is adopted by the physical education course deliverer to reuse the national elaborate physical education course materials, a set of agents to accomplish information exchanging between the PEHLP and the education platforms for national elaborate physical education course. 2.2

Dynamical Learning Space

Physical education focuses on teacher’s standard demonstration action and students’ self-practice or self-experience so that the intercourse and cooperation takes very important role between the teacher and students or among students.

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Fig. 2. Architecture of Platform for Physical Education Hybrid Learning (PEHLP)

And its teaching eﬀect would not be evaluated just by item bank of education platform. Taking the defects of current physical education platform into account and to meet the requirements of the hybrid learning of physical education, the Dynamical Learning Space is proposed. The dynamical Learning Space is composed of video-editor and general communication tools (refer to Figure 2), which not only can accomplish smooth asynchronous or synchronous cooperation and intercourse between the teacher and students or among students but also can be used as an eﬀective tool to evaluate the teaching eﬀect. The general communication tools include BBS (bulletin board system), message board, immediate messenger, and so on. The general communication tools, however, can not aﬀord visibly guiding and coaching. To enhance the visible capacity of Dynamical Learning Space and to evaluate eﬃciently the hybrid learning eﬀect, a video-editor is adopted.

3 3.1

Framework of Smart Deliverer Purpose

The course content of PEHLP is gripped from the education platform for national elaborate physical education course on demand. For the following reasons we must design the Smart Deliverer: – Teachers need tailor the national elaborate physical education course according to their students level; – The content of the course is integrated with diﬀerent national elaborate physical education course resources;

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– The national elaborate course education resource is Open Educational Resource, so there is not mechanism to control the learners’ learning process, while the learning process of physical education in higher education should be controlled according to course plan by the teacher. Therefore, the control mechanism of learning process should be assembled into the deliverer of PEHLP; – The data structure of education resources of the education platform for national elaborate physical education course and PEHLP is heterogeneous. 3.2

Structure and Implementation

In project, we treat the data of course resource as a building block XML, which can be further combined to form a Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language (SMIL) document using the XSLT technique [8]. SMIL allows integrating a set of independent multimedia objects into a synchronized multimedia presentation. Using SMIL, the Smart Deliverer can: – Describe the temporal behavior of the presentation; – Describe the layout of the presentation on Course Presentation Engine; and – Associate hyper-links with media objects. By abstracting some of the details, the course resources are logically divided into two parts: the presentation part and the content part. In the presentation part, the type and position of content is speciﬁed in the SMIL ﬁle while in the content part we focus on producing content without bothering its presentation. The re-assemble process is accomplished by putting together the contents into predeﬁned templates. Once the content is completed, the course resources can be published to the web. In general, the work ﬂow of e-learning is loosed, that is, the learner can accomplish the physical education course according to his/her preference, while the e-learning should be under the control of teacher and course plan in the hybrid learning context. Therefore, the work ﬂow controller should be adopted to meet the hybrid learning requirements. Based on the above analysis, the data model of physical education course resources consists of three types of logical elements: (1) nodes represent the learning objects; (2) a set of directed edges is for learning sequence, named course plan; and (3) edges represent the pedagogical aspects. Base on the data model, the Smart Deliverer is divided into two parts: the Course Factory and the Course Presentation Engine (refer to Figure 3). The Course Factory is the Smart Deliver’s background section, whose main function is to catch content parts from the education platforms for national elaborate course through the internet or the local learning resources library, and then the information is reassembled by the Course Resources Re-assembler according to the course plan and the learner’s personal information. Since there are not national standards for Open Educational Resource Education Platform, the information of diﬀerent education platforms is heterogeneous. To smooth

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Fig. 3. Structure of Smart Deliverer

away heterogeneous information, web services mechanism is adopted. And the Course Presentation Engine is the Smart Deliver’s background section, whose main function is to present the course materials according to the deﬁnition in the presentation part. In this paper, the framework of the Smart Deliverer is: – The learner logs on PEHLP through register module’s identiﬁcation; – Learner’s learning history (including learning evaluation) and personal information are acquired from the Personal Proﬁle Center, called Lh1 ; – The Work Flow Controller tells the Course Resources Re-assembler which course resource should be fetched from the national elaborate course or local course resources library based on course plan and Lh1 ; – The Course Resources Re-assembler gets the course resources in XML format, integrates them into course web pages content and then commits them to the Course Presentation Engine; and – The Course Presentation Engine accomplishes the presentation of course resources; Adopting the Smart Deliverer, the course designers can focus on course planning, and personalization learning can be realized easily.

4 4.1

Video Editor Requirements

As far as physical education is concerned, the vision is very important during the learning process. The Video-editor should accomplish the visible interaction and

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cooperation, that is, the teacher can review the student’s actions video, pick out the wrong actions and add commentaries (the commentary can be text, image or audio). And then, the student can watch the reviewed video by the teacher to ﬁnd out mistakes and get instructions to revise his/her actions. To achieve this, the Video-editor should have not only video capturing and playing functions but non-linear editing function. 4.2

Design and Implementation

The Video-editor is composed of four modules (refer to Figure 4): – Web Capture Module: the user can record his/her learning practices (actions practices) and upload them to the education platform for national elaborate course through the Web Capture Module for the teacher or the participants reviewing later. – Video Editor Module: it is an interface, where the student or the teacher can review the captured video, which was commit by the student, and remark the wrong or non-standard actions information (text, audio or image) frame by frame. The main functions of the video editor module include video opening and browsing, graphic drawing (line, circle, sketch, text and etc.), video decomposition (to decompose the video into image frame by frame in order to review), video synthesis (to make the reviewed images into the reviewed video), and so on. – Video Player Module: it is an interface, where the reviewed video, which is supplied by the reviewer through the Video Editor Module, can be played or be located by review remark links. – Video Diagnosis Module (unimplemented in current version): to perform intelligent diagnosis based on the demonstrated actions database and remark the wrong or non-standard actions information. The demonstrated actions are supplied by the teacher. From the practices, we notice that it takes the reviewer many time to review the video frame by frame. As an assistant for the student or the teacher, we suggest that the PEHLP should be equipped

Fig. 4. Architecture of Video-editor

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with the Video Diagnosis Module in order to accomplish eﬃciently video review. Algorithm for Key Frame Extraction. The key problem of the Videoeditor is how to review one video segment and comment on it. In general, there are less than 25 frames for one second video segment. Taking the calisthenics term for example, one set of calisthenics actions video is for 4˜5 minutes. If the video is decomposed into images by frame, there will be less than 6000 frames. Reviewing these images and making comments will cost the teacher plenty of time and energy. In this paper, we adopt the algorithm for key frame extraction. To extract key frame, there have been many researches, for example Space-time Constraints [9], Curve Simpliﬁcation [10], Nearest Feature Line [11], and so on. In this paper, the motion of body is represented with the discrete-time vector function: m(t) = {t| [p(t), q1 (t), q2 (t), ..., qn (t)] , 1 ≤ t ≤ T } (1) Where, the p(t) is a vector which represents the plane movement of the root joint and the qi (t) is a vector which represents the rotation of the ith joint. Therefore, the m(ti ) and m(tj ) represent the ith and j th frame, and the diﬀerence between two frames is represented with the distance between the m(ti ) and m(tj ), that is: n D(t1 , t2 ) = m(t1 ) − m(t2 ) = d(qi (t1 ), qi (t2 )) (2) i=0

To illustrate the algorithm for key frame extraction, we deﬁne variables as following: – – – –

Ka : a dynamic array, to store the key frames extracted; last : to represent the latest frame extracted; T : the number of video frame; δ: the variable is threshold.

General speaking, in the local domain, the variation of frames is linear. If the distance between the latest frame and the current frame is greater than δ, we will think that the current frame is key frame and push it to Ka . When the algorithm ends, the elements in Ka are key extracted frames. Therefore, the algorithm in this paper is illustrated as: Step1. Put the ﬁrst frame into Ka , and let last = 1 and the counter variable t = 2; Step2. If t > T then the algorithm ends; otherwise calculate the distance by formation dist = D(t, last); Step3. If dist ≥ δ then push the t − th frame into Ka and let last = t; Step4. Let t = t + 1, go to step2; The Figure 5 (a) is one segment of 124-frame-video, and Figure 5 (b) are 3 key extracted frames in the proposed algorithm. In addition, the compressed ratio is 20%. The result demonstrates the proposed algorithm can decrease video signiﬁcantly.

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a)The original frames of video

b) The key extracted frames Fig. 5. Key Frame Extraction (δ = 4.0)

Implementation of Video-editor. We implement the Video-editor using C#, DirectX 9.0 and Silverlight. The work ﬂow of the Video-editor using PEHLP is: – The student submits the video captured through the Web Capture Module. – The teacher opens the video in the interface of the Video Editor Module and reviews it. The review work ﬂow is: (1) opening the video and extracting key frames; (2) adding commentary information (text, image or audio) in tools of the Video Editor Module; and (3) interpolating the commentary information according to key frames and forming reviewed video. – The student watches the reviewed video in the Video Player Module. The Video Player is equipped with the commentary location functioning, so the student can locate and watch the review information easily.

5

Conclusion and Future Works

The paper presents in detail the architecture of PEHLP (Physical Education Hybrid Learning Platform with video editor, PEHLP). The PEHLP can create an environment in which the hybrid learning of physical education can be accomplished eﬃciently using the national elaborate physical education course resources. By abstracting some of the details, the learning course is logically divided into two parts: the present part and the content part. And then the Smart Deliverer

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is devised, which can integrate the heterogeneous learning resource of diﬀerent education platforms. To realize the visibly communication and intercourse during the hybrid learning process, the Video-editor is proposed. Adopting the Video-editor, the teacher can review students’ actions video and make comments where the action is wrong, and the student can ﬁnd out the mistakes of his/her action video. To promote the review functioning, the algorithm for key frame extraction is proposed, the results show the algorithm is eﬃcient. Table 1. Indicators of Experiment N o.

Grade Group

2008 I 2007

2008 II 2007

Averaged M ark

N

P/S

T heory P hysical Skill Level Quality

Inno. Ability

Experimented Contrasted Experimented Contrasted

30 30 35 35

76.1 76.4 77.1 76.7

77.2 75.1 71.2 72.1

65.3 64.9 61.5 62.9

51.7 52.1 49.4 52.5

Experimented Contrasted Experimented Contrasted

30 30 35 35

87.8 78.1 88.5 75

79.4 77.5 83.2 63.7

80.5 65.4 87.4 64.5

86.7 60.6 87.3 63.3

1.0/0.01 1.0/0.01

0.36/0.64 0.55/0.44

Notes:(1) The N o. I and the N o. II represents pre− and post− experiment; (2) P/S is Pearson coeﬃcient and signiﬁcance of correlation coeﬃcient;(3)N is the number of students.

During the year 2009, the PEHLP is applied into the calisthenics course of Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology. The respondents consisted of 130 calisthenics students in Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology (refer to Table 1). They were divided into two groups: (1) experimented group whose students were instructed by the hybrid learning. (2) contrasted group whose students were instructed by the traditional F2F learning. All students have at least 3-year computer experiences. We invited specialists to evaluate the respondents by the physical quality (including power, speed, resistance, ﬂexible, etc.), the skill level, the calisthenics theory level and the innovation ability. The statistic results show there are no signiﬁcant diﬀerences between the students of experimented group and the contrasted group (Pearson coeﬃcient is 1.0 and signiﬁcance of correlation coeﬃcient 0.01≤0.05, refer to Table 1). After the experiment, we surveyed on all indicators. The research shows that 97% of students like calisthenics, 86.2% of them are eager to take part in calisthenics hybrid learning. From experimented results (Table 1), the Pearson signiﬁcance of correlation coeﬃcient is 0.64 and 0.44 is greater than 0.05. That is to say, there are diﬀerences between the students experimented group and contrasted group on test indicators. And we also notice that theory level, physical

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quality, skill, innovation ability of students has increased to 15.1%, 9.9%, 32.7% and 72.2%, especially skill and innovation ability (refer to Table 1).In contrast, indicator of students in contrasted group has increased to 0.01%, 2.0%, 1.7% and 18.4%. Therefore, that hybrid learning can promote physical education. Although the proposed algorithm for key frame extraction can promote review functioning, there are still lots of video segments to review. In the future, we will realize the Video Diagnosis Module to perform intelligent diagnosis based on the demonstrated actions database.

References 1. Graham, C.R.: Blended learning systems: Deﬁnition, Current Trends, and Future Directions. In: Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs, pp. 3–21. Pfeiﬀer, San Francisco (2005) 2. Shijie, Z.: Application of Network Education Technology in Physical Education of Higher Education. Dissertation of South China Normal University (2007) (in Chinese) 3. China Ministry of Education: The Outline of Eleventh Five-year Plan of National Education Undertaking Development (2006) (in Chinese) 4. Kim, W.: Towards a Deﬁnition and Methodology for Blended Learning. In: International Workshop on Blended Learning 2007 (WBL 2007), pp. 15–17. University of Edinburgh, Scotland (2007) 5. Tan, C., Liu, Y.: Hybrid Learning and Discussion on its Implementation Measures in Distance Education. Modern Distance Education Research 81(3), 36–38 (2006) (in Chinese) 6. Qi, Y.: Analysis on Application of Hybrid Teaching Mode in Higher Education. In: Hybrid Learning: A New Frontier, pp. 151–160. City University of Hong Kong (2008) 7. Karen, V., Charles, D., et al.: Blended Learning Review of Research: An Annotative Bibliography. In: The ALN Conference Workshop on Blended Learning & Higher Education (2005) 8. The World Wide Web Consortium. Synchronized multimedia, http://www.w3.org/TR 9. Rose, C., Guenter, B., Bodenheimer, B., et al.: Eﬃcient Generation of Motion Transition Using Space-time Constraints. In: Computer Graphics Proceedings, Annual Conference Series, ACM SIGGRAPH, New Orleans, Louisiana, pp. 147–154 (1996) 10. de Menthon, D., Kobla, V., Doermann, D.: Video Summarization by Curve Simpliﬁcation. In: Proceedings of ACM Multimedia 1998, Bristol, UK, pp. 211–218 (1998) 11. Zhao, L., Qi, W., Li Stan, Z., et al.: Key-frame Extraction and Shot Retrieval Using Nearest Feature Line (NFL). In: Proceedings of the 2000 ACM Workshops on Multimedia, Los Angeles, California, pp. 217–220 (2000)

Using New Web Technologies in Teaching Demography Mirjana Devedžić1 and Vladan Devedžić2 1

2

Department of Geography, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia FON – School of Business Administration, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Most of higher education in demography is still based on traditional replication of top-down structures of lecture delivery in classrooms. Although transition to using Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) approaches can be beneficial for both students and teachers of demography, conservative attitudes and barriers exist that often prevent even initial efforts towards such a transition. This paper recommends a number of practices to start with in efforts to make this transition possible. Specifically, it provides recommendations on how to introduce new Web technologies in teaching demography at the university level, in order to increase students' motivation and interest. The recommendations exceed the boundaries of demography as the area of teaching, and can be extended to other non-technical disciplines as well. Keywords: higher education, demography, Web 2.0, Semantic Web, student engagement.

1 Introduction Although using Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) in higher education is nowadays clearly assumed, disciplines differ in how quickly they accept new technologies and trends in Internet development and use. Web technologies develop rapidly, and typically computer scientists, software engineers, Internet advertisers, and business analysts embrace the new developments quickly. It usually takes longer for professionals in humanities and social sciences to start using a new generation of Web technologies and tools. Higher-education institutions and teachers of demography are no exception to this rule. At many universities and colleges offering courses in demography, it is still common to deliver courses in traditional ways and in face-to-face classroom settings only. Conservative attitudes about technological innovations still prevail in many cases. This fact has started to change, at least to an extent (albeit still at rather few institutions), due to recent trends in TEL developments. Some of these trends clearly focus not on the technology per se, but on learners and teachers as end users of various backgrounds (including humanities and social sciences) and on making their actual use of TEL easier, more appealing, and more natural. Speeding up this change and making the necessary shift in mindsets of traditionalists requires an analysis of the current situation and causes and effects of conservative P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 106–116, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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attitudes, as well as an explanation of potential benefits if the change happens. From the pragmatic point of view, it is also necessary to recommend practical steps in implementing the changes. To this end, this paper focuses on possible uses of Web 2.0 (Social Web) and, to an extent, Semantic Web technologies as the basis for introducing TEL to teaching and learning demography at the higher-education level. Essentials of these new technologies can be found in a number of glossaries that are abundant on the Web (for example, see [1] and [2]). The paper does not assume the reader's familiarity with demography-specific terms. They are all underlined throughout the paper for easier distinction, and are explained in online dictionaries and glossaries of demographic and population terms, such as [3].

2 Current Situation – Pros and Cons As with virtually everything else, one can always find evangelists of using TEL in social sciences, as well as strong opponents who tend to indicate the downsides. In case of teaching demography, opponents often mask their conservative and traditional attitudes by presenting lines of reasoning as follows. Do we really need all these technologies in demography? They are for computer fans and Internet addicts. Demography is people- and population-oriented, it is a social science, with a lot of field research that we have to teach our students. The results are often dependent on lengthy data acquisition, census procedures, statistical analyses, and participation of experts. It is not TEL-ready and is certainly not something that goes to social networking sites. True, many idiosyncrasies of demography are not ready made for TEL. Many demographic documents and resources also undergo various privacy policies and should not be given unrestricted access on the Web. In addition, possible misuse of demographic data and resources by social software may jeopardize their validity and confidentiality. On the other hand, why not using TEL in demography in cases where it can be suitably deployed? It does take a while to change the mindset, but the advantages that TEL can bring are certainly worth it. For example, it certainly does not hurt to set up a Wiki or a social network for a class and thus improve communication, collaboration, and coordination for students doing field work and data collection in their projects. The teacher can always control the confidentiality of the content to appear on the Web, by acting as the site administrator who grants access rights to the other members (students). Using new technologies always incurs extra costs and it is difficult for institutions to provide support for them. Equipment should not be a problem, at least for initial transition from traditional teaching to TEL-based one. It is typically just an Internet connection (relevant institutions do have it anyway) and occasionally a microphone, a Web cam, a headset, or a similar low-cost accessory. In addition, much of the social software and Semantic Web software that supports TEL is open source and free. Likewise, much of the resources produced and used with new Web technologies are either copyright-free, or

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can be used with quite a relaxed and flexible license, such as CreativeCommons.1 And, most importantly, learning how to use all these new technologies is extremely easy, even for non-experts. What may incur some extra costs is enforcing meaningful ways of using the new technologies, especially in education. They can be very seductive and lead to time-consuming misuse. If social networking, podcasting, and video conferencing is used in teaching, many students will stop coming to the class. This depends on the way we look at it. For some students, it can be an advantage to avoid commuting to the university and adhering to strict lecture hours – that's what much of the e-Learning philosophy is about. On the other hand, many educational blogs show that students find Social Web technologies to be a nice complement to the traditional teaching/learning settings and styles, not a replacement for them. It goes along the same line that all published podcasts, videos, and other lecture material can inherently lead to passive and prescriptive teaching and learning if they are the only materials used. But then again, we can say the same for books, PowerPoint slides, and shared lecture notes. Looking on the bright side, we can see that a lot of social software – notably Wikis, social networks, blogs, and social bookmarking – requires active participation and interaction. Ontologies and Semantic Web are so demanding. They still did not take off properly in other disciplines. Can't we live without all that? The best way to convince skeptics to relax their rigid criticism is to exemplify the benefits that ontologies and the Semantic Web can bring to teachers and learners, and at the same time explain the current trend of developing and publishing lightweight ontologies, which is not that demanding. When putting up an example, it also helps to reduce the concept of the Semantic Web just to the Web of data [4]; to this end, the following hypothetical TEL example may sound appealing to demographers: A student is interacting with a Web resource on natural increase in a certain region, and would like to find more information about a related term, e.g. fertility. It is typically not possible to do it without a number of clicks and search. Ordinary Web cannot interconnect and integrate these two kinds of data by itself. This is because the data are controlled by applications, and each application keeps it to itself. Contrary to that, the Web of data enables integration of data drawn from diverse sources automatically, not by a series of mouse clicks that would just bring new documents to the screen as a result of the user's intervention. The idea is that it is the machine itself that can start off in one database on the Web, and then move through an open-ended set of other databases to automatically find and display related information about the same thing. As in many other disciplines, demographers can start developing and publishing lightweight ontologies to help bootstrap demography-centered Semantic Web TEL applications. Developing such ontologies can start from folksonomies and should include not only demographic experts, but also specialists in knowledge engineering.

1

http://creativecommons.org/

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3 Recommendations on How to Move Forward Changing the conservative mindset, challenging well-established traditional teaching and learning styles, and introducing new practices can take a lot of time. In preparing the grounds for venturing into such an endeavor, it is helpful to have at least an initial repertory of ideas to try out in structuring a plan of the efforts to undertake. The plan itself should be developed differently in each specific case, so it is up to the planners to possibly modify some of the ideas suggested here. On the other hand, these ideas target open-minded demography teachers who are ready to advance the way they do their job. Hence the author's background in demography has been used to make the recommendations deliberately domain-specific. 3.1 Getting Started What makes this generation different from its predecessors is not just its demographic muscle, but it is the first to grow up surrounded by digital media. Computers and other digital technologies, such as digital cameras, are common place to N-Gen2 members. They work with them at home, in school, and they use them for entertainment. Increasingly these technologies are connected to the Internet... Constantly surrounded by technology, today's kids are accustomed to its strong presence in their lives. Today's kids are so bathed in bits that they are no more intimidated by digital technology than a VCR or a toaster. And it is through their use of the digital media that N-Gen will develop and superimpose its culture on the rest of society... Already these kids are learning, playing, communicating, working, and creating communities very differently than their parents. They are a force for social transformation. [5]3 Demography teachers may read this well-known quotation as a description of their students in the class. Or they may read it as a description of students of various ages and backgrounds, at any school or university. The point is that to all of them, born and raised surrounded with technology, it is understood that learning is also something that can come through technology. Recognizing this simple fact can be a good starting point in the transition from teaching demography in the traditional way to TEL-based teaching. The next step to take is probably to explain fellow demography teachers that the major shift in introducing TEL must come through facilitating new, technologysupported learning and teaching styles, and consequently through increasing the students' motivation, responsiveness, and learning efficiency. It is essential to realize that TEL can be used to stimulate informal learning styles (rather than sticking to formal ones), to enhance students' collaboration, and at the same time to support personalized learning, where creativity, exploration, and innovation dominate over traditional instruction that enforces mass learning of the same, restricted content for all. The idea is simple: demography teachers should face the fact that many of their students spend hours and hours a week with their cell phones, or writing blogs, or 2 3

Net Generation. http://www.growingupdigital.com/FLecho.html

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even just chatting with or emailing each other. If they enjoy it and they feel comfortable with it – let them do it. Teachers should just direct them to use what they enjoy using anyway, while simultaneously doing something that the teachers want to teach them. Instead of having them bored in the class when the teachers repeat facts about age-sex pyramids or how census data are collected, how about letting them use Social Web technologies in an assignment to gradually find out about all that themselves? How about giving them an initial push in the class, and then asking them in another assignment to collect all information they can about total fertility rate formula on the Delicious4 site? Or telling them to discuss types and directions of migrations on a social network site that they themselves are supposed to create and join, and then directing them to gradually open discussion threads on emigration, immigration, refugees, and so on? Perhaps creating a social network may sound frightening to students of a nontechnical discipline, but it takes no more than 15 minutes to show them in the class how to set up one. It is extremely easy even for non-experts – all that is required is to sign up for a private online social network at any of the Web sites that offer that service, usually free of charge.5 It is also easy to customize the content types during the setup, by choosing among a number of templates offered – it can be a class network, a project team network, a research group network, and the like. In our view, it is highly likely that students will initially have even less problem with this than the teachers who have had no experience with using social software so far. Note that many students already use other social networks daily, spending some time on Facebook6 or MySpace.7 In perspective, students can also be asked to download and listen podcasts of lectures on, say, education of school kids in China. To ask this, the teacher first has to find such material out there on the Net (or create some herself). But then the results will be rewarding – both teaching and learning becomes more effective and more fun. Teachers who are still not open enough to these ideas may want to try at least the Web sites of but two projects related to new ways of using Web technologies in education: Transforming Teaching Through Technology – T4,8 and iCamp.9 These sites may "open a whole new way of looking at the day" to hesitating and reluctant teachers. They can illustrate how schools and universities all over the Globe use TEL in exciting, innovative ways for teaching and learning. 3.2 Elaboration Some students taking courses in demography are really interested and motivated anyway. This section is not about them. Some other students will always be bored with demography, no matter how hard teachers try to convey the messages and transfer their knowledge. This section is not about such students either. It is about all the others, anywhere in the middle. 4

http://delicious.com/ E.g., http://www.pbwiki.com, http://www.wetpaint.com, and http://www.wikispaces.com. 6 http://www.facebook.com 7 http://www.myspace.com 8 http://t4.jordandistrict.org 9 http://www.icamp.eu/ 5

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Questions that demography teachers should ask themselves regarding that middle group of students are: Do I reach my students in the class? Does demography reach them? Open courseware. What if much (if not all) of teaching material that demography teachers need in class was already available on the Web? Although it is not realistic yet to make such a wish, it is helpful to note that a number of universities have already opened all of their courseware to educators. Some of them even have their own space on YouTube and share video materials from their courses. Some of them have very high reputation in various disciplines (e.g., UC Berkeley, and USC). It may be of interest to demography teachers to browse USC open courseware and videos on YouTube,10 since some of them clearly cover demography and social sciences topics. Even better – may they ask your students to do it? How about a project like this: a group of students opens a Wiki and uses it to collaborate on searching for and bookmarking all such video materials and/or podcasts?11 Then they report about it to everybody else in the class. They may also download some podcasts to share with their peers. And then they switch the roles. There is much more to this end than some of YouTube videos. There is VideoLectures12 with their material on gender issues. There is a lot more in various other topic areas offered by the OpenCourseware Consortium of universities worldwide.13 Even MIT, primarily a technical university, offers some open courses that may be of interest in teaching demography.14 A "teacher-oriented version of YouTube", TeacherTube,15 is of particular interest here if the teacher wants to reach their students more effectively. Essentially, it is a social network of teachers of various backgrounds and majors. Currently, finding demography-related videos on TeacherTube is not easy, but teachers may be interested in creating and sharing their own one (with participation of students). It might be an excellent shift in the way demography lectures are organized. At the more traditional end, an excellent social network for teachers called SlideShare16 offers a number of shared slide presentations, prepared by teachers of various backgrounds and targeting students of various knowledge levels. All slide presentations are tagged, and here's good news for demography teachers: a number of them are tagged with "demography" (among the other tags). How about an interested demography teacher preparing one of her own and uploading it there, to contribute to the community? Web classrooms. An online social network can be nicely used as a virtual "meeting place" or "classroom". The teacher can schedule lectures and tutorials and announce them to the class using the tools enabled by social networking software. To open such a social network on the Web and set up its content initially, it probably takes no more 10

http://youtube.com/usc In this case, they can customize the Wiki content type to classroom or to group project. 12 http://videolectures.net/ 13 http://www.ocwconsortium.org/ 14 http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/index.htm 15 http://www.teachertube.com/ 16 http://www.slideshare.net/ 11

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Fig. 1. Introduction to Demography Web classroom (experimental)

than an hour for a non-expert teacher who is an average user of the Internet and has some teaching material in the electronic form ready. As an illustration, the experimental social network of that kind shown in Fig. 1 was opened and configured by a nonexpert in about 30 minutes (without uploading the teaching material). After integrating an open source, free video conferencing tool17 with social networking software, all that is needed for such a Web classroom is an Internet connection and a Web cam, a microphone, and a headset for each student to "attend" the class. Many video conferencing tools also integrate a screen sharing tool, a chat tool, and tools to take notes, raise questions, and so on. In addition, the lectures can be recorded and students can access them remotely after the event. They can also use Web classrooms for further remote collaboration and practice in smaller groups. We are not aware of examples of using Web classrooms as infrastructure for teaching demography, but we have already done an early study of that kind ourselves ([6], [7]. In our study, we focused on Semantic Web infrastructure, not on social networks. Meanwhile, social networks became very popular and are now used for Web classrooms in many other disciplines.18 What we also found in a subsequent study [8] are two very appealing things for teachers using Web classrooms (in addition to the 17

E.g., Hexagon (http://hexagon.open.ac.uk/kmi/hexagon.php), Yugma (http://www.yugma.com/), FlashMeeting (http://flashmeeting.open.ac.uk/), and the like. 18 See examples and comments at http://brightside.ning.com/ and http://tama.edublogs.org/.

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obvious advantage of "attending" the classes remotely and thus saving the travel time). One of them is the possibility for teachers to get a lot of feedback from the class. It transcends direct communication, since a posteriori analysis of students' interactions with the tools offered by the Web classroom can reveal a lot of useful information. The other one is a great opportunity to monitor the class activities. Due to the options included in video conferencing tools and social networking tools, the teacher can get a very good overview of each student's activities both during and after the class. Engaging the students. Demography teachers must keep in mind constantly: it is not about technology; it is about engaging the students. TEL provides a good means to do that. As a consequence, their motivation increases, and so does their feeling of doing something creative, useful, and fun. Ultimately, their learning efficiency improves. Ways of engaging demography students with TEL are numerous. We outline some of them here. They all assume assignments, exercise, interaction, and active participation. They also require the teacher to start with one or two face-to-face meetings to explain the TEL essentials, as well as follow up reporting, presentations, and discussions in class. Teachers may also want to introduce some forms of grading (points, marks) and other forms of benefits to further increase the students' motivation to participate actively. Tagging and bookmarking. The teacher can pick up a demographic topic and ask the students to do a short individual study in order to get familiar with it. The students should be directed to a couple of carefully selected, starting-point Web sites where they can find out more about the topic. Preferably, the sites chosen should contain introductory and illustrative material. Then each student should try individually to create a tag cloud describing the topic. To make this exercise/assignment more fun, the teacher may want to suggest a "contest" – the more creative and more artistic the tag cloud, the better. As an illustration, assume that the topic is related to fertility. Using the Wordle tagging tool19 and a set of tags the students have presumably come up with, the tag cloud can be made in myriads of word-art forms, such as the one in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. A hypothetical demography-related tag cloud (word-art form) 19

http://wordle.net/

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After a follow-up discussion in the class, the students can be asked to use their tags and try to find some related Web sites and bookmark them in Delicious. While doing so, they should be required to add more tags and especially meaningful notes (comments) for each bookmark.20 These can then be interactively discussed and modified in the class. The teacher can also slightly direct the tagging exercise to be guided by a very important (and social) objective of annotating demographic Web resources not only with domain terms (tags) but also with pedagogical ones. For example, a Web resource may be tagged as "introductory", "difficult", "demanding", "illustrative", "demographic statistics", and the like. Both teachers and students can benefit on the long run from this exercise, and so can the entire community of demographers. Podcasting. To start using podcasting, the teacher can have small groups of students recording each lecture given in the course. A laptop computer and a microphone are enough to start with. Each lecture should be taken care of by a different group. An easy way for a group to take care of a lecture can be to simply upload the recorded audio to the university's dedicated server, in MP3 format.21 The teacher should approve it, which may mean reviewing and possibly requiring minor editing/improvement of the recorded material prior to uploading. A more demanding but also more rewarding way might be for the group to use the recorded material as an initial, raw version, and then repeat the recording acting interchangeably as narrators. This introduces more dynamics in the podcast and can also greatly improve fluency. The recording team may also decide to use some of the original raw recording (the teacher's voice) in some parts. The good thing with this editing is that parts of the lecture can be intertwined questions and answers/clarifications (teacher's voice!), i.e. audio discussions of difficult topics. If done with the teacher's guidance, this exercise can be very rewarding for the group of students that takes care of the lecture – they themselves are supposed to ask questions, and thus review and understand the recorded material thoroughly. In addition, playing the role of a recording crew will certainly be fun for at least some of them. The other students can then download and replay the podcast when they want to – if they missed the class, before the exam, and so on. Given the fact that a number of demographic topics require illustrations in the forms of maps, diagrams, distribution charts, and statistics, a similar exercise can be done with video recording. In this case, the group in charge must also take care of an appropriate focus of the camera. Luckily, the teacher's visual clues to the recording crew can help. As with audio podcasts, posting video with nowadays Web technology is usually very easy – teachers may want to check out the increasingly popular LectureShare site.22 Blogging. Many students are nowadays blogging anyway, so asking them to blog on demographic topics should be no problem at all. In order to make the class blog fruitful, the teacher should pick a topic (as in the exercise with tagging) and ask the students to blog on it. It is likely that this exercise will be more demanding for teachers 20

When bookmarking a Web page, this option is always offered by Delicious anyway. This must be assisted by the server administrator. 22 http://www.lectureshare.com/ 21

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than for students, because the teacher's role here is to try to control the blog to adhere to the "blogging plan" that the teacher has to put up in advance. The teacher should be much more active in blog discussions than in the case of bookmarking, in terms of seamlessly implanting the best practices of the blogging culture in the class. For example, when teaching about migrations as a demographic phenomenon, it is a good idea to also open a thread on general blogging practices and indicate popular readings of that kind (e.g., Tama's eLearning Blog23), as well as to ask them to exercise these practices in discussing migrations. Likewise, a slight deviation from the strict course program in blogging exercises can increase motivation and informal learning – so, why not indicating a related blog?24 It is technically very easy to start up and customize students' blogs. For example, Edublogs25 offers a number of useful features and customizable themes, and is ready made for podcasting, videos, photos, and much more. In addition, almost all popular social networking software offers integrated blogging facilities. But again, for an educational blog to be effective the teacher should control the discussions and intervene whenever it is necessary. Posting an opinion or another material on the blog is easy; making posts interactive, provoking, productive, and learning-effective is the real challenge here. Folksonomies and ontologies. This is certainly the most demanding and the most sophisticated task that can be done with a class of demography students, guided by the teacher. It can also integrate all the previously described ones, depending on the objective. The idea is for the teacher to pick up a topic, say age-sex pyramid, and ask the students to gradually build up a folksonomy about it. It is a group project, and has a strong research flavor. Hence supporting it by an online social network is a good idea. The participants' activities should include searching the relevant Web sites (including domain-related ones, social bookmarking sites, blogs, and social networks), recording the findings (tagging, bookmarking, commenting, writing notes), and, with the help from the teacher, organizing the findings about the main concept (age-sex pyramid in this example) and the related ones into a meaningful taxonomy. The best part of this exercise is in side effects. First, in merely searching the Web for the relevant material, they will assimilate a lot of information and knowledge about age-sex pyramids, not just their shape. Second, in order to tag and bookmark all the resources they stumble across they will have to sharpen their understanding of the age-sex pyramids themselves and the related topics as well. Likewise, by every such an exercise they will do a great job for the community of demographers by bootstrapping the innovation and systematization of official taxonomies and classifications in demography. Also, possible new terms and synonyms may get more formally defined in these activities, taking into account multidisciplinarity of demographic concepts related to the major topic of the folksonomy. Over time, MSc and PhD students may want to start from such a folksonomy and organize a project of turning it into a lightweight formal ontology. This would require some preparation and familiarization with ontology development tools, but building the Semantic Web infrastructure related to demographic topics is essential for many 23

http://tama.edublogs.org/ E.g., http://migration.foreignpolicyblogs.com/ in this case. 25 http://edublogs.org/ 24

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other fields as well. Since it is also still very rare, it can bring a rewarding focus and publicity to the developers.

4 Conclusions Using TEL in teaching demography can benefit the students, the teachers, and the entire community of demographers. In spite of the fact that there are voices against uncontrolled use of these relatively new technologies, using them in meaningful ways can greatly improve instruction delivery and teaching and learning practices. The practices recommended here provide a good basis for initiating the change towards using TEL in demography.

References 1. Samuel, A.: Web 2.0 Glossary (2006), http://www.socialsignal.com/blog/alexandra-samuel/ web-2-0-glossary 2. Schematique.org.: Glossary of Semantic Web Terms (2007), http://schematique.org/2007/06/11/ glossary-of-semantic-web-terms/ 3. Digital Demographic Atlas. Demographic Dictionary. University of Thessaly (U.TH.), Greece (2007), http://www.demography-lab.prd.uth.gr/DDAoG/dictio/Index2.htm 4. W3C (World Wide Web Consortium): W3C Semantic Web Activity. W3C (2008), http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/ 5. Tapscot, D.: Growing Up Digital: The Rise of the Net Generation. McGraw-Hill, New York (1997) 6. Devedžić, V.: Semantic Web and Education. Springer, New York (2006) 7. Devedžić, M., Devedžić, V.: Towards Web-Based Education of Demography. Int. J. Informatics in Education 2, 201–210 (2003) 8. Jovanović, J., Gašević, D., Brooks, C., Devedžić, V., Hatala, M., Eap, T., Richards, G.: Using Semantic Web Technologies to Analyze Learning Content. IEEE Internet Computing 11, 45–53 (2007)

Best Practices in Teaching Online or Hybrid Courses: A Synthesis of Principles Lennon Tan1, Minjuan Wang1, and Jun Xiao2 1

Educational Technology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182 2 Shanghai TV University [email protected]

Abstract. This paper examines both principles and best practices in designing and teaching large online or hybrid courses (more than 60 students) for undergraduate students. A model of best practices in online or hybrid course design and conduct is created based on the widely-accepted seven principles for quality undergraduate education and our extensive review of literature related to online teaching and learning. This model can guide universities of similar settings with their online teaching or training. Keywords: online learning, hybrid learning, course design and delivery, best practices.

1 Introduction The trend in moving face-to-face courses online is fast developing in the United States. Online course enrolment in over 1,000 higher-educational institutions rose by 18.2% between 2003 and 2004 [1]. In 2007, nearly 35% of all higher education institutions in the U.S. believed that online course offering can meet their strategic goals and are instrumental in their long-term plans [2]. By 2008, the growth rate of online enrolments has risen to 12.9% and surpassed the 1.2% growth of the overall student population in higher education [3]. Many students are benefiting from the flexibility of online learning. Instructors, on the other hand, face many challenges in designing and conducting online courses. These challenges, such as addressing unique needs of online students and promoting interaction in a virtual environment, can be daunting even to experienced classroom instructors [4]. Here we conducted a thorough literature review to synthesize theories and to derive principles of best practices in teaching online or hybrid courses with an online component. We anticipate that these principles can guide more instructors to successfully facilitate online or hybrid classes. In this article we address two major topics: 1) principles of effective online course design and teaching, and 2) best practices in online course design and conduct. And we attempt to answer the following questions: 1. What are some of the common principles, theories, models used to guide online course design and implementation? How applicable are they across different disciplines (e.g., education and psychology)? P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 117–126, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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2. What are some of the best practices recognized and tools used in highereducational institutions to design and teach online courses? What is the context of application? And how to assess the effectiveness of an online course?

2 Principles of Best Practices This section discusses five aspects that are crucial in designing, conducting, and evaluating higher educational online courses: 1) the seven principles for quality undergraduate education, 2) roles of online instructors, 3) cybergogy for engaged learning model, 4) instructor immediacy, and 5) evaluation of online teaching. 2.1 Seven Principles for Quality Undergraduate Education In 1987, there was an initiative in the U.S. to establish strategies that would lead to quality undergraduate education. Chickering and Gamson [5] created a working framework to evaluate and improve undergraduate teaching in university classrooms. This framework gave birth to the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education, which was considered “the best known, certainly the most widely distributed list" [6](p. 256) used for assessing face-to-face instructions in university classrooms. The Seven Principles assert that good practices in undergraduate education should: (a) promote contact between the students and the instructor, (b) encourage cooperation among students, (c) engender active learning, (d) demand prompt feedback, (e) emphasize time on task, (f) communicate high expectations, and (g) respect diverse talents and ways of learning [7]. With the growing demand for online courses, there is a great deal of interest to extend the Seven Principles to distance education. Taylor [8] surveyed 500 instructors country-wide, who teach online undergraduate courses across multiple disciplines, to evaluate the quality of teaching based on the Seven Principles. She found that all the principles, except for time on task, were implemented frequently by these instructors. Batts, Colaric, and McFadden [9] extended this study by comparing the instructors’ responses with the responses of their students. Their study surveyed 548 students and 31 instructors in online undergraduate courses in Education from two public universities. The study discovered that the application of the Seven Principles was evident in online undergraduate courses and there is an alignment between the students’ and instructors’ perceptions of the online course. In another study, Batts [10] further confirmed that the Seven Principles were consistently used in undergraduate online technology courses. The Ohio Learning Network, a premiere e-learning education website that encourages the use of technology to improve teaching and learning in higher education, also supports the use of these principles. It formally recognizes the Seven Principles as the "foundation to high quality distance delivery methods" [11] and states that these principles have proven over time to be successful. Studies also reveal that the Seven Principles are applicable across multiple disciplines. Taylor [8] found that the use of these principles evident in online courses in engineering, business, computer science, social sciences, communications, and humanities/literature, among others. This observation was also shared by the

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participants in the studies conducted by Batts et al. [9] and Batts [10]. It is worth noting that these participants were taking online undergraduate courses in education and technology. 2.2 Roles of Online Instructors Instructors play instrumental roles in ensuring quality online teaching. Berg [12] postulates that instructors enact four different roles when teaching online courses: pedagogical, social, managerial, and technical. The pedagogical role centers on the instructor's responsibility as an educational facilitator by initiating discussions on key concepts, principles, and skills through well-designed questions. Creating a friendly and cohesive environment exemplifies the social role of the instructor. A friendly environment is crucial to promote learning and to encourage team work. The management role entails organizing information, managing expectations, and providing directions throughout the course. The technical role is one in which the instructor ensures the use of technology does not impede or discourage learning. This will allow the students to concentrate on learning and not to be distracted by technical issues. Coppola, Hiltz, and Rotter [13] concur that the different roles instructors assume can impact the ways students learn in an online environment. They see online instructors in three different roles: cognitive, affective, and managerial. With the exception of the technical role, these roles mirror closely those proposed by Berg [12]. The cognitive role requires the instructor to guide students’ mental processes of learning, information storage, and thinking. The affective role requires the instructor to influence and promote ample social interaction within the class. The managerial role requires the instructor to engage in course planning, organizing, leading, controlling, and student monitoring. 2.3 Cybergogy for Engaged Learning Model In any learning environment, truly engaged learners are behaviorally, intellectually, and emotionally involved in their learning tasks [14]. As many studies reveal, learner’s active engagement in the learning process affects their learning outcomes. Aligning with the tenets of the Seven Principles and the roles of a virtual instructor [12] [13], Wang and Kang [15] generated a Cybergogy model for engaging learning, which suggests activating cognitive, emotive, and social factors in an online environment. For instance, they identify methods that instructors can use to detect learners’ emotional cues and cultivate their positive feelings; to increase learners’ selfconfidence and arouse their curiosity; to effectively facilitate online communication and build a supportive learning environment. Cognitive domain investigates how an individual optimizes personal relevance and meaning through the knowledge construction process [15]. To better guide students’ learning, instructors need to design materials and learning activities that relate to learners’ prior knowledge and experiences, ease of goal attainment, and learning style. In addition, instructors also need to motivate learners by interweaving the

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factors in the affective domain (primarily emotions and feelings) with both cognitive and social dynamics of the learning process. In the social domain, students should be encouraged to collaboratively create a culture of shared artifacts and meaning. Wang and Kang assert that a virtual learning space needs to be created to support learners in meeting the demands and challenges in an online course. In particular, perceptions of a shortened “distance” from their instructors can help students learn better. This “distance” is known as instructor immediacy, which we discuss in the next section. •Self-regulated learning •Ownership of learning •Generative learning •Knowledge construction

Cognitive presence

•Feeling confident •Feeling secure •Feeling comfortable •Feeling curious

Engaged Learning

Emotive presence

Social presence

•Sharing •Cohesiveness •Acceptance •Collaborative learning

Online Learning Environment

Fig. 1. Cybergogy for Engaged Learning: Increasing the Level of Presence

2.4 Instructor Immediacy Immediacy refers to instructors’ verbal and nonverbal behaviors that help to reduce the social distance and to enhance psychological closeness with students [16]. Instructors who are perceived to have immediacy are good at bridging the physical and psychological distance with their students. Schutt and Allen conclude from their empirical study [17], “Increasing instructor immediacy in online learning environments increases the perceived social presence of the instructor” (p.146). They posit that this combination enhances students’ motivation, satisfaction and positively influences their perceptions of learning outcomes. In another study examining the relationships between instructor immediacy and learning in the virtual setting, Baker [18] concludes that the effective use of both verbal and non-verbal communication in online instruction by the instructor can lead to positive learning for the students. He states that, “The more instructors incorporate relationally supportive language in the online classroom, the more that students will enjoy and benefit from the online learning experience” [18](p.12). The roles online instructors play and the degrees to which they behave and conduct themselves in these various capacities have a substantial influence on students’

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academic performance. Coupled with the application of the Seven Principles, they form the basis to effectively design and implement online courses. Evaluation will then act as the feedback mechanism to inform course redesign and improvement. 2.5 Evaluating Online Teaching In 2002, California State University (CSU) Chico introduced a set of guidelines for designing and evaluating quality undergraduate online instruction, known as the Chico rubric (http://www.csuchico.edu/celt/roi/). This rubric addresses six areas: (1) learner support and resources, (2) online organization and design, (3) instructional design and delivery, (4) assessment and evaluation of student learning, (5) innovative teaching with technology, and (6) instructor use of student feedback [19]. Learner support and resources relate to empowering students with information about the online course through multiple channels. Online organization and design pertain to the effect of the course interface on student learning. Interaction and addressing diverse learning needs within the course can be accomplished through instructional design and delivery. For assessment and evaluation of student learning, an online course needs to provide a variety of assessment methods and timely feedback. Innovative teaching with technology refers to the effective use of technology to engage and enhance student learning. Finally, use of student feedback requires the instructor to leverage multiple feedback channels to improve the content and technology used, and to help online students succeed in achieving their learning goals. Based on the Chico rubric, Instructional Technology Services (ITS) at San Diego State University (SDSU) developed a comprehensive evaluation toolkit (http://fevatools.wikispaces.com) that provides a suite of online tools instructors can use to measure the effectiveness of their online teaching. Synthesizing the aforementioned principles, models, and evaluation strategies for designing and implementing online courses, the following section details the criteria for best practices in online course design and conduct.

3 Best Practices in Online or Hybrid Course Design and Conduct Synthesizing existing theories, models, and empirical reports on online and hybrid teaching and learning, we developed a model (Fig. 2) to delineate best practices in online or hybrid course design and conduct. These literature are sources from both the academic setting [20] [21] and the corporate environment [22] [23]. We use the Seven Principles for quality undergraduate education [5] to categorize these best practices. Since this is a model about best practices, roles of the instructors [12] [13] [15] are integrated in the discussion of the principles. We posit that the roles that an instructor play is embodied in their teaching behaviors and the principles they follow. For example, when the instructor applies principle #1 - encourage contact between students and instructor [5], his/her behavior exemplifies the social role [12], affective role [13], and promotes students’ emotive and social presence [15]. Making the connections between the Seven Principles and instructor

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roles can help the instructor to be more aware of his/her own influence on students’ learning process and the online learning environment. Therefore, useful approaches and online resources and tools, including the use of the Chico Rubric [19], are added to each table. Based on our own teaching experiences, a time-frame (before course, throughout the course, during online sessions, and end of course) is added to guide instructors’ use of these principles. In this model, the best practices are organized using the Seven Principles in the following categories: (1) encourage contact between students and instructors, (2) develop reciprocity and cooperation among students, (3) use active learning techniques, (4) provide prompt feedback, (5) emphasize time on task, (6) communicate high expectations, and (7) respect diverse talents and ways of learning [5]. Here we selectively present the major principles (Tables 1 to 3) in details, including: encourage contact, developing reciprocity and cooperation, and using active learning techniques.

Seven Principles • Encourage instructorstudent contact • Develop student reciprocity & cooperation • Active learning • Prompt feedback • Time on task • Communicate high expectations • Embrace diversity & learning styles • • • •

Instructor roles Pedagogical / Cognitive Social / Affective Management Technical

Seven Principles

Useful approaches

• • • •

Time-frame Before course During course During online sessions End of course

Best Practices in Online Course Design & Conduct Online resources & Chico rubric

Online resources (some examples) • Communication tools e.g. emails, listserv, web-conferencing software, online chat, instant messaging, blogs, discussion board, etc. • Learning Management System (LMS) that supports calendar and tracking functions. • Virtual classroom that supports annotation, feedback tools, and break-out rooms. • Web applications such as Webquest, Wiki, and Social networks. Chico rubric The rubric evaluates learner support & resources, online organization & design, instructional design & delivery, assessment & evaluation of student learning, innovative teaching with technology, and instructor use of student feedback.

Fig. 2. Best Practices in Online or Hybrid Course Design and Conduct

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Table 1. Principles for encouraging contact between students and instructors Principle / Roles

Timeframe

Approaches

Online resources / Chico rubric

Encourage contact between students and instructor

Before course

- Be familiar with the communication tools.

- Email/Listserv

Instructor Roles Social role [12]

Throughout the course

- Plan for online live sessions and office hours

- Be available during online office hours.

Affective role [13] Emotive and Social presence [15]

- Encourage students’ use of online communication tools

During online sessions

- Encourage students’ online presence (visibility) through webcam or a photo - Limit lectures and encourage more interaction.

- Learning Management System (LMS) that support detailed user profiling - Online chat - Instant messaging - Blogs

- Maximize the use of annotation tools

- Annotation tools supported by the virtual classroom

- Inform students on what to expect when the information and material changes on the screen.

- Emoticons and feedback tools supported by the virtual classroom

- Encourage students to use emoticons and feedback tools such as laughter, applause, agree, and disagree.

- Use Chico rubric to solicit feedback on learner support & resources, online organization & delivery, instructional design & delivery, and innovative teaching with teaching.

- Solicit inputs from all students through specific questions and provide sufficient guidelines - Allow students to use private and public messaging options during class. End of course

- Web-based voice/video conferencing software

Solicit student feedback on interaction-related course conduct to aid course improvement.

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Principle / Roles

Timeframe

Approaches

Online resources / Chico rubric

Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students

Before course

- Design group projects to leverage multiple student inputs and comments.

- Online discussion board

- Plan for ways to encourage group discussions and presentations.

- Online break-out rooms

- Set expectations on student participation and individual contributions to group work.

- Peer appraisal

Instructor Roles Pedagogical and Social role Cognitive and Affective role Emotive and Social presence

- Be familiar with online collaboration and social networking tools. Throughout the course

- Foster collaborative learning and sharing of resources. - Encourage students to form their own support group for learning. - Use group projects to leverage multiple student inputs and comments. - Encourage students to evaluate group members’ performance and contributions

During online sessions

- Allocate virtual space for group discussions and presentations - Have students lead discussions and share learning experiences. Increase students’ sense of ownership in learning.

End of course

- Solicit students’ perceptions of course conduct related to cooperative learning.

- Webquest

- Wiki - Social networks - Use Chico rubric to solicit feedback on instructional design & delivery, assessment & evaluation, and innovative teaching with technology.

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Table 3. Principles for using active learning techniques Principle / Roles

Timeframe

Approaches

Online resources / Chico rubric

Use active learning techniques

Before course

- Design reflective and openended tasks that focus on application of theory to practice.

- Electronic Course

- Locate relevant online resources.

- Online simulation programs

Instructor Role Pedagogical role Cognitive role

Throughout the course

Cognitive presence

- Encourage students to find material relevant to course content and share them online. - Use reflective and open-ended tasks for students to apply what they learned. - Have students debate on certain topics and comment on each other’s opinions.

During online sessions

Introduce simulation tools to enable students to manipulate data and observe outcomes.

End of course

Solicit students’ perceptions of the organization of active learning activities.

- Reserves Library

- Relevant online multimedia resources - Use Chico rubric to solicit feedback on learner support & resources, instructional design & delivery, and innovative teaching with technology.

4 Conclusion and Future Recommendations In this article, we examined principles of effective online and hybrid course design and delivery in higher education and created a conceptual model of best practices. The principles lay the theoretical framework and the best practices present a benchmark on useful and practical approaches for teaching large online or hybrid courses (for undergraduates in particular). A mix-method research is now in progress, which collects data from both the instructors and the students in selected online courses offered at San Diego State University. This study will analyze and compare instructors’ real practices with the best practices principles presented, so as to create a model that delineates this university’s experience. We anticipate that this model will aid this university and other universities with similar teaching contexts to examine the progress, successes, and challenges in moving campus courses online. Universities with different teaching settings might be able to use these models and principles to conduct systematic research and to draw their own guidelines.

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Allen, I.E., Seaman, J.R.F.: Growing by degrees: Online education in the United States (2006) Allen, I.E., Seaman, J.: Online nation: Five years of growth in online learning (2007) Allen, I.E., Seaman, J.: Staying the course: Online education in the United States (2008) Sugar, W., Martindale, T., Crawley, F.E.: One professor’s face-to-face teaching strategies while becoming an online instructor. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education 8, 365– 385 (2007) Chickering, A., Gamson, Z.: Applying the seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education, 47th edn. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (1991) Cross, P.K.: What do we know about students’ learning, and how do we know it? Innovative Higher Education 23, 255–270 (1999) Chickering, A., Gamson, Z.: Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin 38, 3–7 (1987) Taylor, J.: The use of principles for good practice in undergraduate distance education. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg (2002) Batts, D., Colaric, S., McFadden, C.: Online courses demonstrate use of seven principles. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning 3, 15–25 (2006) Batts, D.: Comparison of student and instructor perceptions of best practices in online technology courses. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 4 (2008) The Ohio Learning Network: Why seven principles? http://www.oln.org/ILT/7_principles/ Berge, Z.L.: Facilitating computer conferencing: Recommendations from the field. Educational Technology 35, 22–30 (1995) Coppola, N.W., Hiltz, S.R., Rotter, N.G.: Becoming a virtual professor: Pedagogical roles and asynchronous learning networks. Journal of Management Information Systems 18, 169–189 (2002) Bangert-Drowns, R.L., Pyke, C.: A taxonomy of student engagement with educational software: An exploration of literate thinking with electronic text. Journal of Educational Computing Research 24, 213–234 (2001) Wang, M.J., Kang, J.: Cybergogy of engaged learning through information and communication technology: A framework for creating learner engagement. In: Khint, M.S., Hung, D. (eds.) Engaged Learning with Emerging Technologies, pp. 225–253. Springer, New York (2006) Hutchins, H.M.: Instructional immediacy and the seven principles: Strategies for facilitating online courses (2004) Schutt, M., Allen, B.S.: The effects of instructor immediacy behaviors in online learning environments. Quarterly Review of Distance Education 10, 135–148 (2009) Bake, J.D.: An investigation of relationships among instructor immediacy and affective and cognitive learning in the online classroom. The Internet and Higher Education 7, 1–13 (2004) CSU, Chico: Rubric for online instruction: (n.d.), http://www.csuchico.edu/celt/roi/ Group, T.T.: Seven Principles: collection of ideas for teaching and learning with technology, http://www.tltgroup.org/seven/library_toc.htm Morris, L.V., Finnegan, C.L.: Best practices in predicting and encouraging student persistence and achievement online. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory and Practice 10, 55–64 (2008) ASTD Techknowledge: The virtual classroom (PDF document) (2009) McKinnie, R.: Best practices for delivering virtual classroom training (White paper) (2008)

Students’ Attitudes towards Web Searching Yoko Hirata and Yoshihiro Hirata Hokkai-Gakuen University Sapporo, Japan {hira,hirata}@eli.hokkai-s-u.ac.jp

Abstract. Recent information and communication technology (ICT) has a great impact on students’ behavior towards searching for information on their own. Nowadays almost all Japanese university students have a chance to use the web even before entering universities. The accessibility of the websites has made it possible to utilize various language learning materials and the websites specifically provide them with elaborate educational contexts. As a result, learning to how to use information on the web effectively is an indispensable part of higher education. However, there has been little research investigating students’ behavior concerning how to formulate basic information search strategies and critically evaluate information sources. The present study aims at understanding the preferred strategies used by Japanese university students when searching for specific information on the web to accomplish certain tasks. This exploratory study will focus on describing students’ cognitive demanding tasks which require using various strategies appropriately in a limited time frame. Keywords: evaluation, websites, language learning, hybrid learning.

1 Introduction In the Japanese educational settings, accessing educational websites is an increasingly common activity in the classroom. This is partly because of the fact that, in the last decade, the Japanese government has been trying hard to promote the use of ICT in education [1]. The survey, conducted in 910 Japanese higher educational institutions in 2007, shows that 75.8% of those institutions had already provided ICT courses in order to allow information to be accessed anytime and anywhere [2]. In spite of this growth in the number of ICT users and curriculum in the educational setting, Japanese students have been faced with various challenges of identifying and using information resources effectively online for their own study. As the students’ use of the web has become prevalent in their everyday lives, reading online requires different skills and strategies from reading linear print-based resources [3]. Therefore the traditional way of reading texts is insufficient for students to interact with the websites. Students need to learn how to search for and identify appropriate information resources as well as understand how to critically evaluate these resources. P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 127–136, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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2 Research Background More and more Japanese students have been using the Web to try to achieve their social, personal, and educational goals in their daily lives. This new educational tool has become a valuable information resource “as an alternative to printed resources” [4]. Increasingly many universities in Japan are providing students with educational web resources [5]. Although students usually think themselves as skilled Web users [4], they are not fully confident in understanding how to access the content of the Web. Unlike students who learned only traditional basic literacy skills including the ability to read, write, listen, and speak, students in today’s digital world are required to have the ability to manage a wide variety of content on the Web in hypertext format, including visual images, links and navigational clues. Web literacy is one of the most important skills for students to acquire in today’s information society. It has been widely acknowledged that students with different study approaches take on distinctive information seeking styles [6]. There is considerable literature which explores students’ use of Web literacy skills and strategies [4] [7]. However, in Japanese educational settings, there are still few studies on teaching students how to navigate the Web and value the information in the educational context in order to be critical users of the Web. In addition, very little is known about how students actually search for information on the websites and what skills should be acquired in a time when they have frequently accessed online resources. In order to maximize the quality of students’ online learning experiences, examining students’ Web searching skills and strategies is of vital importance.

3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the present study was to examine how Japanese university students search for information on websites. The focus was placed on the students’ use of Web literacy skills and strategies they used when browsing websites. The skills and strategies focused upon in the present study were based on Kuiper, et al’s categorization of Web reading and evaluating skills. The study sought to answer the following two questions: 1. What kinds of skills and strategies do the students frequently use when searching for specific information to accomplish their tasks with educational websites? 2. What are the students’ preferred web searching and evaluating strategies? The answers to these questions will help instructors gain a clear understanding of how students interact with the websites and determine how to integrate these resources into their language learning environments.

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4 The Project 4.1 Student Profiles The subjects of this study (n=30) were lower-intermediate learners of English enrolled in a university English program. All of these students, who consisted of 11 males and 19 females, were full time students between the age of eighteen and twenty. They stated that they had been using websites for a great percentage of their everyday lives, but none of them had previous experience using the educational web in the classroom, even in their native language. Although the students had general experience using the Web in their daily lives, they were fairly new to the evaluation of the websites. 4.2 The Setting and Procedures The project described in this paper was carried out in a semester-long undergraduate English language course at a university in Japan. The course was required for students to take as one of the compulsory English subjects. In addition, the course was aimed at Japanese students who wanted to further improve English language skills by making the most of various websites in and outside of a classroom environment. This course was a hybrid learning course which was specifically designed to foster students’ English skills and have students engage in various language exercises online, including multiple-choice questions, true or false practice, and fill-in-the-blank comprehension tests. The acquisition of Web literacy skills was also incorporated into the course and the tasks, including inquiry-based language activities focused on the students’ ability to search the Web. At the beginning of the project, students were asked to examine ESL/EFL (English as a second language/English as a foreign language) self-access English language websites and to evaluate the quality and the appropriate use of these resources for their own study. The students were then required to organize their own study plan by choosing some websites as recommended websites to use for their study. The criteria used for the evaluation at this stage were the measures for evaluating ESL/EFL materials [8]. These measures are effective in that they provide students with a standard for evaluating websites [9]. The class in this course was scheduled for one and a half hours each week over a 15-week course in a computer assisted language learning (CALL) classroom. Before the project started, Web search strategies and the basic concept of how the web works were explained by the instructor. 4.3 Data Collection After the class had completed, the students were provided with a 23-item questionnaire which attempted to ascertain their beliefs and attitudes towards browsing and evaluating the websites as part of their English learning experience on the Web. The questionnaire included the measurement which was divided into “averages of the students’ use of the websites”, “students’ reading strategies for using the Web”, “students’ preferred components of web evaluation”, and “reasons for students’ negative attitudes towards evaluating the websites”. Although the questionnaires for website

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evaluation have been recently explored [10], this study was focused only on students’ attitudes and preferences for studying with websites. In our present study, on the other hand, an emphasis was placed on examining students’ various skills and strategies when searching for the information on the Web, in addition to their views on browsing the websites. Each question item had a 10-point Likert scale, with “1” representing “strongly disagree” and “10” representing “strongly agree”. The survey also includes an openended space where students were asked to elaborate on their answers. In order to attain a mean response for each question, the responses were totaled and averaged. For the purpose of examining any statistically significant differences between the students’ responses, a standard deviation was also attained. The data is presented in this paper as mean ±SD. In order to identify specific patterns and significant factors underlying students’ responses about their learning, the questionnaire was also analyzed by using Spearman’s correlation.

5 Findings The data collected from the students is presented below. As shown in Table 1, all of the students regularly used websites and they were required to use websites for the accomplishment of assignments in other courses. The Averages (±SD) of this response were 7.77 (±2.25) and 7.57 (±1.94) respectively. The findings also indicate that the majority of students stated the importance of using search engines in an effective way. The Averages (±SD) of this response were 6.87 (±2.61). There were only a few students who browsed English websites on a daily basis. Table 1. Averages of the students’ use of the websites Mean (SD) 1. I use the Web on a daily basis.

7.77 (2.25)

2. I’m required to use the Web in other classes on a daily basis.

7.57 (1.94)

3. I use the Web for the purpose of searching for a specific word or usages of a word. 4. I use the Web for the purpose of searching for information and resources to accomplish my class assignments. 5. I understand the importance of effective use of search engines. 6. I browse English websites on a daily basis.

4.53 (1.93) 6.93 (1.66) 6.87 (2.61) 2.50 (2.26)

(N = 30).

The results presented in Table 2 show the strategies the students use when searching for specific information on the websites. Although the students surveyed had used these different strategies to process the information contained on the websites, the most frequently used strategy was to utilize the theme, topic, or glossary as an aid of reading web pages. The Average (±SD) of this response was 6.40 (±2.39). Besides, there were many students who read the web pages word for word even if they didn’t

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have enough time to accomplish their tasks. Also, there were students who simply scan through web pages without having any strategies to browse. Table 2. Students‘ reading strategies for using the Web Mean (SD) 7. I go through content word for word.

4.40 (2.58)

8. I scan the text by using key words and the headings.

5.93 (2.32)

9. I use the theme, topic, or glossary as an aid of reading web pages. 10. I just simply read through web pages while picking up the information without any clue. (N = 30).

6.40 (2.39) 4.33 (2.47)

Table 3 shows the Average (±SD) of the students’ preferred components of web evaluation. The results indicate that the students evaluated the websites based on their own preferences and interests. The Average (±SD) of this response was 8.97 (±1.22). Other preferred criteria for the evaluation are “layout of the websites and usability of the interface”, “the reliability of the information”, and “a large amount of information provided by the websites”. There are also students who evaluate websites based on “consistency of the materials”, “availability of recently updated information”, as well as “the wide range of information”. The least preferred component of web evaluation was “availability of links to relevant websites”. The Average (±SD) of this response was 3.17 (±1.60). Table 3. Students‘ preferred components of web evaluation Mean (SD) 11. Layout of the websites and interface which are easy to follow. 12. The website which links to other sources or information.

3.17 (1.60)

13. The consistent format and well-organized pages.

6.43 (2.31)

14. The reliability of the information.

7.47 (2.08)

15. The frequency of updates.

5.43 (2.57)

16. The websites which attract and interest me.

8.97 (1.22)

17. A large amount of information provided by the websites.

7.17 (2.02)

18. The wide range of information provided by the websites

6.77 (1.72)

7.90 (1.45)

(N = 30).

Table 4 shows the reasons why the students didn’t value evaluation of the websites. Many students rely on their own judgment of what to look for and how to look through the web pages. The Average (±SD) of this response was 6.43 (±2.18). There were also many students who didn’t want to waste their time and effort evaluating the websites, and who had no experience evaluating even any other sources of

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information. The Averages (±SD) of this response were 4.80 (±2.54) and 4.37 (±2.18) respectively. It is also clear that the majority of students thought it important to acquire certain skills in evaluating the websites. Table 4. Reasons for students’ negative attitudes towards evaluating the websites Mean (SD) 19. I haven’t learned the importance of evaluating the websites. 20. I want to avoid the waste of time and effort evaluating the websites.

3.30 (1.95) 4.80 (2.54)

21. I don’t see the importance of evaluating the websites.

3.40 (2.28)

22. My own judgment about what to look for and how to browse the websites is enough.

6.43 (2.18)

23. I haven’t evaluated any other sources of information.

4.37 (2.18)

(N = 30).

The students’ detailed comments taken from the students’ responses to the questionnaire are roughly divided into five areas as follows: (1) Students need to acquire skills which allow them to make right choices while they are reading Web texts and searching for information. (2) The instructor should help students have their own views on analyzing and comparing information on the Web. (3) Students should know that the information on the Web might be biased. (4) Students should acknowledge that we may encounter false or harmful information on the Web. (5) Students lack understanding of Web search processes and their consequences in the language classroom. Table 5. Correlation between factors for searching for information I go through content word for word.

The consistent format and well-organized pages.

I go through content word for word.

1.00

-----

The consistent format and well-organized pages.

.557**

1.00

Notes: Correlation Matrix (N=30), **p < .01.

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Table 6. Correlation between factors for searching for information I use the theme, topic, or glossary as an aid of reading web pages.

I scan the text by using key words and the headings. I scan the text by using key words and the headings.

1.00

-----

I use the theme, topic, or glossary as an aid of reading web pages.

.391**

1.00

Notes: Correlation Matrix (N=30), **p < .01.

Table 5 shows that there was a moderate correlation between those who go through content word for word and those who evaluate the websites based on the consistent format and well-organized pages (r = .557, p < .01). There was a moderate correlation between those who go through content word for word and those who evaluate the websites based on the layout of the websites and interface which are easy to follow (r = .449, p < .01). Table 6 shows that there is a weak correlation between those who can the text by using key words and the headings and those who use the theme, topic, or glossary as an aid of reading web pages (r = .391, p < .01). Table 7 indicates that there was a moderate correlation between those who haven’t learned the importance of evaluating the websites and those who want to avoid the waste of time and effort evaluating the websites (r = .597, p < .01). In addition, there was a moderate correlation between those who haven’t learned the importance of evaluating the websites and those who don’t see the importance of evaluating the websites (r = .563, p < .01). The correlation of .442 was significant between those who want to avoid the waste of time and effort evaluating the websites and those who don’t see the importance of evaluating the websites.. Table 7. Correlation between factors for searching for information I want to avoid the I haven’t learned the waste of time and importance of effort evaluating the evaluating the websites. websites.

I don’t see the importance of evaluating the websites.

I haven’t learned the importance of evaluating the websites.

1.00

-----

-----

I want to avoid the waste of time and effort evaluating the websites.

.597**

1.00

-----

I don’t see the importance of evaluating the websites.

.563**

.442**

1.00

Notes: Correlation Matrix (N=30), **p < .01.

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My own judgment I haven’t evaluated about what to look for any other sources and how to browse the of information. websites is enough.

I simply read through web pages while picking up the information without any clue.

1.00

-----

-----

My own judgment about what to look for and how to browse the websites is enough.

.532**

1.00

-----

I haven’t evaluated any other sources of information.

.535**

.456**

1.00

Notes: Correlation Matrix (N=30), **p < .01.

In Table 8, the correlation of .532 was significant between those who simply read through web pages while picking up the information without any clue and those who think their own judgment about what to look for and how to browse the websites is enough. In addition, there was a moderate correlation between those who simply read through web pages while picking up the information without any clue and those who haven’t evaluated any other sources of information (r = .535, p < .01). Those who think their own judgment about what to look for and how to browse the websites is enough and those who haven’t evaluated any other sources of information (r = .456, p < .01).

6 Discussion of Findings Although the number of participants in this study was relatively small, the present study has uncovered the students’ basic understanding and attitudes towards web browsing and navigating approaches. First of all, with respect to the students reading strategies, the results indicate that students’ competence in reading the websites in an effective, meaningful way was quite limited. In open-ended questions, many students stated that they knew how to use web browsers and were able to scan websites quickly without any problems. However, the most efficient strategy which led students to use most of the time while doing their tasks is relying more on the theme, topic, or glossary as an aid in comprehension of the texts rather than on scanning a vast amount of information. On the other hand, another aspect of students’ performance to be taken into account is the fact that many students read the web pages word for word. These students have difficulty in scanning for what they’re looking for, and understanding what the website offers in a limited time frame. This adds support to the previous research findings [11].

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With regards to the evaluation skills, the findings suggest that when students evaluate the websites, they tend to rely more on textual designs or visual clues than on website links and updated information. In addition, they highly value the websites which attracted their interests and curiosity. It is also important to note that although judging information is fundamental in students’ everyday lives [12], the students didn’t see the importance of evaluating even printed information they encounter in their everyday lives. These findings suggest that students have not gained the knowledge of information literacy and, as a result, focus on only superficial understanding of how to browse the Web [4]. It is obvious that students need to understand that the Web has a different organizational format from printed information. This is in accordance with the results of the previous research [13]. With respect to the students’ negative attitudes towards evaluating the websites, the students tended to depend on their own subjective judgment. Students themselves thought that they were technically skilled in searching for specific information. Also, the findings suggest that students tended to sort through a large number of sources while choosing the information they needed. They search for immediate answers and make hasty choices with little thought of evaluation [3]. This results in students’ negligence of determining the credibility of the information on the Web. In order to encourage students to interact the websites actively and to think critically about web information, various activities, in which students are encouraged to acquire web searching skills and strategies, should be provided. This will help students understand that the Web provides them with powerful tools in surviving in real-life situations [14]. The instructor’s role in developing students’ basic Web literacy skills in the process of language learning is especially important. Specific strategies of instructional design need to be developed for web-based environments [4].

7 Conclusions This study examines students’ perceptions and attitudes toward browsing websites and determines students’ preferred web searching and evaluating strategies. Browsing the Web makes enormous demands on various skills and strategies. However, the students examined have not yet developed the necessary competences to use the Web critically. As the Web plays an important role in our personal lives and business transactions, emphasis should be placed on, first of all, students’ reflection on their learning needs and selection of appropriate websites to achieve their own goal. Secondly, students need to acquire a different set of instructional strategies in the classroom to navigate through a wide range of web environments in a variety of contexts. In order to gain further insights from this exploratory study, in-depth research is needed with a larger number of students. This will help the instructor determine how to encourage students to use websites for their own study effectively and independently.

Acknowledgement This study was supported by a research grant provided by Hokkai-Gakuen.

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References 1. Ozkul, A.E., Aoki, K.: E-learning in Japan: Steam locomotive on Shinkansen. Paper Presented at the 22nd ICDE World Conference on Distance Education: Promoting Quality in On-line, Flexible and Distance Education, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, p. 9 (2006), http://aide.nime.ac.jp/research/ICDE2006_Ozkul&Aoki_.pdf (retrieved February 25, 2010) 2. E-learning Consortium. E-learning White Paper: 2008-2009 (E-learning hakusyo/20082009). Tokyo Denki University Press, Tokyo (2008) 3. Sutherland-Smith, W.: Weaving the literacy web: Changes in reading from page to screen. The Reading Teacher 55, 662–669 (2002) 4. Kuiper, E., Volman, M., Terwel, J.: Developing Web literacy in collaborative inquiry activities. Computers & Education 52(3), 668–680 (2009) 5. Gromik, N.: EFL learner use of podcasting resources: a pilot study. The JALT CALL Journal 4(2), 47–60 6. Heinstrom, J.: Fast surfing for availability or deep diving into quality — motivation and information seeking among middle and high school students. Information Research 11(4), http://informationr.net/ir/11-4/paper265.html (retrieved February 25, 2009) 7. Limberg, L.: Experiencing information seeking and learning: a study of the interaction between two phenomena. Information Research 5(1), http://informationr.net/ir/5-1/paper68.html (retrieved February 25, 2009) 8. Cooker, L.: Self-Access Materials. In: Tomlinson, B. (ed.) English Language Learning Materials, pp. 100–132. Continuum, London (2008) 9. Hirata, Y., Hirata, Y.: Students’ evaluation of websites in hybrid language learning. In: Wang, F.L., Fong, J., Zhang, L., Lee, V.S.K. (eds.) ICHL 2009. LNCS, vol. 5685, pp. 186–196. Springer, Berlin (2009) 10. Jarvis, H., Szymczyk, M.: Student views on learning grammar with web- and book-based materials. ELT Journal 64(1), 32–44 (2009) 11. Hoffman, J.L., Wu, H.K., Krajcik, J.S., Soloway, E.: The nature of middle school learners‘ science content understandings with the use of on-line resources. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 40(3), 323–346 (2003) 12. Walraven, A., Brand-Gruwel, S., Boshuizen, H.P.A.: How students evaluate information and sources when searching the World Wide Web for information. Computers and Education 25(1), 234–246 (2009) 13. Murray, D.E., McPherson, P.: Using the Web to support language learning. AMEP Research Centre, Sydney (2004) 14. Herron, C., Seay, I.: The effect of authentic oral texts on student listening comprehension in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals 24(6), 487–495 (1991)

Knowledge Structure of Elementary School Teacher Training Based on Educational Technology: Focus on Classroom Teaching Jiliang Shen1,3, Chongde Lin1,3, Xuemin Zhang1,2.∗, Zhao Xia1, and Qingyun Niu1 1

School of Psychology and Beijing Key Lab of Applied Experimental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China, 100875 [email protected] 2 State Key Lab of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China, 100875 3 Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China, 100875

Abstract. Teacher training has been an international topic for the government of many countries. The development of computer technology brought out many online teacher education resources and training programs to improve teacher’s teaching expertise. In present paper, we will discuss the knowledge base of teacher education and training, and web-based or online reflective teaching. Applications of online training program and how to use these resources efficiently are also discussed. Keywords: Teacher's knowledge structure, Online teacher training programs, Reflective teaching.

1 Introduction Teaching expertise and teacher training originated from related studies of expert system in artificial intelligence (AI) and professional expertise development. The original monograph Thought and Choice in Chess written by Aton deGroot (1965) discussed expertise difference between chess expert and novice. The expertise difference between expert and novice was long time learning and professional training which resulted in much more chess knowledge, rules and experience in expert player’s brain memory system than those of novice. This idea was supported by the famous artificial intelligence studies conducted by Newell, Chase and Simon (Newell & Simon, 1972; Chase &Simon, 1973). They developed a computerized expert chess player’s brain system based on expert knowledge, experience and chess rules which won the human being chess expert in playing chess. These famous studies conducted much further in different professional fields and professional expertise training. In 1980s, Dreyfus ∗

Corresponding Author: Xuemin Zhang, Beijing Normal University, School of Psychology, Beijing, China. 100875. Email: [email protected]. Tel/Fax : 86-10-58807499/58809659; The present research was supported by project of National Education Science Eleventh FiveYear Plan(DBA080165) to Xuemin Zhang.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 137–148, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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(Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1980, 1986) classified professional expertise into five stages: novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient and expert. This theory was used for reference in teacher’s expertise development by Berliner (1987, 1988, 2004, 2005) which we will discuss in the following parts. 1.1 The Origin of Teaching Expertise and Teacher Development In 1960s, International Labor Organization (ILO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) approved teacher as a formal specialized profession. Lots of work and studies were done in Europe and South America focusing on teacher’s expertise development, knowledge base, and knowledge structure. The related studies of teacher’s professional development were shown in table 1. Table 1. Theories of teacher’s professional development Researchers

Theory

Fuller & Brown (1975)

Three-stagetheory

Shuell (1990)

Three-stagetheory

Sikes, et al., 1985 Fessler & Christensen (1992) Huberman (1989, 1995)

Five-stagetheory

Sternberg (1997,1999)

Teacher’s expertise development model

Berliner (1988, 2005)

Five-stagetheory

Main point 1. self-concerns 2. task-concerns 3. pupil-concerns 1. Novice teacher 2.Middle stage teacher 3. Advanced stage teacher 1. Induction 2. Competency building 3. Enthusiastic and growing 4. Career frustration 5. Stable and stagnant and wind-down Huberman (1989) See Figure 1. Novice Æ [knowledge acquisition, knowledge construction through explicit and implicit learning, self planning, monitoring and reflection in teaching with dedication] Æ expert teacher 1. Novice: More knowledge and less experience; teaching based on planning, rules and knowledge in book; less reflective teaching and flexibility. 2. Advanced Beginner: combined the knowledge and experience, with experience- based teaching strategies, and more flexibility. 3. Competent: teaching with unambiguous goal and efficiency, fluency and flexibility. 4. Proficient: teaching and solving problem intuitively and autonomously, with fluency and flexibility. 5. Expert: based on proficient teaching, expert teaching with more personalized experience solving problem, no reflection in regular teaching except for problem never encountered

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In table 1, we can see the development of teacher's expertise from a historical view. The different theories on teacher’s development could be classified into two categories: teacher’s professional development and expertise. The typical professional development theory is the five-phrase-theory promoted by Fessler et al. (Fessler & Christensen, 1992; Huberman,1989, 1995; Sikes, et al., 1985) which described teacher's professional development from the beginning of a teacher with enthusiasm to disengagement or stagnant. The detailed development stages (see Fig. 1.) were described by Huberman (1989). This is a problem of social career development discussed mainly by sociologists, but not the focus of present study. The expertise theories focused on the development of teacher’s teaching ability in cognitive skills. The typical theory was Berliner’s novice-expert theory shown in table 1. We will discuss teacher’s expertise development and related questions (e.g. teacher’s knowledge, experience and teacher training, etc.) in details from professional training aspect, especially focusing on web-based or online training resources.

Fig. 1. The professional development of teacher's teaching ability(Teachers College Record, 91(1), p37, Huberman, 1989)

1.2 Teacher’s Knowledge Base and Structure for Classroom Teaching Teacher’s knowledge was the base of teaching expertise and professional development. In 1980s, researchers began to study teacher's knowledge structure and its role in the development of teacher's teaching expertise. In the early studies, researchers emphasized that knowledge (e.g. content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, Shulman, 1986, 1987) played an important role in early teaching expertise development. As more studies were conducted by educators and psychologists, it was found that practical knowledge or teaching experience became more important in later development of teaching expertise after several years of teaching practice, especially from novice to competent, proficient and expert teachers. Content or pedagogical knowledge training program seems not so important in improving teacher’s teaching

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Researchers

Shulman (1986, 1987)

Bromme (1994)

Garmston Robert (1998)

Chongde Lin (1996)

Sternberg (1997)

Knowledge base and structure 1. Content knowledge or curricular knowledge 2. General pedagogical knowledge 3. Pedagogical content knowledge 1. Subject field knowledge 2. School subject knowledge 3. Pedagogical knowledge 4. Subject-matter-specific pedagogical knowledge 5. Philosophical knowledge of teaching and education 6. Practical knowledge of teaching 1. Content knowledge 2. Pedagogical Knowledge 3. Knowledge of children development 4. Self evaluation of teaching 5. Knowledge of cognitive development 6. Knowledge of classroom learning and interaction 1. Subject content knowledge 2. Conditional knowledge: include physical and psychological development, teaching and learning, and academic achievement evaluation knowledge 3. Practical knowledge: teaching experience of solving regular and difficult problems in teaching and education 1. Knowledge: content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, practical knowledge. 2. Ability to solve problems in teaching, automation of teaching skills (planning, self monitoring, feedback and evaluation of teaching process) 3. Insight of teaching and outcome

expertise. Teaching experience sharing and practical training program became more important to train teacher to be proficient and expert (e.g. Berliner, 1988; Sternberg, 1997). From table 2, we can conclude the development of teacher’s knowledge structure from a historical view. According to literatures and some training programs (FSU, 2001; BYU, 2001; ASU, 2001-2005), we can summarize teacher’s knowledge base and structure as follows: ∗ Knowledge of subject content; ∗ Knowledge of learners; ∗ Knowledge of pedagogy; ∗ Knowledge of curriculum; ∗ Knowledge of goals and assessment; ∗ Knowledge of the social, political, philosophical, and cultural contexts in which education occurs; ∗ Knowledge of the methods of reflective teaching, disciplined inquiry. The goal of training program was to help the teacher to develop their teaching expertise form novice to expert.

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2 Teacher Education and Training Programs Teacher education and teacher training programs were widely adopted in many countries. We can see the different teacher education and training programs from Fig. 2. Traditional learning program: 1. Full time teacher education 2. Part time teacher education: part time course and correspondence course; 3. Special training programs 4. Traditional remote education: Based on radio and TV broadcasting Web-based Learning: 1. Online real time interactive course or 2. Web video model class 3. Web E-resource of teacher education or training 4. Web based information related teaching and online communication (e.g. BBS) 5. Online teacher training programs and resources

Teacher expertise development

Communication of teacher education and teacher training practice: 1. Outstanding teachers training and communication 2. Teaching and research program for teachers 3. Conference for elementary education 4. Advanced training program

Other E-Learning resources: 1. Model class video 2. Computer assisted course ware 3. Technology training used in classroom teaching

Fig. 2. Teacher education and teacher training program

Traditional teacher education and training programs focused on training of candidate teacher (most of them are full time) which is widely adopted in many universities currently. There are also many part time teacher training programs. Some of them are advanced training programs, such as part time master program for outstanding teachers. Web-based teacher education and training programs were developed by educators, psychologists and educational technologists. These online training programs became popular in the past ten years, which provided much more online teacher training resources, such as online video model class, online reflective teaching programs, etc. There are some other e-resources provided online or offline on websites (see website, http://www.professionallearningboard.com/, for example). (see websites, Chinese: http://youku.com/, American http://youtube.com/)

：

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2.1 Teacher Education and Training Programs in West Countries In European and North America, teacher education and training programs have been advocated as a government policy since 1980s. In 1983, Britain government came up with White Paper of Teaching Quality (1983a), and established Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (CATE) in 1989. In 1993, Department of Education and Science (DES, 1993, 1997) and Teacher Training Agency (TTA, 1995) of Britain began the teacher qualification and teacher training programs based on the cognitive development theory of Piaget and constructivism theory. The DTE teacher training program was a two-year-training, including the first year study of cognitive development and constructivism theory, pedagogical knowledge, and multiple cultural curriculums and teaching practice. And the second year training mainly focused on theoretical base and application in class. There were some seminars for communication with each other during teaching practice. Germany, Danmark, Austria and North America also started some teaching programs since 1980s. In America, many universities have the undergraduate and master programs for teacher education and teacher training. Many teacher education and teacher training programs focused on teacher education, elementary education, secondary education, early childhood education. Teacher education is the formal four-year teacher education in university which trained undergraduates as candidates for teaching in the future. Elementary and Early Childhood Programs are specially designed for elementary education teachers to construct their knowledge base. This program can help them to understand the process of children’s development (physical, social, and cognitive aspects) and knowledge or skills needed for teaching (Berk, 1994; Spodek, 1993; Seefeldt, 1998; Elkind, 1990). (Bruner, 1997), (Piaget, 1952, 1976; Bruer, 1996). Master program in Teaching is designed for further teacher training. This is a graduate program to construct knowledge base for different needs of diverse population through investigation, teaching practice, diversified courses and multicultural education (Bank’s approach, 1991, 1997, 2001). Advanced Programs of master teacher training are required to learn main issues and research methods of human growth, developmental issues, theories and debates as well as educational practices based on related studies (Maslow, 1991; Fisher, 1995; Harris & Sipay, 1990). Arizona State University has done good work on teacher education, teacher training studies and practice (see the website: http://www.teachersforanewera.org/). 2.2 Teacher Education and Teacher Training Programs in China Elementary teacher education has been mostly supported by secondary teacher schools in China before 1980s. Teacher education of undergraduate candidates became popular since 1990, and web-based teacher training programs started up in 2000 supported by the Ministry of Education of People's Republic of China. Chinese government has done much work on different teacher education and training programs in recent 20-30 years. Figure 2 provided a detailed description of hybrid teacher training programs in the past 20 to 30 years. The teacher education included full time undergraduate candidates training program, and master program. On-line teacher training programs and resources were also constructed based on computer technology. In most elementary schools, teacher can get on-line video classroom teaching resources

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conveniently. There were also some web-based courses developed for online teacher training since 2000. The Chinese central and local government also provided financial support for developing web-based courses and teacher training programs. 2.3 The Outline of Online Teacher Training Programs Teacher training program often included three parts: knowledge base, integration of knowledge base and teaching practice, reflective teaching (to be reflective teacher and reflective decision maker). Knowledge base is the foundation of teacher education which included subject knowledge, knowledge of learners, pedagogical knowledge, curriculum knowledge, knowledge of assessment, knowledge of reflective teaching, etc (see details in table 1). Formal teachers and undergraduate candidates gain knowledge base through full time or part time training. Some of the part time teacher knowledge education can be completed through online courses which were widely adopted in many countries currently. Teaching practice is the core of a teacher or teacher candidate to be an experienced teacher. Actually, it takes novice teachers several years of teaching practice to be experienced teachers. There are also some teaching practice programs for training novices to be experienced teachers besides practice in school. These programs included small group communication of teaching practice (e.g. use action research in teacher training), advanced training programs observation (e.g. master program for teacher education) and learning more teaching practice through model class video online or off line, etc. These training programs can help teacher integrate theoretical knowledge with their own classroom teaching. Teachers can also get trained through on-line training programs whenever they want and wherever they are. Communication with other teachers or educators is also possible through training websites. Reflective teaching is another step which plays an important role in the process of converting from an experienced teacher to be an expert teacher. Reflective teaching reflects teacher’s professional development in advanced level. It is difficult for traditional teacher training programs to make reflective teaching into reality. The pathways of traditional reflective teaching are self-reflection of one's own classroom teaching, small group communication of teaching practice, and action research. These methods should be organized or scheduled with sufficient preparation in advance which limits the popularization of reflective teaching. However, on-line reflective teaching programs provide much more convenience for personal or group teachers’ teaching reflection without time and space limitation. The can get feedback soon from on-line interaction with expert teachers and educators. They can also reflect their own classroom teaching or others at any time. It seems easier to improve their reflective teaching than traditional programs. There is also much work to do with regard to reflective teaching practice which we will discuss in the following example. The three steps are crucial for a teacher from a novice to an experienced or expert teacher. The goal of teacher training programs is to make teachers grow step by step and improve their teaching expertise and professional development. Even though much work has been done on on-line reflective teaching, there is still a long way to go to make it widely adopted by more teachers, teacher training organizations, and governments.

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3 An Example of Reflective Teaching Based on Classroom Video This is a typical teacher reflective training program based on classroom video (See Fig. 3.). There are some other similar online reflective training programs. The common function of these programs is that teachers can evaluate the merits and defects of their own classroom teaching. Experienced or expert teachers and educators can also give some suggestions according to the teacher’s classroom video. Then teachers can improve themselves in the future classroom teaching according to their own observation and expert’s suggestions.

Fig. 3. Training program of math teacher-A video reflective teaching courseware (Developed by Beijing Normal University of China and Braham Young University of US, 2001)

There are many online teacher education and training programs both in North America, European countries and other developed countries. However, when we search for these online resources, we will find that most of them are not free for teachers; they are not the real online resources which teacher can get training without payment. Some websites can view the classroom video for free (for example, http://www.youtube.com/). They should download the resource after payment and then they can get trained by off line learning. The example was shown in Fig.4. In China, there are many remote online resources which are free for teachers, the website can be found in the following websites (website for the elementary school teacher education resource: http://u.youku.com/user_show/id_UNjM2NjMyMTI=.html; Remote education website of China: http://www.cdce.cn/)

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Fig. 4. A typical teacher training website (Cited website: http://www.professionallearningboard.com/lms/course/category.php?id=10)

4 Evaluation of Web-Based Teaching Training Programs There were plentiful teacher training resources based on web and other media (online programs, classroom teaching video/audio, and programs enrolled in universities, etc). These training programs played an important role in improving teacher’s professional development. Did these programs work well and what's the effect on teacher's professional development? 4.1 Evaluation from Teachers Teachers are highly concerned about the usability and practicability of these training programs. As we know, most teachers are not proficient at operating computer and online training programs. How to make these training programs easy to operate and interact between teacher and online training system is the key standard of evaluation. In order to reach this goal, educators and educational technologists should consider the following issues. First, they should provide plentiful and well-organized online resources or information which teachers can download or learn easily. Second, teachers can make comments on the online training system or other courseware when they read the training materials. Third, teachers can get feedback as soon as possible when they have any questions during the training. Finally, teachers should be able to organize the comments and feedbacks of their questions easily. 4.2 Evaluation from Educators For educators, what they concern most is the efficiency of the training programs. They need highly efficient training programs which can work well with some basic technological training, knowledge and communication of teaching practice. The

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website should provide functions to upload and download resources freely, to update information easily, to organize these training resources and provide further feedbacks as soon as possible, etc. These functions need a well-constructed framework of the website. 4.3 Evaluation from Researchers of Teacher Education For the researchers of teacher education, they need to get information of teacher training programs, such as comments on the training programs, on reflective teaching of their own or other classes, on understanding of theoretical knowledge, on the progress made through training programs. The information should need a well-constructed database which can import the information when they need at any time for longitudinal studies and tracking of training effect. The database of the information should be easy to encode for qualitative analysis made for further training programs modification and design of new programs.

5 Perspectives of Web-Based Teacher Training With the development of computer and online technology, web-based learning resources and professional training programs have became more popular in all professional fields. Teacher education and training also profit from technology development. Much work has been done in the past decades, which has made some progress and achievement in teacher education and training. Teachers, elementary schools, teacher training organizations and governments have made great efforts to improve teachers’ professional development. Educational technologists have made online teacher education and training programs which are working in many countries. The online programs seem work well, and many teachers benefit a lot from these great work. This resulted in communication between novice teachers, experienced or expert teachers, educators without time and space limitation. However, there is some further work to do to meet the needs of teacher learners, teacher educators and researchers in the future. There are some issues need to be considered to develop online interactive and reflective teacher training resources. The first is the knowledge database which can be used for teacher searching for the knowledge that they are not clear or they need to know in details; the knowledge database should include all the theoretical and practical knowledge shown in Table 2. The second is the sufficient teacher training resources, including model of class room video, audio, literatures about teachers’ professional development and reflective teaching. The third is the online reflective teaching should have interactive function which teacher can get answer when they get trained through the online training resources. The interaction can work well online or offline. The fourth is the BBS for communication between teachers. These functions will help teachers to share their teaching experience directly online and improve their classroom teaching. Web-based teacher training is a greater project which involves teachers, educators, psychologists and educational technologists. To construct sufficient resources, friendly interaction, online or offline communication and multiple functions of teacher training websites, these experts should work together to make the web-based

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teacher training into reality and help teachers improve their professional development. We look forward to all the specialists in different fields making this work into reality.

Authors’ note and Acknowledgements The present paper was supported by grant of Beijing Key Lab of Applied Experimental Psychology. The authors wish to extend their thanks to all the authors and their works cited in present paper.

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A Qualitative Analysis of Sub-degree Students Commentary Styles and Patterns in the Context of Gender and Peer e-Feedback Kat Leung1, Manhoe Chan2, Gordon Maxwell1, and Teresa Poon2 1

Caritas Francis Hsu College, Hong Kong Caritas Bianchi College of Careers, Hong Kong {kleung,mchan,gmaxwell,tpoon}@cihe.edu.hk 2

Abstract. While research interest is building in the role and effectiveness of electronic based peer feedback (Peer e-Feedback) in the context of L1/L2 English writing, that of Chinese language education at sub-degree level has been neglected. This paper seeks to address this shortfall by examining aspects of how sub-degree level students at a Hong Kong Community College respond to peer roles in the context of e-feedback to written work in a Wiki-supported Chinese language class. The work focuses on identifying the predominant commentary styles employed in a Wiki-supported peer-reviewed writing environment (WPWE) and also gives attention to the question of Gender to probe features and scope, similarities and differences displayed between female and male students. Among the patterns identified was the trend to produce feedback in a descending order, viz: (1) offering a solution; (2) identification of a problem/good point; (3) explanation; (4) localization; and (5) elaboration. Some gender differences emerged e.g. males tended to offer ‘specific suggestions’ more readily than female students. Interestingly and importantly, both genders demonstrated inabilities and or reluctance to offer requests for elaboration – evidence that some well designed training may be desired before conducting online peer-reviewed writing activity. It was evident too, that positive feedback outnumbered negative feedback even when some helpful corrective criticism was clearly needed and appropriate. Overall, the many positives far outweighed some negatives in the educational value of Peer e-feedback as a useful tool in Chinese language education. The study also showed that there is a need to further refine and clearly define some of the terminology now appearing in this important area of research. Keywords: Chinese Writing, student learning, peer e-feedback, Wiki-supported learning.

1 Introduction A number of research findings have demonstrated how peer feedback can be used to facilitate collaborative writing in the face-to-face learning environment. There were also a considerable number of studies addressing the effect of ICTs on the L1/L2 English writing activities using peer feedback; however, the volume and depth of the P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 149–159, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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current research cannot be compared to those in the traditional classroom settings. Research on the effectiveness of using e-feedback in writing instruction is still in its infancy and studies that explicitly address the nature and the types of peer feedback are seriously inadequate. Below are some rare examples: Evidence from the limited literature seems to suggest [18][34][10][32][35]that existing research addressing the types of online peer feedback were mostly contributed to the L1/L2 English language education at the college or the tertiary levels. None of them were designed to specifically contribute to the field of Chinese language education at the sub-degree level. Though some related works have been done by the Chinese language academics and educators in the contexts of Hong Kong secondary school and higher education, their focuses were placed on examining university students’ attitudes to the use of peer feedback, both written and oral, in a pair-work Chinese writing classroom [17], and comparing the influence of teacher written feedback versus teacher correction using symbols versus peer rating versus students’ self-correction on the writing performance of college students [24]. The findings of both studies supported the opinion that peer review in general produced positive effect on the quality of Hong Kong students’ Chinese writings but the impact of written peer-feedback on Hong Kong students’ commentary styles and patterns in particular is still unaddressed in the existing literature, both internationally and locally. 1.1 Research Questions It is noteworthy that few attempts have been made by English-speaking researchers to investigate the differences between teachers and students [6][21][18][33][19][5], subject-matter experts and writing instructors [25], as well as between single peer and multiple peers [23] in their written responses to student/peer writings. However, the questions whether males and females would perform differently in the peerreviewed writing activities, and to what extent students’ gender influence their feedback types, areas and scopes remain unanswered. Though there have been numerous studies on the influence of gender in relation to the themes and linguistic features of students’ writing, and the difference between students’ self-perceptions and teachers’ views of male’s and female’s writing competencies [14][15][28][22], little is known about the nature and the types of students’ feedback in the online writing activities employing peer written feedback. In an attempt to address this research gap, the research team has conducted the present study, with an emphasis on the qualitative analysis of sub-degree level Hong Kong students’ written feedback to the writings of their peers in a Wiki-supported Chinese language class. The research questions were as follows: 1. 2.

What are the predominant commentary styles and patterns of the students in a Wiki- supported peer-reviewed writing environment (WPWE)? Does Gender affect peer feedback types, areas and scope in a WPWE? If yes, what are the differences and similarities in the feedback types generated in a WPWE between female students and male students?

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2 Literature Review A number of typology models and frameworks have been proposed in the Writing Research and Writing Education literature on the analysis of student feedback to their peers’ writings. Each has its own features, characteristics and focuses. Researchers in this area are more inclined to divide the peer feedbacks collected into different categories based on the function of the comments [18][4][32][34][35][20]. Offering a solution [18][4][32][34][35][20]seems to be the most commonly noted characteristics of the feedback type when categorizing student comments. Two types of solution feedback have been widely identified in the extant literature: pointing out the direction for revision and suggesting a specific change. The feedback coding schemes used in the studies of Cho et al. [4], Lin and Sadler [18] and Tseng and Tsai [32] are the best examples of these sub categories of solution feedback. The second most prevalent type of Peer feedback identified in many current studies is feedback with explanations [34][32][35][20]. “Explanation” in the studies of van den Berg et al. [34] and van der Pol et al. [35] referred to all the argumentative statements that support the remarks of the student reviewers on their peer writings. In Nelson and Schunn’s [20] the most recent study on the nature of Peer feedback, they also included “Explanation” to their newly proposed Feedback model. By judging from its definitions and examples provided in Tseng and Tsai’s [32] study, the “Didactic feedback” that revealed in their analysis could fall into the category of “explanation” as well. The connotation for the term “Didactic” in this case is positive implying that the explanation provided by the student reviewers in the study was presented with a “lecture tone” and as “lengthy” as what the teachers always wrote to their students [32](p.1168). With regard to peer feedback function, request for clarification is also one of the key distinguishing types that writing researchers have widely discussed in some current literature [18][34][35]. To examine the effect of the different commenting modes (using WORD versus using pen and paper) on the types of the written peer feedback, “Clarification” was one of the feedback types analyzed in Liu and Sadler’s [18] study but the authors have not dealt with it extensively. Both van den Berg et al. [34] and van der Pol et al. [35] also placed requests for clarification and elaboration under the “Analysis” category. In other words, “Analysis” and “Clarification” can be viewed as interchangeable terms at least in these and related typology studies of peer feedback. Providing evaluative comments is another frequently cited feedback function when it comes to the type of peer feedback. Some researchers preferred using a general term “Evaluation” to group both the positive and negative remarks made by the peers together [18][34][35]. Other researchers classified students’ evaluative comments into “Praise” [16][4] and “Criticism” [4] for analyzing peer feedback [16][4]. Unlike Cho et al. [4] simply differentiating the evaluative feedback between “Praise” and “Criticism”, Nelson and Schunn strongly emphasized the role of “Mitigation language” in their proposed feedback model. “Mitigation language” can be seen as a mixture of both “Praise” and “Criticism”. The way a student doing peer review may start with some positive comments followed by the negative ones and then move to suggest ways of improvement can be considered as “Affected language” according to Nelson and Schunn’s categorization.

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In addition to the function dimension approach, some writing researchers examined the types of peer feedback from another perspective, that is, the scope dimension. This school of thought normally divided peer feedback into two aspects, namely, global and local comments. One of the main focuses of Liu and Sadler’s study [18] was to analyze the distribution between global and local areas identified in students’ peer-reviewed writings. Instead of using the explicit terms such as global and local remarks, peer feedback data collected from the studies of van den Berg et al. [34] and van der Pol et al. [35] was coded according to its “feedback aspect”. Such categorization was originally developed by Flower et al. [9] in which comments on the relevance of information, the clarity of the problem, the explanation of concepts were coded “Content”; feedback on the inner consistency of a writing text, for instance, the relation between the specified research question and the supporting information, or between the introduction and the conclusion were classified as “Structure” As opposed to “Structure”, “Style” referred to the outer form of the text including the use of language, grammar, spelling and layout.

3 Methodology 3.1 Participants The participants of this study included 49 Hong Kong Chinese students who enrolled in the Foundation Programmes of the three-year Associate Degree in Business, Design and Hospitality Management of a self-financing post-secondary institution in Hong Kong. Every participant of this study was required to attend a 120-hour Intensive Training Programme (ITP) in Chinese Communication (60 hours) and English Communication (60 hours). The ITP is a compulsory programme specially designed for students who failed to attain 10 points or five passes in the HKCEE. In other words, the language proficiency of these students is relatively low in comparison to the Secondary five graduates. None of them had previous experience in giving and/or receiving peer written feedback in the Chinese writing tasks. 3.2 Procedure These 49 students, comprising 30 males and 19 females, were asked to form groups of four or five on their own and then submit a 1500-word written report analyzing the common writing errors of Hong Kong people in Chinese to fulfill part of the course requirement at the end of semester 1. In the study, ten groups were formed, nine of which were reviewed by four peers and one was by five peers in accordance with the assignment of the instructor. Instead of being asked to submit a final-draft assignment, each group was required to upload their first draft report on the Wiki (itpchinese.wikispaces.com) using the pseudonym assigned by the instructor during Week one and then each student with an assigned login number was asked to provide some qualitative written comments to the designated group that the instructor has randomly assigned in the discussion forum available on the Wiki website in the following seven days. Then, each group was then asked to revise their own report by taking into account their peers’ comments and suggestions, and then post the final-draft report on Wiki one week later. In effect, every student was given an opportunity to perform the

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role of a writer and a reviewer in this study. All the above online writing and reviewing activities were conducted outside the regular teaching hours. 3.3 Instrument The coding system employed here was mainly based on Steehouder et al. [27] and Nelson & Schnunn’s [20] frameworks, to which some moderation has been made in order to meet the special needs of this Hong Kong study. Types and frequency of student reviewers’ responses were included in the Appendix. 3.3.1 Function Dimension Three types of peer feedback were categorized in relation to their functionality, including ‘Specificity’, ‘Explanation’ and ‘Elaboration’. (a)

Specificity

Following Nelson and Schunn’s [20] model, three components of specificity are examined in this study, including identifying the problem/good points, offering a solution, and locating the problem and/or solution. (i) Identification of Problem/Good Point The first component of feedback specificity is identifying the problem/good point which can be viewed as an indication of a student’s ability in detecting others’ writing problems during the online peer-review process. Examples found in student reviewers’ responses were: “The examples that you mentioned are closely related to the topic” and “You provided lots of information, but you need more analysis and explanation”. (ii) Offering a Solution Solutions were further divided into three categories: solutions that offer direction for suggestion, solutions that offer specific suggestion, as well as solutions that directly correct errors. The above comments are the indicators of students’ abilities in diagnosing and offering advice to the particular writing problems. For instance, “You should give more examples to support your arguments” (Pointing out the direction for changes) and “It would be desirable if you could add this sub-heading ‘Common Chinese Typos for the Food and Beverage Industry’ in Section (B) of your report” (Specific Suggestion). (iii) Localization Three kinds of “localization” feedback, ranging from the location of a problem, the location of a good point to the location of a solution, were identified in the study. For example, “There is a duplication of information in the first and the third paragraphs of your report”. (b)

Explanation

Explanation includes statements that provide justification and rationales for a problem highlighted, a good point identified or a suggestion made by the student reviewers during the wiki-supported writing activity. The following comment is one of the examples:

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“You should mention the sources of information in your report so as not to arouse your readers’ suspicion. Otherwise, they might think that your information was directly downloaded from the internet.” (c)

Elaboration

Elaboration refers to comments that asking peers to elaborate and clarify the topic they chosen, the viewpoints they argued, the vague statements or the ambiguous words they used in their draft reports. For example, “You should elaborate more on the reasons why students would always mix up some Chinese characters in writing, such as the confusion between ‘juan’( ) and ‘quan’( ) ”

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3.4 Scope Dimension Data of peer feedback gathered on this dimension is divided into two aspects, namely general comments and specific comments. As suggested by Steehouder et al.[27], the term ‘scope dimension’ refers to the subject of peer feedback that distinguishes between content, structure, and style of students’ writing. For example, “You succeeded in specifying the theme of your work with a detailed analysis coupled with sufficient examples” (Content), “The ideas of your report are good and they are presented in a systematic and logical manner” (Structure) and “You succeeded in fulfilling the requirement of the report by supplementing the text with relevant pictures/diagrams” (Style). 3.4.1 Affective Language Peer feedback collected from the Wiki website was evaluated in terms of ‘Praise’, ‘Criticism’ and “Mitigation Language” on this dimension. Examples are as below: Praise : “I appreciate the work of this group very much. A rich display of content with a clear presentation of material!” Criticism: “The presentation of your material was untidy”. Mitigating Language: “The layout of your report is quite good, but there are too many words.”

4 Analysis of Peer e-Feedback As described earlier, all peer e-feedbacks in this study were classified into three dimensions, including function dimension, scope dimension, and affective language. In respect of function dimension, the findings showed that reviewers tend to produce feedback in a descending order: (1) Offering a Solution; (2) Identification of Problem/Good Point; (3) Explanation; (4) Localization; and (5) Elaboration. As far as ‘offering a solution’ is concerned, it was found that female students were more responsive in giving ‘Direction for Suggestion’ and ‘Direct Error Correction’ than male students, whereas male students were more inclined to produce ‘Specific Suggestion’ than female students. In the ‘identification’ aspect, male students were found to be more enthusiastic and capable in identifying both problem and good point than female students. In connection with ‘explanation’, female students appeared to be more constructive in explaining both problem and solution, but male students demonstrated

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a better performance in explaining good points. The specificity feature of ‘localization’ revealed the fact that female students were more able to pinpoint the source or location of the problem than male students, whereas the opposite was found in locating the good point. Both genders were very competitive in identifying the location of the solution. Lastly, it was evident that both male and female students were found incapable of offering requests for ‘elaboration’, which is not surprising as they did not receive any training before taking part in this online peer- reviewed writing activity. In relation to the scope dimension, students of both genders tended to give more ‘general comments’ than ‘specific comments’ on their peers’ work. Such a phenomenon falls within our expectation as these students are relatively low academic achievers who lack proficiency in language to produce insightful comments and concrete suggestions. To have a closer examination of the effect of gender on producing peer feedback, male students were found to be more inclined to give general comments, whereas female students were more effective in offering specific comments. Further, male students were found to be more able to give general feedback than female students in relation to the ‘content’ and ‘structure’ of their peers’ writing. On the contrary, it is obvious that female students were more capable of producing specific comments relating to ‘content’, ‘structure’ and ‘style’. Finally and importantly, student e-feedback was analyzed in terms of affection. As expected, students in both groups were found to give a higher degree of positive feedback than the negative comments in the peer review process. Further, male students were observed to give more praise than female students. ‘Mitigating Language’ in feedback applies to both praise and criticism. A same pattern was found in both male and female students in giving praise followed by criticism during the evaluation process. Yet, a higher proportion of female students were found to be more critical and analytical in providing peer e-feedback as they would include criticism in their feedback prior to giving any praise or compliment.

5 Conclusions As indicated by the frequent occurrence of e-feedback with “identification” function, the present study suggests that linguistically less able students, like most of the participants in the study, also acquired certain level of language proficiency in detecting peers’ writing strengths and weaknesses. Such interpretation can be further supported by the findings of a number of the available writing research, both in the western and Asian countries, that students demonstrated abilities and skills in error correction (e.g. [29][31][33][7][8]). Consistent with the findings by van den Berg et al. [34] and van der Pol et al. [35], comment on structure was again found as the least frequent type of e-feedback occurred in the analysis of the written comments of both gender. The only difference between male and female participants in this aspect is that female students generated comparatively more specific comments on structure than their male classmates in this study. This finding may help us to understand that students, regardless of their gender, commonly have difficulties in locating problems and proposing suggestions relating to the aspect of structure. In fact, students’ inability in formulating “structure” remarks has been frequently reported in the current research of the written peer

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feedback, both the paper-based and online comments [34][35]. In view of these considerations, language instructors should focus more on the evaluation of the ‘structure’ issues such as the idea development and the organization of a research paper to supplement the limitation of students’ reviewers’ written comments when doing the online peer feedback writing and reviewing activity [34][35]. It is worth noting that ‘mitigating language’ in whatever format occurred more frequently than those of mere ‘praise’ and mere ‘criticism’, implying that the peer e-feedbacks generated by students in this study are composed of both the positive and negative comments. The above finding is contrary to some of the negative remarks towards the quality of peer feedback documented in the literature. For example, students found it extremely difficult to give negative feedback to classmates [36] and students may only give highly judgmental or negative feedback without training [2]. According to the past literature, one explanation for this result is that learners from the “collectivist cultures” like Chinese and Japanese were brought up in a cultural environment that highly valued ‘modesty’ and ‘courtesy’ and therefore they would have higher tendency to compliment rather than to criticize each other during the peer-review process [1][11][16][13][10]. Since the sample size in this study is relatively small, future research with larger numbers of both male and female students from different disciplines, together with face-to-face interviews with the focus groups of the participants after the e-peer reviewed activity with the aim of providing a clearer picture on their reasons behind using praise-oriented or criticism-oriented feedback, should be conducted to further probe the validity and reliability of the qualitative date collected in this Hong Kong study.

6 Implications for Future Research The present study provides some preliminary but useful qualitative data concerning the effect of gender on Hong Kong students’ response behavior, strategies and commentary styles in a wiki-supported Chinese writing class. Along with the proliferation of the web-based peer review systems, the potential effect of peer e-feedback on students’ writing performance will be more likely to become an issue and opportunity of growing concern among the writing researchers and language teachers. In view of this consideration, the research questions stated in this study needs further exploration and investigation with larger samples, as well as different research designs and methodologies. Furthermore, such additional research activity may generate opportunities to further refine and develop the terminology of research in this important area. Clearly, terms such as “global” and “mitigation” to cite but two examples may not be adequate to capture such as yet unresearched notions as peer to peer interaction following peerreview and motivation to master language learning in both Chinese and English. An important avenue for further research would be how peer e-feedback (peer review) of students written or word processed work can enhance student motivation to learn. Here motivation is used in a two-dimensional sense: e-peer review can be used to motivate deeper learning in both reviewer and reviewed. In such a teaching and learning environment, the quality of the ‘product’ (writing/expression) becomes the focus not who was ‘right’ and who was ‘wrong’. Clearly, in ways such as these, the online

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peer review dimension could be fine-tuned as an exciting learning tool. Maximizing interaction within and between learners is, surely, a higher level and much desired component of any holistic learning process.

References 1. Arndt, V.: What writing teacher can learn from their students. In: Lau, M., Murphy (eds.) Developing Writing: Purposes and Practices, pp. 98–118. Government Printer, Hong Kong (1992) 2. Beach, R., Friedrich, T.: Response to Writing. In: MacArthur, C.A., Graham, S., Fitzgerald, J. (eds.) Handbook of Writing Research, pp. 222–234. Guilford, New York (2006) 3. Chi, M.T.H.: Constructing self-explanations and scaffolded explanations in tutoring. Applied Cognitive Psychology 10, 33–49 (1996) 4. Cho, K., Schunn, C.D., Charney, D.: Commenting on writing: typology and perceived helpfulness of comments from novice peer reviewers and subject matter experts. Written Communication 23(3), 260–294 (2006) 5. Cho, K., MacArthur, C.: Student revision with peer and expert reviewing. Learning and Instruction, 1–11 (2009) 6. Ferris, D.R.: The influence of teacher commentary on student revision. TESOL Quarterly 31(2), 315–339 (1997) 7. Ferris, D.R.: Treatment of error in the secondary language student writing. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor (2002) 8. Ferris, D.R.: Response to student writing. In: Implications for Secondary Language Students. Erlbaum, Mahwah (2003) 9. Flower, L., Hayes, J.R., Carey, L., Schriver, K., Stratman, J.: Detection, diagnosis and the strategies of revision. College Composition and Communication 37, 16–55 (1986) 10. Guardado, M., Ling, S.: ESL student’s experiences of online peer feedback. Computers and Composition 24, 443–461 (2007) 11. Garratt, L.: Peer feedback in writing: is it ‘culturally appropriate’ for Hong Kong Chinese adult learners. Occasional Papers in English Language Teaching 5, 97–118 (1995) 12. Hayes, J.R., Flower, L.S.: Identifying the organization of writing processes. In: Gregg, L.W., Steinberg, E.R. (eds.) Cognitive Process in Writing: An Interdisciplinary Approach, pp. 3–30. Erlbaum, Hillsdale (1980) 13. Ho, M.C., Savignon, S.J.: Face-to-face and computer-mediated peer review in EFL writing. CALICO Journal 24(2), 269–290 (2007) 14. Kamler, B.: Gender and genre in early writing. Linguistics and Education 6(2), 153–182 (1994) 15. Kanaris, A.: Gendered journeys: Children’s writing and the construction of gender. Language and Education 13(4), 254–268 (1999) 16. Lee, I.: Peer reviews in a Hong Kong Tertiary Classroom. TESL Canada Journal 15(1), 58–69 (1997) 17. Leung, L.L.: Interactive revision instruction: teacher and peer feedback in teaching reply letters ( —— ). In: Proceedings of the Second Teaching and Learning Symposium. University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong (2004) 18. Liu, J., Sadler, R.W.: The effect and affect of peer review in electronic versus traditional modes on L2 writing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 2, 193–227 (2003)

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19. Miao, Y., Badger, R., Zhen, Y.: A comparative study of peer and teacher feedback in a Chinese EFL writing class. Journal of Second Language Writing 15, 179–200 (2006) 20. Nelson, M.M., Schunn, C.D.: The nature of feedback: how different types of peer feedback affect writing performance. Instruction Science 37, 375–401 (2009) 21. Paulus, T.M.: The effect of peer and teacher feedback on student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 8(30), 265–289 (1999) 22. Peterson, S.: Influence of Gender on Writing Development. In: MacArthur, C.A., Graham, S., Fitzgerald, J. (eds.) Handbook of Writing Research, pp. 311–323. Guilford, New York (2006) 23. Zhu, W.: Interaction and feedback in mixed peer response groups. Journal of Secondary Language Writing 10, 251–276 (2001) 24. Shum, S.K.: A study on the effects of different methods of evaluation of senior secondary school Chinese Composition ( ). Educational Research Journal 7, 19–20 (1992) 25. Smith, S.: The role of technical expertise in engineering and writing teachers’ evaluations of students’ writing. Written Communication 20, 37–80 (2003) 26. Sommers, N.: Revision strategies of student writers and experienced adult writers. College Composition and Communication 31, 378–388 (1980) 27. Steehouder, M., Jansen, C., Maat, K., van de Staak, J., Woudstra, E.: Leren Communiceren. Wolters-Norrdhoff, Groningen (1992) 28. Sumida, A.Y.: Reading a child’s writing as a social text. Language Arts 77(4), 309–315 (2000) 29. Siu, P.K., Ho, M.K.: Analytical study of student ability in error correction of the use of the words, phrases, and sentence structure ( , , ). Educational Journal 9, 13–21 (1981) 30. Tuzi, F.: The impact of e-feedback on the revisions of L2 writers in an academic writing course. Computer and Composition 21, 217–235 (2004) 31. Truscott, J.: The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes. Language Learning 46(2), 327–369 (1996) 32. Tseng, S.C., Tsai, C.C.: On-line peer assessment and the role of the peer feedback: A study of high school computer course. Computers & Education 49, 1161–1174 (2007) 33. Tsui, B.M., Ng, M.: Do secondary L2 writers benefit from peer comments? Journal of Second Language Writing 9(2), 147–170 (2000) 34. van den Berg, I., Admirall, W.F., Pilot, A.: Designing student peer assessment in higher education: analysis of written and oral peer feedback. Teaching in Higher Education 11(2), 135–147 (2006) 35. van der Pol, J., van den Berg, B.A.M., Admirall, W.F., Simons, P.R.J.: The nature, reception, and use of online peer feedback in higher education. Computers & Education 51, 1804–1817 (2008) 36. Zhao, Y.: The effects of anonymity on computer-mediated peer review. International Journal of Educational Telecommunication 4(4), 311–345 (1998)

四種中文作文評改法對高中學生的效應

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Appendix Table 1. Type and Frequency of e-feedback found in Student Reviewers’ Responses No. of Participants Gender 1. Function Dimension 1.1 Specificity 1.1.1 Identification (problem) (good point) (solution) 1.1.2 Solution Direction for Suggestion Specific Suggestion Direct Error Correction 1.1.3 Localization (problem) (good point) (solution) 1.2 Explanation (problem) (good point) (solution) 1.3 Request for Elaboration 2. Scope Dimension 2.1 General Comments 2.1.1 Content 2.1.2 Structure 2.1.3 Style (Expression) (Layout) (Wording) (Spelling) (Length) 2.2 Specific Comments 2.2.1 Content 2.2.2 Structure 2.2.3 Style (Expression) (Layout) (Wording) (Spelling) (Length) 3. Affective Language 3.1 Praise 3.2 Mitigating Language (Praise first) 3.3 Mitigation Language (Criticism first) 3.4 Criticism 3.5 Neutral 4. Personal reaction to the topic of the writing (nothing to do with revision)

N=19 Female (%)

N=30 Male (%)

N=49 Both Gender (%)

52.6% 68.4% 42.1% 63.2% 10.5% 15.8% 47.4% 5.3% 21.1% 26.3% 26.3% 57.9% 5.3%

63.3% 73.3% 43.3% 46.7% 16.7% 3.3% 33.3% 10.0% 20.0% 23.3% 43.3% 23.3% 3.3%

59.2% 71.4% 42.9% 53.1% 14.3% 8.2% 38.8% 8.2% 20.4% 24.5% 36.7% 36.7% 4.1%

47.4% 47.4% 15.8% 5.3% 5.3% 0.0% 5.3% 10.5% 52.6% 42.1% 31.6% 15.8% 21.1% 5.3% 5.3% 0.0%

66.7% 63.3% 26.7% 3.3% 13.3% 0.0% 0.0% 10.0% 33.3% 30.0% 16.7% 6.7% 13.3% 3.3% 6.7% 6.7%

59.2% 57.1% 22.4% 4.1% 10.2% 0.0% 2.0% 10.2% 40.8% 34.7% 22.4% 10.2% 16.3% 4.1% 6.1% 4.1%

15.8% 57.9% 21.1% 5.3% 0.0% 5.3%

26.7% 43.3% 16.7% 3.3% 6.7% 20.0%

22.4% 61.2% 20.4% 4.1% 4.1% 14.3%

Hybrid Learning Curriculum Development Using the ReProTool – Lessons from Ancient Philosophy Philippos Pouyioutas Department of Computer Science University of Nicosia, 46 Makedonitissas Avenue, 1700, Cyprus [email protected]

Abstract. This paper presents the ReProTool, a tool which provides the means and ensures that academic curriculum design/re-engineering takes place considering various student-centered learning pedagogical methods. Whether delivery of education is carried out through face-to-face or distance learning or combination of conventional and non conventional methods, pedagogical approaches utilizing interactivity, problem-based learning, simulation exercises and any other form of student initiated learning are crucial in the success of the learning process. It is well known that usually e-learning and hybrid learning environments tend to ignore such important methods and are developed without taking into consideration pedagogy theory. The use of ReProTool provides the opportunity to rethink the delivery and assessment methods employed in academic programmes of studies and learning environments. The tool focuses on the Bologna Process and Learning Outcomes (LOs) which provide the basis for setting up a student-centered learning environment. The paper also argues that pedagogical methods have their roots in ancient philosophy (both in the western and Asian civilization) and suggests that studies of philosophers such as Confucius and Socrates and their teaching/learning methods can greatly help educators, especially those engaging in hybrid learning. Keywords: Bologna Process, Hybrid Learning, Software Tools.

1 Introduction The Bologna process [4] aims at developing a European Educational Framework of standards/definitions/concepts so as to provide the basis for European countries to transform their educational system according to this framework. This will result in comparability/compatibility of the various European educational systems which will then result in collaborations amongst educational institutions, exchanges of students and teachers within Europe and transparency and transferability of qualifications. One of the first and most important concepts developed by the Bologna process is the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) that provides the framework for measuring the student workload in courses/modules/programmes and thus calculating the credits of these courses/modules/programmes. Another important concept recently introduced is the concept of the Learning Outcomes (LOs) [8], which allows courses/programmes to be expressed in terms of what a learner/student is expected to P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 160–170, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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know by the end of the course/programme. Finally the European Qualifications Framework [3] provides the basis for mapping the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) of each European country to this framework, thus transitively, mapping each country’s educational system to another country’s system. Examples of such NQFs are the Irish NQF [7] and the UK NQF [13]. All the aforementioned concepts/standards are based on the fundamental philosophy of the student-centered learning model, according to which the learning process should be built focusing on the student and not the teacher and the teaching process (teacher-learning model). The student workload calculated by both students and teachers leading to the course/programme ECTS, and the development of the Learning Outcomes of the courses/programme viewed form the student perspective, ensure that the student has an active role in the development and re-engineering of academic curriculum. Student-centered learning moves away from traditional teaching environments through which students are spoon-fed with information provided by the teachers and utilizes teaching/learning methods/techniques, through which students assume an active role and teachers become facilitators and co-coordinators of the student learning process, rather than information providers. Such methods/techniques include amongst others, problem-based learning, simulation exercises, group projects, research work, etc. It is of paramount importance that any E-Learning or Hybrid learning environment takes into consideration the aforementioned methods/techniques and builds its learning process in line with the student-centered learning model. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides a brief introduction to Socrates and Confucius and stresses the importance of utilizing their teaching methods in modern teaching/learning environments. Section 3 explains how Learning Objects support student-centered learning and thus Hybrid Learning. It then introduces ReProTool and thus shows how the tool indirectly supports these new ways of learning. Section 4 explains the need for ReProTool, Section 5 presents the functionality of the tool and Section 6 the supporting database design. Finally, Conclusions presents our current and future work in relation with ReProTool.

2 Ancient Philosophy, Confucius, Socrates and Hybrid Learning The concept of student-centered learning and the associated teaching/learning techniques are not really new concepts. One can trace such learning methods in ancient times. Socrates in ancient Athens/Greece is arguably the greatest philosopher of all times and the founder of the academy in Athens, the first institution of higher education in the western world. His well known dialectic method of teaching/learning fosters critical thinking and has evolved in various similar learning methods used nowadays [10]. Socrates philosophy recorded in Plato's dialogues was based on the search of truth and knowledge, starting from the assumption of knowing nothing. His famous statement “I know One thing I know Nothing” was the focus of his teaching/learning dialectic process. Socrates never gave definitions/knowledge to his students. Through his dialectic method, the assumption of knowing nothing and the continuous questioning, he made his students achieve knowledge and arrive by themselves to definitions and the truth. More specifically, Socrates dialectic method of philosophical enquiry focuses in questioning people on the position they asserted and

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working them through questions into a contradiction, thus proving to them that the original assertion was wrong. Thus Socrates was not a “teacher” but an “educator”. Modern versions/variations of Socrates dialectic method do not follow the aim of contradiction but build knowledge to students through questioning. A very good example of teaching binary numbers through such dialectic method can be found in [5]. Confucius in ancient China is arguably the greatest philosopher of the Asian civilization and one of the greatest educators. The most important characteristic which Confucius asked from his students was that they make the effort to learn. He encouraged them to make this effort by allowing them room to think for themselves [1]. Confucius recognized that people learn in different ways with varying abilities and thus was one of the first one to realize the importance of personalization and individualized instruction in teaching/learning. He also used a very similar approach to Socratic Dialectic method, utilizing questions and answers, metaphors and real-life examples. A detailed analysis on Confucius and his teaching methods as well as a comparison with Socrates can be found in [1]. One can argue that most of the modern teaching/learning techniques have been influenced by/are based on the Confucius and Socrates pedagogic methods and that the student-centered model has its roots/was first coined by these ancient philosophers. Irrespectively whether one agrees or not with this statement, student-centered learning is the focus of the Bologna Process and the model to be.

3 Learning Outcomes, Hybrid Learning and ReProTool Learning Outcomes and the writing of course syllabi using ECTS provide the chance to teachers to rethink the course/programme curriculum from the student perspective and reconsider the content of the course as well as the delivery (teaching/learning) and assessment methods. This basically results in re-engineering the course and the student learning process. This is particularly important since any Hybrid Learning delivery should not be just an automation of the existing conventional process, but instead a new way of course/programme delivery. Thus the use of LOs forces thereengineering of the course/programme content and the teaching/learning/assessment methods to fit within the framework of Hybrid Learning. Rethinking of the curriculum and its delivery is a lengthy process carried out periodically by universities in order to adapt programmes of study with current research issues, state-of-the-art developments and industry demands. This process is usually carried out manually without using a customized software tool. The ReProTool proposed herein is a tool which aims at automating many tasks carried out manually and thus improves the reengineering process of programmes of study. One recently developed methodology for programme re-engineering and quality assurance is the Tuning Methodology [6]. The methodology conforms to the Bologna Process directives and provides the framework for design and development of academic programmes. According to the Tuning Methodology, the first stage in designing a new programme is to build its profile, which includes among others, its aims and objectives, as well as the LOs. In order to make sure that the LOs are achieved, the Tuning Methodology utilizes various matrices that relate the LOs with the various courses.

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Currently, the Tuning Methodology has been adopted by many universities both in Europe and in Latin America [2, 9]. TunTool [11, 12], is the first software tool that was proposed to support the methodology and automate some of the tedious tasks that the users of the methodology have to perform. ReProTool is basically a new version of TunTool that incorporates LOs as defined in EQF in terms of knowledge, skills and competences. The tool greatly assists in the re-engineering of academic curriculum and teaching/learning methods and thus contributes significantly in the setting of Hybrid Learning environments. The success of such environments heavily depends on the proper rethinking of the curriculum and its delivery and assessment methods, especially bearing in mind the use and support of Information Communication Technologies.

4 The Need for Automation and ReProTool When building the degree profile of an academic programme, one needs to define its LOs. Ideally, existing definitions could be utilized rather than reinventing the wheel. Thus, one could select as many LOs (Knowledge, Skills, Competences) from a pool of such resources and then modify and add new ones accordingly. This not only would reduce the effort needed for building the programme profile, but also and more importantly perhaps, it would create programmes that are compatible to a certain extent (of course one may argue that this compatibility would have a drawback such as reducing creativity and innovation). There is currently no database of LOs that would allow downloading of these resources. The creation of a database of such resources would allow one to select and use them as part of the programme profile under development, thus benefiting from the aforementioned advantages. Another time-consuming and tedious task one faces is the verification that the programme's LOs are met by at least one course of the programme. Matrices could be constructed and checks could be made in order to accomplish this. In addition, a matrix entry does not necessarily have to be a Boolean value but instead a range of values could be specified that refer to the extent that a LO is met by a course. Furthermore, if one needs to find the LOs achieved by a course or the courses that achieve a particular LO, s/he should consult the hard copy or electronic matrices and produce manually in both cases the required information. This happens because there is no database to store the relationships between LOs and courses. A software tool based on such database could produce automatically the required information. Furthermore, the database could store for each course its own LOs, its assessment methods, its learning methods and the expected student workload. This basically would automate the completion of the student forms which are used to calculate the student workload and thus the number of the ECTS of the course, reducing even more the time and effort needed for building further the programme components. The automation would also allow what-if analysis and perform workload and ECTS recalculations very fast and error-free. The system would also check the semester breakdown of the programme of study in terms of the 30/60 ECTS requirements per semester/year. When it comes to the student calculations of their workload during a

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course and therefore the course ECTS, the system would allow the fast processing of all student forms and would produce average workloads for each course and each LO of a course, and the average ECTS of the course, as estimated by the students. All the aforementioned advantages of automating the application of the methodology used for designing/developing academic programmes of study clearly indicate the need for the proposed tool. ReProTool, similar to its predecessor TunTool, will provide a database of resources (programmes, courses, LOs, etc.) that will be accessed and shared by many users.

5 The ReProTool Interface and Functionality The ReProTool interface has been provisionally designed as part of a prototype system, based on the expected functionality of the tool and its potential users. There are three main user types, and thus three password-controlled authorised areas, namely programme coordinators, faculty members and students. The system also supports a system administrator area. The welcome screen interface allows users to login using their login name and password in one of the aforementioned areas. 5.1 System Administrator Area The System Administrator area provides the administrator the tools for managing (creating/editing) the end-users of the system and assigning them authorization privileges. Furthermore, the administrator is responsible for the maintenance of the data pertaining to the programme of studies, courses and the assignment of courses into programmes of studies. 5.2 Programme Coordinator Area The Programme Coordinator area assists the academic faculty in charge of programmes to set up programme's LOs (Knowledge, Skills, Competences). The first interface screen provides programme coordinators a list of programmes for which they are responsible. Once selecting one of the programmes, the program coordinator is redirected to the specific programme's screen interface with a Maintenance menu choice that allows him/her to create/edit LOs, assign LOs to the programme and associate LOs with the programme's courses. Furthermore the screen interface supports a Reports menu choice that allows the coordinator to generate reports including amongst others, LOs of a course, a matrix showing the LOs of a programme vs. the programme's courses, the LOs of a programme that are not covered by any course and a Programme's total ECTS and Semester's total ECTS. Figure 1 illustrates the screen interface of the report LOs vs. Courses in a matrix format. The symbol √ indicates that the particular course achieves the particular LO. The green colour is used in all √ cells of the matrix, whereas the red colour is used to colour any column without a √, highlighting the fact that a particular LO is not achieved by any course, thus giving a warning to the programme coordinator.

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Fig. 1. The Programme Matrix: “LOs vs. Courses”

5.3 Faculty Member Area The Faculty Member area provides a screen interface that allows faculty to access the courses that they teach and thus they are authorized to modify. Once a faculty member chooses a course, s/he is redirected to the screen interface shown in Figure 2 that prompts the completion of the Course ECTS Calculation Teacher form. This form lists the course’s LOs, the associated educational activities (teaching/learning methods), the assessment methods and the estimated student workload (number of hours) that students are expected to spend on each LO. The Calculate menu allows faculty to calculate the total student workload in hours and thus the total ECTS of the courses, whereas the Reports menu choice allows one to access and compare with the student estimated workload and ECTS and hence make any amendments if needed.

Fig. 2. The Faculty Member Course Form

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5.4 Student Area The Student Area mainly provides a screen interface, as shown in Figure 3, which allows students to record the number of hours they spend every week in a course. The total number of hours is automatically calculated by the system and displayed on the form. The system also calculates the average total number of hours spent by all students in the course and thus calculates the average student workload that is translated into the course ECTS as estimated by the students.

Fig. 3. The Student Course WorkLoad/ECTS Form

6 The Relational Database Design In this section we provide a relational database design that accommodates the system functionality as explained in the previous section. First, the ER model diagram of the application is described, followed by the corresponding decomposed ER diagram. The relational tables of the database are also given. 6.1 The ER Model Figure 4 illustrates the ER model that describes the database entities and relationships of the proposed database. The decomposed ER model is illustrated in Figure 5.

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Fig. 4. The ER Model

Fig. 5. The Decomposed ER Model

6.2 The Relational Tables of the Proposed Database Based on the decomposed ER model of Figure 5, the following relations are created. The abbreviated entity names in the ER model are also used herein as the names of the relations. In the appendix of the paper we provide simplified tables (with columns not necessary to exemplified the application removed) with sample data in order to exemplify the database structure and the underlying relations. P(Pid, Ptitle, Paims, Pobjectives) C (Cid, Ctitle, Caims, Cobjectives, CECTS) PCA (Pid, Cid) PLO (PLOid, PLOtitle, PLOdescription) PLOA (Pid, PLOid) CPLOS (Cid, PLOid) LM (LMid, LMtitle) AM (Amid, AMtitle) LMA (Cid, CLOid, LMid) AMA (Cid, CLOid, AMid) CLO (CLOid, CLOtitle, CLOdescription) CLOA (Cid, CLOid, CLOstudentworkload)

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7 Conclusions This paper has presented the ReProTool which can be used for the re-engineering of academic curriculum using the Bologna Process directives. The use of the tool in designing and developing academic programmes using Learning Outcomes and ECTS syllabi, forces academicians to rethink from the student perspective the curriculum content and the teaching/learning methods and techniques. Thus the tool provides great support in building a student-centered learning environment. The use of ReProTool is therefore crucial in building E-Learning and Hybrid Learning environments and delivery of programmes. Finally, the paper points out that the student-centered environment is not a new concept but has its roots in ancient Greek and Chinese philosophy and more specifically in Socrates and Confucius methods of teaching/learning. Such teaching/learning methods that empower the learner/student and convert the teacher into a facilitator are crucial in the success of both conventional and non-conventional learning environments and should be selected carefully during curriculum re-engineering using ReProTool.

Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Dr Ioanna Dionysiou and Dr Harald Gjermundrod, Assistant Professors at the Department of Computer Science at the University of Nicosia for their contribution in the development of the ReProTool and for reviewing this paper, as well for designing part of the screen interfaces.

References 1. Beck, S.: Confucius and Socrates, http://www.san.beck.org/CONFUCIUS3-How.html 2. Beneitone, P., Esquetini, C., Gonzalez, J., Marty, M., Siufi, G., Wagenaar, R.: Tuning Latin America Reflections on and outlook for Higher Education in Latin America, Bilbao (2007), ISBN: 978-84-9830-097-0 3. European Qualifications Framework, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/publ/pdf/eqf/ broch_en.pdf 4. European Commission Education and Learning. The bologna process, http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/educ/bologna/ bologna_en.html 5. Garlikov, R.: The Socratic Method: Teaching by Asking Instead of by Telling, http://www.garlikov.com/Soc_Meth.html 6. Gonzalez, J., Wagenaar, R.: Tuning Educational Structures in Europe Universities Contribution To The Bologna Process: An Introduction (2008), ISBN: 978-84-9830-132-8 7. Irish National Qualifications Framework, http://www.nfq.ie/nfq/en/ 8. Kennedy, D., Hyland, A., Ryan, N.: Writing and using learning outcomes, a practical guide. In: EUA Bologna Handbook, http://www.bologna-handbook.com/docs/frames/content_c.html

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9. Keravnou-Papailiou, E.: Implementing ECTS at the university of Cyprus, http://www.bologna-handbook.com/docs/frames/content_c.html 10. Maxwell, M.: Introduction to the Socratic Method and its Effect in Critical Thinking, http://www.socraticmethod.net 11. Pouyioutas, P.: The design of the tuntool, a software tool for the Tuning methodology. In: IADIS International Conference on e-Society, Spain, vol. 2, pp. 75–79 (2009) 12. Pouyioutas, P., Gjermundrod, H., Dionysiou, I.: The Development of the TunTool, A Software Tool for the Tuning Methodology. In: 2nd International Conference on Computer Supported Education, Spain (April 2010) 13. United Kingdom National Qualifications Framework (NQF), http://www.qaa.ac.uk/academicinfrastructure/FHEQ/EWNI08/ FHEQ08.pdf

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Appendix P Pid P1 P2 P3 P4

C Ptitle Computer Science MIS Business Psychology

PCA Pid Cid P1 COMP-152 P1 COMP-153 P1 COMP-255 P2 COMP-152 P2 COMP-153 P3 COMP-150 P4 COMP-150 CPLOS Cid PLOid COMP-152 PLO 1 COMP-152 PLO 2 COMP-255 PLO 1 COMP-255 PLO 2 COMP-150 PLO 4 COMP-201 PLO 3

CLOA Cid COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-153 COMP-153 COMP-153 COMP-153

LMA Cid COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152

CLOid CLO1 CLO2 CLO3 CLO1 CLO2 CLO3 CLO4

Cid Ctitle ECTS COMP-152 Programming I 6 COMP-153 Visual Basic 6 COMP-255 Programming II 6 COMP-150 Microcomputer Applications 6 COMP-201 System Analysis and Design 6 PLO PLOA PLOid PLOtitle Pid PLOid PLO 1 Provide abstract solution to P1 PLO 1 problem P1 PLO 2 PLO 2 Design and develop software P1 PLO 3 PLO 3 Analyze user requirements P2 PLO 3 PLO 4 Develop business models P2 PLO 4 PLO 5 Provide psychological supP3 PLO 4 port P4 PLO 5 CLO CLOid CLOtitle CLO1 conceptualize abstract programs CLO2 apply algorithmic thinking CLO3 write and debug programmes CLO4 discuss object-oriented programming concepts CLO5 utilize Microsoft word, excel and access CLO6 solicit user requirements CLO7 design data flow diagrams CLO8 design and create databases LM AM

CLOstudentWL 30 50 70 30 50 50 20

CLOid CLO1 CLO1 CLO2 CLO2 CLO2 CLO3 CLO3 CLO3 CLO3

LMid LM1 LM5 LM1 LM2 LM5 LM1 LM2 LM4 LM5

LMid LM 1 LM 2 LM 3 LM 4 LM 5 LM 6

LMtitle Lecture Tutorial Group Work Laboratory Self Study Library Study

AMid AM 1 AM 2 AM 3 AM 4 AM 5 AM 6

AMA Cid COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152 COMP-152

AMtitle Final Exam Mid Term Project Quizzes Home Work Field Work

CLOid CLO1 CLO1 CLO1 CLO2 CLO2 CLO2 CLO3 CLO3 CLO3

LMid AM1 AM2 AM3 AM1 AM2 AM3 AM1 AM2 AM3

Investigating Hong Kong Form 6 Students’ Perceptions towards Their Development of Critical Thinking Skills with Narrative Analysis Activities with Film Paul Chi Hong Lip1 and Emil Ka Leung Li2 1

Caritas Institute for Further & Adult Education—Kowloon, Hong Kong, China [email protected] 2 Caritas Francis Hsu College, Hong Kong, China [email protected]

Abstract. In the New Senior Secondary (NSS) English language curriculum in Hong Kong, film will be treated as a popular cultural text to develop students’ critical thinking skills [4]. The purpose of the study was to investigate Form 6 students’ perceptions on whether they found narrative analysis activities with films useful and interesting for developing their critical thinking skills. In a 2week period, 33 Form 6 students did narrative analysis activities with films in two rounds for two different films. After each round, students also completed questionnaires to reflect on whether they found narrative analysis activities with film useful and interesting. After an analysis of questionnaire data from the two rounds, follow-up semi-structured interviews were carried out with nine students of different English academic abilities to probe further qualitative data. In general, students found narrative analysis activities with film useful and interesting in the development of their critical thinking skills. Keywords: narrative analysis activities, critical thinking skills, NSS English language curriculum, Form 6 students’ perceptions, critical analysis activities, film.

1 Introduction The NSS English Language curriculum of Hong Kong (Secondary 4-6) was launched with effect from the academic year 2009/2010, to comply with the new senior secondary academic structure (3+3+4) [4]. The main aims are: 1) to develop learner’s personal, intellectual development and cultural awareness in the English medium through pleasure, work and study; and 2) to prepare learners to meet socio-economic demands of the use of English in the context of pleasure, work and study [4]. “Learning English through Popular Culture”, an elective course in the NSS English language curriculum, enables students to “understand and interpret ideas, information, facts, opinions and intentions presented in written and spoken texts related to popular culture” [6, p. 41]. Film is treated as one of the suggested texts of popular culture P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 171–185, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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which students need to “analyze…typical features…respond and give expressions to experiences, events, ideas, characters or issues…and personal reflections” [4, p.38]. In other words, students need to be able to give their critical responses to different aspects of a film as a literacy text by giving their points of view and judgments about the film they have watched [4],[6]. However, the Education Bureau (EDB) [6] and the Curriculum Development Council (CDC) & the Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) [4] seem to have given limited pedagogical guidance on how to help Hong Kong English teachers conduct critical analysis activities involving the use of films in the language classroom in their NSS English curriculum guidelines. Hong Kong English teachers may not be familiar with using motion pictures to teach the language. In the classroom context, narrative analysis activities have been used to engage learners to analyze the storyline of the film in terms of plot, character and setting and also the development of themes for writing assignments [1]. Film is a type of technological product as it is projected on the screen with the help of audio-visual equipment [10]. Video clips from films can help students develop their language proficiency in their critical responses [1]. The two authors were motivated to do this research study due to the limited pedagogical guidance on narrative analysis activities with film from the NSS English curriculum guidelines for Hong Kong English teachers. The present study investigates 33 Form 6 students’ perceptions on whether or not they find narrative analysis activities with films useful and interesting to develop their critical thinking skills. The authors were motivated to do this research study due to the limited pedagogical guidance on narrative analysis activities with films from the NSS English curriculum guidelines for Hong Kong English teachers. The following issues will be addressed in this paper: 1) The definition of critical thinking skills for film study; 2) Different critical analysis activities for film study; 3) Narrative analysis activities with films; 4) Pedagogical film studies on developing students’ critical thinking skills; and 5) The significance of the study.

2 Definition of Critical Thinking Skills for Film Study Critical thinking has been defined in many disciplines such as English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and cognitive psychology and transformative pedagogy [15]. From a social and personal perspective, students will develop critical thinking skills when they “examine the deep meanings, personal implications, and social consequences of any knowledge, theme, technique, text or material” [15, p.295 cite Aronowitz & Giroux, 1988; Benesch, 1992, 1993a, 1993b; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; Cummins, 1989; Freire, 1974; Freire & Macedo, 1987; Tollesfson, 1991]. It seems that students develop critical thinking skills if they can interpret the underlying messages of any text such as film from their personal and social perspectives which can be related to their experiences in their daily lives. Critical thinking is also seen as a “combination of knowledge, attitudes, and skills” [2, p. 56 cite Watson & Glaser, 1964], and understanding situations, evaluating different points of views and solving problems [2, p.56 cite Victor 1992].

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Philosopher Richard Paul has published extensively in the area of critical thinking [16]. He has actually developed a definition of “critical thinking” with Scriven [16]. The researchers adapted Petress [16, cite Scriven & Paul, 2003] definition of critical thinking to blend with film study because the definition is clear, concise and comprehensive. Below is their definition: Critical thinking skills for film study is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from film, or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action from film. The adapted definition of critical thinking for film study gives a clear indication of learners’ characteristics when they interact with films such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation of film information as a process. The next question that arises is to assess critical thinking skills. Most of the pedagogical studies on films in language education have not shown how researchers assess whether or not students can think critically and are based merely on students’ perceptions from either questionnaire surveys, interviews or journals/diaries which cannot validate students’ development of critical thinking skills, e.g. [3], [5], [7], [8], [9], [11], [13], [19], [20], [23]. However, one study conducted by Renzi [17] has developed a rubric to assess students’ writing assignments on viewing films based on eight criteria of developing critical thinking skills in Paul and Elder’s book The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools (2005, 4th ed). The eight criteria of developing critical thinking skills are: (1) purpose of thinking; 2) question at issue; 3) information; 4) interpretation; 5) concepts; 6) assumptions; 7) implications and consequences; and 8) points of view [17]. Renzi [17, p. 3] modifies the rubric from the eight criteria to five categories and assesses students’ written assignments. The five categories are shown as follows: Category 1: Identifying the main purpose and the question at issue Category 2: Comprehending the content and central concepts Category 3: Analyzing the content and literary elements to interpret the material and draw inferences Category 4: Recognizing alternative points of view and identifying assumptions Category 5: Determining implications and consequences However, Renzi’s [17] categories seem confusing and difficult to differentiate. Take category 4 as an example, the student may be able to give his/her point of view but may not be able to identify an assumption. Also, Renzi’s adapted version of Paul and Elder’s (2005) eight criteria for developing critical thinking skills lacks a lot of detailed descriptions compared to its original. For example, students should be able to reason based on “evidence” but in Renzi’s adapted version, this important criterion of “evidence” is missing. The detailed version of Paul and Elder’s [12 cite 1997] eight criteria for developing critical thinking skills, is shown below:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

All reasoning has a PURPOSE; All reasoning is an attempt to FIGURE SOMETHING OUT, TO SETTLE SOME QUESTION, TO SOLVE SOME PROBLEM; All reasoning is based on ASSUMPTIONS; All reasoning is done from some POINT OF VIEW; All reasoning is based on DATA, INFORMATION and EVIDENCE; All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, CONCEPTS and IDEAS; All reasoning contains INFERENCES or INTERPRETATIONS by which we draw CONCLUSIONS and give meaning to data; and All reasoning leads somewhere or has IMPLICATIONS and CONSEQUENCES. Fig. 1. Elements of Thought (reasoning)

The authors have adapted Louisville University’s [12, cite Paul & Elder, 1997] eight criteria for developing critical thinking skills as six criteria of assessing critical thinking skills for film study, as shown below: 1. The student can reason based on giving assumptions about the film. 2. The student can reason based on giving his/her point of view of the film. 3. The student can reason based on what he/she has observed from the film. 4. The student can reason based on sharing his/her background knowledge about the film. 5. The student can reason based on giving implied meanings about the film. 6. The student can reason based on giving consequences about the film. Fig. 2. Criteria for assessing students’ critical thinking skills for film study

In the six criteria of assessing critical thinking skills, the authors exclude the first criterion “purpose”, second criterion “figure out something” and the third criterion “inferences or interpretations” from Paul and Elder’s eight criteria as they are too abstract and difficult to assess. The authors also separate “implications” from “consequences” as students can give either one or the other in their reasoning. The adapted version is believed to serve as a useful checklist to see whether students have developed their critical thinking skills from their written work after viewing and analyzing a film. 2.1 Different Critical Analysis Activities for Film Study Previous studies on the use of critical analysis activities with films to improve students’ critical thinking skills focus mainly on analyzing the narrative, cultural, cinematic or rhetorical aspects of films, e.g. [3], [5], [7], [8], [9], [11], [13], [19], [20], [23]. However, the distinctions of these critical analysis activities with films have not been defined clearly by a number of researchers, e.g. [3], [5], [7], [8], [9], [11], [13], [19], [20], [23], not to mention those in the NSS English Language Curriculum, e.g.

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[6]. Anderson [1], however, has done a better job defining such activities. She differentiates the definitions of these critical analysis activities into four types of analysis supplemented with examples of pedagogical practices of these activities, providing Hong Kong English teachers with a very clear pedagogical model of engaging students to analyze films from different critical perspectives. As a literacy text, films have been used by university lecturers to help students to “build proficiency in critical response” [1, p. 30]. The main objective of the four critical analysis activities for film study is to “deconstruct the text and to construct a critical essay based on textual analysis” [1, p. 28]. In other words, these four critical analysis activities help learners to critically analyze films and to prepare them to write a critical essay on what they have seen or observed from film clips. The following section will define Anderson’s [1] definition of narrative analysis for film study. 2.2 Narrative Analysis Activities with Films In the classroom context, narrative analysis activities have been used to engage learners to analyze the storyline of the film in terms of plot, character and setting and also the developments of themes for writing assignments [1, p. 31 cite Costanzo, 2004; Teasley & Wilder 1996]. In other words, engaging them to analyze the story of the film such as identifying the characters, and the events of the film is actually engaging students to analyze the film from a narrative perspective.

3 Pedagogical Film Studies on Developing Students’ Critical Thinking Skills A number of researchers in language education have engaged students in different critical analysis activities to analyze films which help develop their critical thinking skills, e.g. [3], [5], [7], [8], [9], [11], [13], [19], [20], [23]. Eken [7] conducted a study by engaging university students to analyze the different aspects of film in order to improve their critical thinking skills and to increase their awareness of the construction of media texts through student-led workshops on analyzing the literacy aspects of film such as analyzing cinematic (e.g., soundtrack) (cinematic analysis) and narrative aspects (e.g., identifying characters) in film clips (narrative analysis). From follow-up interviews with each group, it is shown that the students have improved their critical thinking skills as they are able to question and analyze films from different perspectives and understand how different aspects of films create the meaning of the film as a whole. Knee [11] engaged university students to focus on narrative and cinematic aspects of film (narrative and cinematic analysis). In his language course, Knee [11] engaged his students to discuss and write movie reviews and describe narrative and cinematic aspects in the scenes of movies. Knee [11] comments that the course is quite successful as the students can use the target language through classroom discussions and thus increasing their understanding and critical awareness of the themes, plots and cinematic aspects of the films watched. Ng [13] conducted a study to analyze the views of Chinese university students in a learner-centred course, which focuses on the use of films to help develop their critical

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thinking skills. Divided in groups, students have to present and discuss the selected film with a focus on the narrative aspect (e.g. describing the characters), cultural aspect (e.g. discussing love relationships) and cinematic aspect (e.g. identifying diegetic sounds). For the groundwork, discussions and lectures were given to the students to familiarize themselves with cinematic, narrative, social and cultural aspects in films, so as to prepare them for their presentations. Each student had to write an essay analyzing the cinematic aspect of the film. Post-course questionnaire results reveal that the students have not only improved their critical thinking and analytical skills, but also deepened their knowledge of foreign cultures. Obviously, this resulted from exposure to cultural elements in foreign films. Curtis and Chapple [5] conducted a study to investigate Chinese university students’ ability to analyze the cultural issues brought out in films in a learner-centred English course. The students viewed movie scenes and led discussions followed by presentations on social issues arising from the films (cultural analysis), the narration of the films (e.g. describing the characters), did quizzes on factual film information, filled in worksheets on the narrative aspects of films (e.g. identifying the roles of the characters from their appearance and actions) (narrative analysis), analyzed the cinematic aspects of films (e.g. describing the lighting and sounds in the scenes) and rhetorical aspects (e.g. describing the meaning of the ending of the film) and wrote a reflective essay in the end. Open-ended responses from the questionnaires reveal that the students find the films act as a stimulus for analyzing the cinematic features of the films in terms of meaning, music, lighting, etc. They agree that their thinking skills have improved after analyzing the features of the films such as the directors’ perspective (rhetorical analysis), the logic or the flow of the story of the films (narrative analysis) and the social elements of the films (cultural analysis). Anderson [1] conducted a study on students’ perceptions towards four writing instructors’ use of four different critical analysis activities (narrative, cultural, cinematic and rhetorical analysis) to teach film writing to first year university students. A total of 47 students from four classes volunteered and filled in an open-ended survey about their views of this teaching method. The survey shows the following results: 1) the students acknowledge the power of film such as the cinematic aspects used in the film, and show awareness that the director’s way of filming help shape the messages or the meaning portrayed in the film; 2) the students understand how the director persuade the viewers, 3) the students increase their awareness of different parts in films (e.g. scenes, characters); and 4) the students grasp the moral and social meaning of the film.

4 Significance of the Study Many pedagogical studies in language education indicate that university students have developed or improved their critical thinking skills after doing a variety of critical analysis activities with films through discussions or presentations, e.g. [5], [7], [13], [20], surveys/questionnaires, written assignments, forms, journals, diaries or reports, e.g. [5], [8], [13], [17] from a narrative, e.g. [1], [3], [5], [7], [13], cultural, e.g. [1], [5], [3], [8], [9], [13], [19], [20], cinematic, e.g. [1], [3[, [5], [7], [11], [13], or rhetorical, e.g. [1], [5] perspective.

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As most of these studies were done abroad and focused on university students, there seems few studies have investigated senior secondary students’ perceptions in Asia, especially in Hong Kong. Also, most pedagogical studies on films in language education have not clearly addressed whether students will find watching films useful for developing their critical thinking skills as most studies just show students’ personal reactions. Therefore, it is of significance to investigate Hong Kong senior secondary students’ perceptions towards narrative analysis activities with films in terms of usefulness and interest. In the present study, narrative analysis activities with films were conducted with a class of Form 6 students to investigate whether or not films are interesting and useful to develop their critical thinking skills.

5 Methodology In this section, the following issues will be addressed: 1) Purpose of the Study and Research Question; 2) Participants; 3) Research Design and Research Instruments; 4) Data Analysis; 5) Pedagogical Approach to Conduct Narrative Analysis Activities with Films; 6) Pedagogical Procedures for the Study; 7) Pedagogical Procedures for Round 1 & 2; and 8) Lesson Schedule for the Study. 5.1 Purpose of the Study and Research Question The main purpose of this research study is to investigate Form 6 students’ perceptions on whether they will find narrative analysis activities with films useful and interesting for developing their critical thinking skills. The study answers the following research question: Do students find narrative analysis activities with films useful and interesting for developing their critical thinking skills? 5.2 Participants The present study involves 33 Cantonese-speaking Chinese students and English is their second or foreign language. These Form 6 students are from a private secondary school in Hong Kong. The medium of instruction was English. The students have completed the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE). The authors selected these students as they have experienced the Hong Kong secondary English language education system (Form 1-5). The significance will lie in drawing Hong Kong English teachers’ attention to the value of the teaching approach, i.e. developing senior secondary students’ critical thinking skills by means of films. 5.3 Research Design and Research Instruments This is a case study observing the learning characteristics of 33 Form 6 students [14, cite Cohen & Manion, 1985]. The two researchers are investigating a single instance of a class of objects (i.e., Hong Kong Chinese EFL students) in a context (i.e. a private secondary school in Hong Kong) [14]. Two rounds of narrative analysis activities have been conducted for a class of 33 students in this study. The purpose of such

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activities for the same class of students is to increase the internal reliability of the study so the authors can be more confident to confirm the findings of the study. The design of narrative analysis activities is based on Anderson’s [1] pedagogical examples of narrative analysis activities with films. The content validity of the research instruments (i.e. questionnaire, interview, and worksheet) is ensured as the research instruments, i.e., the questionnaire, interview questions, and worksheets, are checked and modified by an external academic from a Hong Kong university to see if the questions in the questionnaire, interview and worksheet match the constructs of the research study. The authors have formally obtained the consent from the students to participate in the research study. All the students have been informed that the research study is purely for research purposes only and that their identities will be anonymous. In Round 1, narrative analysis activities with film were conducted with a class of 33 students in a 1-hour lesson in the third week of February 2009. For Round 2, another set of narrative analysis activities with film were conducted with the same class of 33 students in a 1-hour lesson in the fourth week of February 2009. Students watched a different film for each round: action-packed film in Round 1 and comedy film in Round 2. Students completed worksheets which elicited their responses to the story and change of characters in the films when they watched certain clips from the films in the two rounds. In Round 1, the first student questionnaire was distributed to the students to elicit their perceptions on the usefulness and interest of doing narrative analysis activities with films to develop their critical thinking skills. In Round 2, the second student questionnaire was distributed to the students after doing narrative analysis activities with films to elicit their perceptions on the usefulness and interest of doing narrative analysis activities with films to develop their critical thinking skills. The same questionnaire was distributed at the end of each round to increase the reliability of the students’ answers. Follow-up semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine students from different English academic abilities based on their English examination marks for an English course that they took in the first semester of 2008-2009 (lowranked group—3 students, middle-ranked group—3 students, and top-ranked group— 3 students) to elicit their perceptions on the usefulness and interest in developing their critical thinking skills with narrative analysis activities with films in the second week of March, 2009. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with the nine students in order to triangulate and check the validity and reliability of the quantitative responses in the first questionnaire in Round 1 with the second questionnaire in Round 2. The semi-structured interviews were carried out in Cantonese as it was the first language of the students so they could understand more clearly to the interview questions. The students are labeled A-I to keep their identities anonymous in the study. The questionnaire and interview data is used to find out students’ perceptions on the usefulness and interest in doing narrative analysis activities with films in developing their critical thinking skills. Before the study was conducted, the authors defined “critical thinking skills for film study” to the students in order to prevent them from interpreting critical thinking skills in different ways.

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5.4 Data Analysis All the data collected from the questionnaires in the two rounds regarding students’ perceptions on the usefulness and interest of doing narrative analysis activities with films were quantified and presented in percentage. Statistical tests on Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) with software SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) were used to examine the correlation (the degree of relationship) of the students’ questionnaire data collected in the two rounds of administration in order to measure the degree of reliability of students’ answers to the same questionnaire in the two rounds. The authors set the significance level for Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (r) of the research study at the 0.01 probability level (p) or lower, which is regarded as a conservative significant level in language studies; since the findings of the research study is related to the learning objectives of the New Senior Secondary English language curriculum, the authors set this significance level as it is associated with language studies. The reliability criteria for Pearson correlation for the study were set as follows: high reliability > 1-0.70, good reliability 0.69-0.60, fair reliability 0.59-0.40, and poor reliability 0.39 or lower. All the data collected from the semi-interviews were recorded, translated and transcribed in English under different themes. 5.5 Pedagogical Approach to Conduct Narrative Analysis Activities with Films In the study, the authors have defined the pedagogical approach to conduct narrative analysis activities with films based on Anderson’s [1] pedagogical examples of conducting narrative analysis activities with films. For narrative analysis activities with films, students will observe and analyze the storyline of a film which adapts Anderson [1, cite Costanzo, 2004] and Anderson’s [1, cite Teasley & Wilder, 2004] idea of students analyzing the storyline of the film in terms of character, plot and themes for their written assignments. In these activities, students will also observe and analyze the change of the characters in the film which adapts Anderson’s [1, cite Moss’s 1985] narrative analysis activity where Anderson’s [1, cite Moss, 1985] engaged students to observe the character development of the ape King Kong in the film. 5.6 Procedures for Round 1 and 2 Narrative analysis activities are used to engage the students to analyze film clips from a particular film Spiderman (an action-packed film) in Round 1 and Daddy Day Care (a comedy film) in Round 2. Spiderman and Daddy Day Care are chosen for Round 1 and 2 respectively as they are popular films which may appeal to teenage students. During the narrative analysis activities in the two rounds, the students completed worksheets which aimed to elicit their responses to the story and the change of the characters in the films. Different scenes of the films were played while the students were doing narrative analysis activities in rounds 1 and 2. The movies were in English with Chinese subtitles. The Chinese subtitles were shown in the films to the students to ensure that the students would have no difficulty in understanding the films.

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5.7 Lesson Schedule for the Study Dividing the lesson into the pre-viewing, viewing and post-viewing phase is a common organizing principle for using film clips in the language classroom by previous researchers, e.g. [21, 22]. Each lesson consisted of two stages: 1) viewing and 2) postviewing. The schedule for the study is shown below: Table 1. The Schedule for the Study Lesson

1

2

Critical Analysis Activities Narrative Analysis

Narrative Analysis

Day

Date (of week)

No. of hours

Mon

Third week of February 2009

1

Mon

Fourth week of February 2009

1

Content

Stage1: Viewing activities Task 1: Note-taking Stage 2: Post-viewing activities Task 2: Reflection Stage 1: Viewing activities Task 1: Note-taking Stage 2: Post-viewing activities Task 2: Reflection

6 Results and Discussion The study examined students’ perceptions on whether narrative analysis activities with films were useful and interesting for developing their critical thinking skills. The following sections will show the results of students’ perceptions towards doing narrative analysis activities with films in terms of usefulness and interest from the questionnaire and interview findings to answer the proposed research question of the research study. 6.1 Students’ Perceptions on the Usefulness of Narrative Analysis Activities with Films for Rounds 1 & 2 Table 2 shows the students’ perceptions towards the usefulness of narrative analysis activities with films for developing their critical thinking skills in rounds 1 & 2. A large majority of students (Round 1 (94%) and Round 2 (94%)) strongly agree that narrative analysis activities are useful in developing their critical thinking skills. This suggests that most of the students do benefit from the narrative analysis activities with films and their critical thinking skills after the two rounds of activities have been improved. Also, results from the statistical test on Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient shows that there is a significant relationship (p=0.01) and a very high correlation (r=1) between students’ perceptions on the usefulness of narrative analysis activities with films from Round 1 to Round 2 at the 0.01 probability level (2-tailed). The results from the statistical test on Pearson product-moment

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Table 2. Students’ Perceptions on the Usefulness of Narrative Analysis Activities with Films for Rounds 1 & 2 Rounds (R)

Item No.

Statement (n=33)

R1

1.

Narrative analysis activities help to develop my critical thinking skills

R2

1.

Narrative analysis activities help to develop my critical thinking skills

Strongly Disagree and Disagree 0 (0%) 0 (0%)

Don’t Know

Strongly Agree and Agree

2 (6%)

31 (94%)

2 (6%)

31 (94%)

correlation coefficient show that the students’ answers collected from the same questionnaire in the two rounds are highly reliable and consistent. The student interview findings indicate that all the students (N1=9) think that the narrative analysis activities with films are useful for the following reasons: 1) they could think about the films (4 out of 9 students); 2) they could analyze the films (6 out of 9 students); and 3) they could understand the films (4 out of 9 students). The student interview finding regarding the students’ analysis of films is consistent with studies conducted by Curtis and Chapple [5], Knee [11], Eken [7] and Ng [13]. The students participating in their studies have benefited in terms of critical thinking skills by analyzing narrative aspects such as themes, characters and plots from the films. For example, a middle-ranked student interviewee mentioned that narrative analysis activities engaged him to think about the film such as how the characters change in the film. Below is one of the participants’ opinions: This part lets you think of the roles and the change! What changed? Let the audience think about the process! Very useful to develop our critical thinking! Let us think about the main characters from the start, how they changed, at what point they changed, something like that. (R28, Student D) The student interview finding regarding students’ understanding of films is consistent with Anderson [1] who also reported that the students in her study had an awareness of the narrative aspects of the films such as being aware of the characters and the scenes in the films. This proves students’ deep understanding of the films. The student interview finding regarding the students’ thinking of the films is also consistent with Curtis and Chapple’s studies [5] where the students in their study improved their critical thinking skills by analyzing the narrative aspects of the film such as the logic or flow of the story.

1 2

N=Number of Student Interviewees. R=Response from the Student Interviewee.

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6.2 Students’ Perceptions on Their Interests in Narrative Analysis Activities with Films for Rounds 1 & 2 Table 3 displays the questionnaire results of students’ perceptions on their interests in doing narrative analysis activities with films in rounds 1 & 2. Responses for item 2 in Table 3 show that a large majority of students strongly agreed and agreed that narrative analysis activities with films were interesting in developing their critical thinking skills (Round 1 (97%) and Round 2 (88%)). This suggests that most of the students favoured doing narrative analysis activities with films to develop their critical thinking skills after the two rounds. In addition, results from the statistical test on Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient show that there is a significant relationship (p=0.005) and a fair correlation (r=0.476) between students’ perceptions on their interests of doing narrative analysis activities with films from Round 1 to Round 2 at the 0.01 probability level (2-tailed). The results from the statistical test on Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient reveal that the students’ answers collected from the same questionnaire in the two rounds regarding their perceptions on their interests in doing narrative analysis activities with films are fairly reliable and consistent. Table 3. Students’ Perceptions on Their Interests in Narrative Analysis Activities with Films in Rounds 1 & 2 Rounds (R)

Item No.

Statement (n=33)

Strongly Disagree and Disagree

Don’t Know

Strongly Agree and Agree

R1

2.

I find narrative analysis activities interesting for developing my critical thinking skills

0 (0%)

1 (3%)

32 (97%)

R2

2.

I find narrative analysis activities interesting for developing my critical thinking skills

0 (0%)

4 (12%)

29 (88%)

The student interview findings after the two rounds show that all the students (N=9) felt that narrative analysis activities with films were interesting in developing their critical thinking skills for one of the following reasons: 1) they liked watching films (3 out of 9 students); 2) they could learn or improve their English (3 out of 9 students); 3) they could think about the films (3 out of 9 students); and 4) they could focus or observe the film (2 out of 9 students). For example, a middle-ranked student interviewee mentioned that she was interested in doing narrative analysis activities as it helped her to think about the narrative aspects of the film:

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We can think critically from different angles. Not just think about one thing. For example, you need to think of the reason which leads to this situation which may broaden our horizon. It lets us think more about the character and other things, background, the character’s fate, something like that. (R25, Student E) The student interview finding regarding the students’ thinking of films is consistent with Curtis and Chapple [5] where the students in their study could think from different perspectives such as analyzing the narrative aspects of the film.

7 Conclusion The present study investigated Form 6 students’ perceptions on the usefulness and interest of doing narrative analysis activities with films to develop their critical thinking skills. Questionnaire and interview results showed that Form 6 students, to a great extent, really found narrative analysis activities with films useful and interesting in developing their critical thinking skills. The results of the research study provide evidence to support the credibility and the value of doing narrative analysis activities with films to develop EFL Chinese students’ critical thinking skills in language classrooms in Hong Kong. The study is based on a sample of 33 students, therefore it cannot be used to make generalizations about the perceptions of Hong Kong Chinese students towards developing critical thinking skills with narrative analysis activities with film. In the study, only two film genres (action-packed—Spiderman, comedy—Daddy Day Care) were used in the study to conduct narrative analysis activities in the two rounds. For this reason, the students’ perceptions towards narrative analysis activities might be affected due to the kind of films that were used in their analysis. Although narrative analysis activities with films have helped students to develop their critical thinking skills in the study, only two film genres were used to conduct the activities in the two rounds. It is recommended that Hong Kong English teachers could try out different film genres such as science fiction and thrillers to see whether other film genres also help students to develop their critical thinking skills when doing narrative analysis activities with film. Hong Kong teachers need to fulfill the learning objective to develop students’ critical thinking skills with popular cultural texts such as film for the new elective “ Learning English through Popular Culture” in the NSS English language curriculum so the students can “understand and interpret ideas, information, facts, opinions, and intentions presented in written and spoken texts related to popular culture” [6, p. 41], but many Hong Kong English teachers may not have a clear idea on how to implement or teach with film in order to develop their students’ critical thinking skills due to the limited pedagogical guidance in the NSS English language curriculum guidelines. Since the results of the present study showed that narrative activities with films were useful and interesting to the students for developing their critical thinking skills, Hong Kong English teachers should have more confidence to refer to this research study as a pedagogical model when they design and implement narrative analysis activities with films for their own students. It is hoped that the present study has made

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some contribution to the field of using films to develop students’ critical thinking skills in the English learning field with critical analysis activities.

References 1. Anderson, A.B.: Film in composition: Developing Critical Thinking Skills through the Study of Film in First-Year Compositions: Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania (2008) 2. Bilgin, A., Eldeleklioglu, J.: An Investigation into Critical Thinking Skills of University Students. H.U. Journal of Education 33, 55–67 (2007) 3. Casanave, C.P., Freedman, D.: Learning by Collaboration and Teaching: A Film Presentation Project. In: Casanave, C.P., Simons, D. (eds.) Pedagogical Perspectives on Using Films in Foreign Language Classes, pp. 28–39. Keio University, Fujisawa (1995) 4. Curriculum Development Council, & Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority.: English Language Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4-6) (2007), http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_5999/ eng_lang_final.pdf (retrieved April 7, 2008) 5. Curtis, A., Chapple, L.: Content-based Instruction in Hong Kong: Student Responses to Film. System 28, 419–433 (2000) 6. Education Bureau.: Suggested Schemes of Work for the Elective Part of the Three-Year Senior Secondary English Language Curriculum (Secondary 4-6). Hong Kong, Education Bureau, Hong Kong (2007) 7. Eken, A.N.: ‘You’ve got Mail’: A Film Workshop. English Language Teaching Journal 57, 51–59 (2003) 8. Fujishima, N.K.: The Listening-Viewing Diary in an Advanced Listening/Speaking Class. In: Casanave, C.P., Simons, D. (eds.) Pedagogical Perspectives on Using Films in Foreign Language Classes, pp. 52–62. Keio University, Fujisawa (1995) 9. Hardy, T.: An Anthropological Perspective on Films in the Language Class. In: Casanave, C.P., Simons, D. (eds.) Pedagogical Perspectives on Using Films in Foreign Language Classes, pp. 71–77. Keio University, Fujisawa (1995) 10. Hopper, S., Rieber, L.P.: Teaching with Technology. In: Ornstein, A.C. (ed.) Teaching: Theory into Practice, pp. 154–170. Allyn and Bacon, Needham Heights (1995) 11. Knee, A.: Feature Films in Language Teaching: Possibilities and Practical Problems. In: Brauer, G. (ed.) Pedagogy of Language Learning in Higher Education: An Introduction, pp. 143–154. Westport, Ablex (2001) 12. Louisville University.: IDEAS TO ACTION: Using Critical Thinking to Foster Student Learning and Community Engagement (2009), http://louisville.edu/ideastoaction/what/critical-thinking/ paul-elder-critical-thinking-model/paul-elder-model-ofcritical-thinking.html (retrieved December 27, 2008) 13. Ng, S.W.C.: The Role of Film in ELT: A Case Study of a Hong Kong Classroom. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching 15, 69–93 (2005) 14. Nunan, D.: Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1992) 15. Pally, M.: Critical thinking in ESL: An Argument for Sustained Content. Journal of Second Language Writing 6, 293–311 (1997)

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16. Petress, K.: Critical Thinking: An Extended Definition (n.d.), http://www.umpi.maine.edu/~petress/ArticleA48.pdf (retrieved January 19, 2009) 17. Renzi, T. C.: Using Narrative Films to Develop Critical Thinking Skills (n.d.), http://www.buffalostate.edu/orgs/castl/reports/ FinalReport_Renzi.pdf (retrieved January 19, 2009) 18. Seliger, W.H., Shohamy, E.: Second Language Research Method. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1989) 19. Shea, D.P.: Whole Movies and Engaged Response in the Japanese University ESL Classroom. In: Casanave, C.P., Simons, D. (eds.) Pedagogical Perspectives on Using Films in Foreign Language Classes, pp. 1–17. Keio University, Fujisawa (1995) 20. Takahashi, Y.: The Portrayal of Women in American Films: A Scenario for Misunderstanding. In: Casanave, C.P., Simons, D. (eds.) Pedagogical Perspectives on Using Films in Foreign Language Classes, pp. 63–70. Keio University, Fujisawa (1995) 21. Tatsuki, D.H.: Developing Film Study Guides. The Internet TESL Journal, 6 (2000), http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Tatsuki-StudyGuides.html (retrieved January 19, 2009) 22. Voller, P., Widdows, S.: Feature Films as Text: A Framework for Classroom Use. English Language Teaching Journal 47, 342–353 (1993) 23. Yamada, S.: The Value of Reading and Film Viewing in Fostering Critical Thinking. In: Casanave, C.P., Simons, D. (eds.) Pedagogical Perspectives on Using Films in Foreign Language Classes, pp. 45–51. Keio University, Fujisawa (1995)

ROAD-MAP for Educational Simulations and Serious Games Jayshiro Tashiro1,2,3, Patrick C.K. Hung1,2, and Miguel Vargas Martin1,4 1

University of Ontario Institute of Technology Oshawa, Ontario, Canada L1H 7K4 2 BeaconWall Limited Hong Kong Science and Technology Park 3 Wolfsong Inforamtics LLC Tucson, Arizona, USA 85718 4 Hoper Inc. Oshawa, Ontario, Canada L1J 8P8

Abstract. An international research team from Canada, United States, and Hong Kong developed a novel solution for creating interoperable, scalable learning objects along a gradient from single interactive objects for one learning activity to articulations of thousands of learning objects that become simulations capable of automatically assessing complex conceptual and performance competencies. We call this solution Research Oriented Adaptive Decision Modeling Architecture Platforms for Simulations – ROAD-MAP. Our acronym, ROAD-MAP, acknowledges the many pathways that can lead to developing educational simulations and serious games. Such pathways are not well-mapped at this time, especially in the context of how such simulations and games actually improve higher-order reasoning and pattern recognition. ROAD-MAP provides a generalized solution for building simulations and serious games within an evidence-based approach to design, development, and evaluation of new types of coupled research and teaching-learning-assessment environments for different discipline domains. Keywords: Educational simulations, serious games, evidence-based learning, e-learning, e-teaching, assessment.

1 Introduction We describe a system called Research Oriented Adaptive Decision Modeling Architecture Platforms for Simulations – ROAD-MAP. The acronym of ROAD-MAP acknowledges that most pathways to developing educational simulations and serious games are not well mapped at this time, especially in the context of how such simulations and games actually improve higher-order reasoning and pattern recognition. A particular focus of ROAD-MAP has been its use in health science education to delineate misconceptions developed by undergraduate health sciences students. These misconceptions are important to remediate because they could be potentially dangerous as health sciences graduates assume roles in healthcare planning and delivery. P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 186–204, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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From 1994-2010, the authors focused on serious game development, with research funding from a variety of federal agencies in the United States and Canada, as well as substantial research and development contracts from a publisher. Interestingly, during 2004-2009 an enormous interest emerged in educational uses of serious games and simulations. In the United Sates, the Federation of American Scientists [1] and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Invention and Impact Conference [2] provided convincing evidence for exploring the use of advanced educational technologies and serious games for education. Such evidence included advances in artificial intelligence algorithms as well as new programming and graphics strategies for game and simulation development. These advances created opportunities to build educational materials that might improve learning and skill development. Serious games for education became an even more important focus for our research as serious games and simulations began to emerge as a dominant theme in development of instructional methods and materials. Serious games can be designed to provide high fidelity simulations of particular environments and situations that focus on high-level skills required in any science discipline area. They present situations in a complex interactive narrative context coupled with interactive elements that are designed to engage students or trainees [3-6]. Our position on the definitions of “serious games” and “educational simulations” is decidedly a compromise position within the literature and informed by a broad base of reviews on games and learning that have been provided by leaders in the field [7-18]. In addition, key conclusions by the Federation of American Scientists and American Association for the Advancement of Science provided important insight into key attributes of educational games [1,2]. Yet, there are still few well-developed frameworks for evidence-based learning that might provide guidance for development of serious games and simulations that really work to improve educational outcomes [19,20]. The United States National Research Council [21,22] concluded that instructional materials should have capacities for: (1) enhancing disposition to learn; (2) providing multiple paths for learning; (3) overcoming limitations of prior knowledge; (4) providing practice and feedback; (5) helping develop capacities for transfer of knowledge; (6) incorporating the role of social context; and (7) addressing cultural norms and students’ beliefs. However, the vast majority of instructional materials that we have reviewed have some but not all of these capacities. Indeed, this appears to be true at all academic and training levels. Tashiro and colleagues reported comprehensive literature reviews of educational simulations and serious games [19,20,23], noting important generational differentials (e.g., the “millennial” generation as well as identifying nine important gaps in our knowledge about effective use of educational simulations and serious games. These gaps are posed as questions below: 1. How does a simulation or serious game enhance disposition to engage in learning? 2. What are the relationships between the level of realism in a simulation or game and the learning outcomes? 3. How do you define the threshold of experience within a game or simulation that leads to measurable learning outcomes? 4. What are the cognitive processes developed during learning while working within a game or simulation? 5. In what knowledge domains can we find learning being retained, and how stable is the retention?

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6. What is the disposition to act on the knowledge gained during work within a simulation? 7. How well can the knowledge gained within a game or simulation be transferred? 8. How are Conceptual Competencies and Performance Competencies developed during the learning process while working within a simulation or game? 9. Why and how are misconceptions developed by students working within educational simulations or serious games? By May 2009, we had developed and evaluated an articulated suite of teaching, learning, and learning assessment environments that were nested within a very sophisticated research engine. We believed the research engine would allow us to conduct studies that could help overcome the nine knowledge gaps listed above as important unknowns in the development of serious games for education. At this time, we also analyzed problematic ethical issues related to how educational materials were being developed by publishers and educational methods utilizing these instructional materials were being developed and implemented by faculty members. Ethical issues are generally not very well studied in the area of developing and using electronic educational materials designed for healthcare education at the undergraduate level. Tashiro [20] analyzed the extent to which publishers and faculty achieve the four ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. The results of our study suggested that both publishers and faculty members do not achieve what is required by these four principles. We concluded that an ethical analysis must be coupled to an evidence-based learning framework. From such coupling, we argued that it would be possible to define praxis frameworks for evidence-based learning that would delineate ethical strategies for developing, choosing, and using instructional materials. In brief, educational materials developers and faculty do not have a sound research foundation for estimating the potential of an educational instructional package for helping students learn. As a concomitant, developers and faculty have “virtually” no adequate measures of instructional packages’ potential for inculcating misconceptions, some of which may be dangerous when applied by students in real-world settings. 1.1 Evidence-Based Learning for Developing Instructional Methods and Materials Over a decade ago, Tashiro and Rowland [24] published a challenge to educators and researchers, posing the confounded questions of “What really works in instructional approaches and materials, for whom, when, why, and with what outcomes?” Beginning in 1994, we began building and studying the first virtual worlds for biology and environmental sciences [25]. This research was funded by a United States National Science Foundation Division of Undergraduate Education Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement (NSF DUE CCLI) grant to Tashiro. From 1997-2000, Tashiro led the team implementing a second NSF DUE CCLI grant that developed the first computer-based virtual hospital providing a powerful learning environment for teaching pathophysiology as well as anatomy and physiology to science majors (NSF DUE CCLI-EMD 9950613). Subsequent funding from United Sates National Institutes of Health (NIH) allowed research on automated virtual hospitals that could assess undergraduate nursing students’ development of complex pattern recognition while working within a clinical simulation (NINR 1-43-NR05102-01; see sample of references from this research [26-38]).

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The authors began to develop a research-based model for a teaching-learningassessment system that is nested within a research engine. We called this system ROAD-MAP, which was designed as a suite of articulated teaching, learning, and learning assessment environments that were nested within a very sophisticated research engine. We believed the research engine would allow us to conduct studies that could help overcome the nine knowledge gaps listed above as important unknowns in the development of serious games for education. However, in 2009, we believed there was a need to synthesize a better understanding of what we do not know about “what really works” in educational simulations and serious games [19,20,23,39]. In a recent synthesis [23], we have described how to assess the potential for students to develop misconceptions in serious games for the sciences and health sciences. Our literature reviews and analysis of how serious games could inculcate misconceptions in a content or skills domain led us to conclude that both educators and researchers are still struggling with “what really works” in education, especially within the rapidly expanding use of simulations and serious games. Almost no literature examines how simulations and serious games might lead undergraduate students to misconceptions [40-42]. As our work proceeded, we also followed major research trends in serious games, such as the body of elegant studies of Dr. Sasha Barab [43-45] and colleagues at Indiana University Bloomington, including their network of international of research partners. We also studied cognitive taxonomies [46], theories of cognition [47], and attributes of millennial students [48-54]. The authors thoroughly studied Second Life, BIO-QUEST, the MIT SCALE-UP Project, and work evolving from the Scalable City (Sheldon Brown at University of California Sand Diego) [23]. In particular, we were interested in identifying barriers related to faculty real-time participation in such learning environments, especially with large enrolment courses. We also delineated a number of technical issues that inhibit broadly-based usage of a diverse array of immersive teaching-learning-assessment environments [55-64]. Our research differed from previous studies on serious games in that we used more extensive conditional logic systems, voice recognition algorithms, and middleware algorithms that monitor and evaluate students’ choices while interacting within an immersive environment. A critical focus was re-examination of cognitive theories and cognitive taxonomies of knowledge domains and cognitive processes, extending our work on cognitive taxonomies to delineate differences between conceptual and performance competencies [23,46,47]. Basically, we began to derive how cognitive and learning sciences inform instructional design in a serious game or simulation. Cognitive and learning science appeared to be important areas to integrate into our research related to development of misconceptions. 1.2 Knowledge Gaps, Cognitive Theories and Information Science Patel and colleagues [47] examined how cognition could be shaped by the situated encounters in educational environments, which are dynamic and strongly influenced by social contexts and by a diverse array of other elements in the setting such as technology as well as temporal and spatial heterogeneity in a simulated or game environment. We adapted Patel’s framework to health sciences education and an important breakthrough resulted from re-examination of possible cognitive frameworks for

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serious game design. Patel’s work led us to ask what would happen if different combinations of Aesthetics, Mechanics, and Dynamics for a serious game led to different types of reasoning, and if so, what might be the results of such reasoning. Here, we are using the terms from the literature on gaming: (1) Aesthetics denotes the sense of the fictional world created by graphics and sound; (2) Mechanics denotes the underlying programming that provides fictional interactions within the virtual setting; and (3) Dynamics is a term used to capture the potential interactions possible in a game and the emergence of the end user’s engagement within such interactions. We had to struggle with how and why Aesthetics, Mechanics, and Dynamics could shape learning and development of cognitive processes leading to patterns of students’ reasoning. During use case experiments, we realized that a very sophisticated virtual world might be valuable to examine differences between cognitive theories and their projected educational strategies for more individualistic structured learning (e.g., strategies based on the adaptive character of thought or on the cognitive load theories) or for what educators call constructivist learning (e.g., strategies based on the cognitive flexibility theory or the situated learning theories) [23,47]. We also realized that serious game developers have generally not mapped the Aesthetics, Mechanics, and Dynamics of their games to a particular theoretical framework or a synthesis of frameworks that had some empirical foundation. Our early prototypes revealed that serious games could be built with potential opportunities to demonstrate competencies embedded in the game environment so that a student-player’s knowledge could be demonstrated during interactions in the game and their activities monitored to see if competencies were achieved. A very important advance was our discovery of how to trace the development of misconceptions, using data mining methods to analyze students’ choices as well as their educational outcomes while engaging within serious games (e.g., Conceptual Competencies represent a thorough understanding of a knowledge and/or skills domain, while Performance Competencies are those competencies in which knowledge is acted on through a variety of decisions or when skills are implemented in the real world or some very close simulation of the real world [23,47]). However, we also point out that the evidence is lacking for a generalized theory of how and why to build serious games so that they “really work” to improve learning in predictable ways and so that they do not promote development of misconceptions. As we mentioned above, we have tried to clarify what we do not know about “what really works” in educational simulations and serious games. Certainly, in the health sciences we should be very concerned about the possibility of health sciences students developing misconceptions that could have deadly consequences if these students became healthcare providers and engaged in patient care. We described gaps in our knowledge about effective use of educational simulations and serious games. Certainly, ongoing studies of simulation and serious game environments left us with uncertainties about what is being learned in such environments, how learning actually progresses, and what opportunities there are for students to engage in and follow tangents to the educational objectives, which may lead to the development of misconceptions. Again, we emphatically note that more traditional methods and materials of education are certainly not free of the potential for students to develop misconceptions. However, we actually have an opportunity to shift education to a more evidence-based framework and to be more thoughtful about and critical of

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educational methods and materials as faculty members and students become increasingly interested in simulation and serious game usage in education.

2 IP Sim – ROAD-MAP System for Interprofessional Care We designed a version ROAD-MAP for improving interprofessional collaborations in healthcare planning and care delivery. Our design was a Web-based virtual world in which the student-player must get to a simulated hospital at a certain time in order to start a clinical rotation. Hereafter, the virtual world will be referred to as IP Sim. We have built virtual hospitals for nursing students, so we designed this version of IP Sim as a serious game for nursing students. Also, for this version of IP Sim, we created a single-player environment in which the student-player moves through the world in a first-person perspective, that is, looking through the “game character’s eyes.” We examined different game designs. For example, in one of these designs the studentplayers encounter engaging characters and events on their way to the virtual hospital and these may help or interfere with reaching the hospital on time – similar to a Grand Theft Auto environment on the way to clinical rotation [23]. They could encounter avatars and can talk with these avatars through a voice-recognition system. However, they have to reach the clinical rotation on time, and can earn points by arriving early, but also accrue “difficult” encounters in the hospital if they arrive late. Getting to the hospital is more of a game, but some problem solving and critical thinking is possible as student-players try to get to clinical rotation on time. Within the virtual hospital unit, a preceptor avatar assigns the student-player to one or several patients and asks the student to begin planning and implementing care. The points earned for arriving early can be used by student-players to seek help from their avatar preceptors and clinical decision support systems as they encounter problems or difficult situations. Student-players encounter a variety of difficult occurrences, such as not being able to find medications, patients developing emergent problems related to their disease-injury state or to a psychosocial crisis, problems with patients’ significant others, and being interrupted by a non-playing character such as a preceptor or Nurse Supervisor who would be rude, demanding, or ask the playing character to stop what they are doing and help with another patient. Problems for student-players who arrived late are built into the rules of the game, with difficult encounters more frequent for late arrivals. When we designed IP Sim and began Gedanken experiments, we already had developed sets of virtual patients using clinical experts to create cases and expert clinical panels to review and revise cases. This process yielded detailed cases with hundreds of thousands of data for each patient case. These cases represent some of the most comprehensive patient case studies for simulations developed to date for healthcare education at the undergraduate level. Such virtual environments provided opportunities for a student-player to engage in almost every aspect of patient care. We also learned how to layer monitoring middleware into the simulations so that we could record student-players’ decisions and time spent in various activities. The monitoring data and learning assessments within the simulations allowed for us to map student-players’ learning and competency outcomes against expectations delineated by expert clinical panels.

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Essentially, IP Sim emerged from our review and analysis of the major problems we encountered from building serious games and from our critique of a diverse array of serious games. We then developed solutions to the problems we identified. From such work emerged the design IP Sim as an immersive virtual world for education. IP Sim has four articulated engines that together represent one version of ROAD-MAP. 2.1 Virtual World IP Sim can use a number of platforms to establish a 3-D world expressed as a Webdelivered environment in which students and/or instructors can move about and work within a virtual hospital. We have experimented with Torque 3-D as a 3-D gaming engine that can be transformed into a software platform and that could manifest as an immersive world. Diverse computerized virtual training and research environments can be nested within this platform. The development of educational modules for such a virtual world follows a protocol for serious game development that was created and evaluated for building high-level educational serious games and simulations for undergraduate students. This protocol has seven stages: 1. A Content Team in each module content or skill area creates a scenario for the respective theme’s immersive learning experience, with subsequent review and revision of the scenario by an extramural panel. 2. The scenario is then developed into a Learning Map that provides the mapping of educational objectives for the immersive learning experience and respective Learning Activities. Such objectives are translated into structured or unstructured opportunities for interactions in which a student-user can engage. By structured we mean there are rigid protocol scripts that require adherence to time- or sequence-sensitive action protocols. By unstructured we mean that the system allows for more openended engagement with real-time responses through conditional logic to emerging events and information. 3. The Content Teams and the Software Design-Engineering Team then work together to translate Learning Maps into the designs of immersive learning experience in the Virtual World. This design involves delineating all types of studentuser interactions within the immersive experience, including those allowing them to engage in Learning Activities. 4. The designs are translated into immersive environments so that each environment becomes a functioning portion of the Virtual World created by a 3-D gaming platform. The design is prototyped and passed through usability tests. 5. The immersive environments are then deconstructed to determine how different variables within the Virtual World can be studied in order to utilize the DeepThinking research engine (see below) for studies of the nine knowledge gaps in efficacy of serious games and simulations for education. 6. The immersive environments are then re-built as catalogues of learning objects and learning assessment items that instructors can choose from menus to customize choices of Learning Resources and Learning Assessments within each immersive environment. In the process, the immersive environment is articulated with a student monitoring engine called PathFinder and a student learning assessment engine called AssessMap (as we will explain in paragraphs below).

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7. The immersive environments are then used in research studies of the nine knowledge gaps identified in our literature review. The ROAD-MAP virtual worlds like IP Sim were designed so that complex learning objects, simulations, Learning Resources, Learning Activities, and Learning Assessments could be loaded and linked from learning object repositories and relational databases for any subdiscipline of a content-skills domain and for any pattern of usage selected by faculty and/or end-users (i.e., students or trainees). Such modularity also allows a faculty member to select a preferred model of cognition or teaching strategy, which in turn configures Learning Activities and Learning Resources into the Learning Maps most appropriate for the respective model of cognition or teaching strategy. 2.2 PathFinder This engine was developed by Dr. Miguel Vargas Martin to track users’ choices within Web environments and establish data arrays on users’ activities in any part of a Web environment. Recent modifications of PathFinder by Drs. Tashiro, Hung, and Vargas Martin resulted in an adaptive learning system allowing dynamic reconfiguring of navigational elements and levels of interactivity and graphic user interfaces based on user preferences [56-65] (a patent is pending on PathFinder). 2.3 AssessMap Developed by Dr. Patrick Hung and Dr. Jayshiro Tashiro, this engine was designed to help faculty assess Conceptual and Performance Competencies within a serious game or simulation (a patent is pending). The engine provides an array of authentic assessment options based on a cognitive taxonomy [46] appropriate for the model of cognition that faculty members or educational researchers choose for the Virtual World. The assessment model is based on latent class multi-attribute assessment systems [66] and provides authentic measurements of students’ learning outcomes and competencies within the Virtual World [26-38]. Importantly, the assessment chosen will be mapped to relational databases of feedback on performance measures that are automatically assembled into a detailed diagnostic array that we call a Study Plan. The Study Plan provides the kind of close mentoring only available in small-enrolment courses, offering students insights into their process of learning as well as recommendations for improving performance within the simulated setting. 2.4 DeepThinking This research engine was developed by Dr. Patrick Hung to study complex problems related to teaching, learning, and learning assessment within the immersive environments of the Virtual World. We argue that to overcome nine critical gaps in our knowledge about what really works in serious games and simulations for education, we must be able to measure the following: (a) disposition to engage in a learning process; (b) relationships between the level of realism in a simulation or game and learning; (c) thresholds of experience within a game or simulation that lead to measurable learning outcomes; (d) cognitive processes being developed during learning while working within a game or simulation; (e) knowledge domains of learning being retained and stability of retention; (f) disposition to act on the knowledge

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gained during work within a simulation; (g) transfer of knowledge gained within a game or simulation; (h) development of Conceptual Competencies and demonstrations of Performance Competencies; and (i) differences in learning that manifest as misconceptions? Data mining and analysis of students’ interactions within an immersive environment allowed study of the complex relationships between students’ choices for paths within the teaching-learning-assessment environment and their performance as diagnosed with remediation strategies offered through detailed feedback from the Study Plan produced by the AssessMap engine.

3 Gedanken Experiments – Studying Efficacy of Serious Games and Potential for Misconceptions We now turn to a deeper exploration of IP Sim in order to show the intricacies of building and studying ROAD-MAP immersive environments. As mentioned above, an immersive learning experience begins with a panel of experts we call a Content Team, who develop scenarios that could provide rich teaching and learning opportunities. The scenarios are reviewed by an extramural panel and then translated into a Learning Map that provides the mapping of educational objectives for the immersive learning experience and respective Learning Activities to achieve such objectives. In Figure 1, we show a diagrammatic representation of a learning map. In this figure, you can see that the map started with a competency Ci, which has four educational objectives (Oi1 – Oi4) that would need to be achieved in order to teach the content and skills necessary to demonstrate the competency. For simplicity, imagine that each objective had a respective instructional module designed to provide the Learning Activities related to the particular educational objective. So, in Figure 1, objective Oi2 has an educational module Mi2. The Content Team works on delineating such objectives and their respective module, or, in some cases, multiple modules if an objective were to require more than one type of educational experience or suite of Learning Activities. For each module, the Content Team also outlines a set of interactions that would need to occur within a simulation or immersive environment in order to create suites of Learning Activities that can be engaged by a student and, when taken as a collective, are designed to achieve a particular educational objective. We do not show in Figure 1 the sets of Learning Resources that would be available to a student. However, the Content Teams also select Learning Resources for each Learning Activity and decides how these should be made available to a student. Some of these Learning Resources could be embedded in conversations with NPC avatars. Other Resources could be placed as active objects within the immersive world, for example, a computer that a student player could click on and use to connect to Internet resources or to databases of articles, images, simulations, animations, and other learning objects that become accessible to the student player within the immersive environment. In Figure 1, module Mi2 has four sets of interactions, I21-I24. Each interaction has multiple Learning Activities. For example, Interaction I21 has four Learning Activities, LA211-LA214. The Content Team also examines and then selects one or more assessments of learning while engaged in a particular Learning Activity. In Figure 1, for example, we show that Learning Activity LA211 has a suite of Learning

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Assessments A211 and this suite of assessments has a database of diagnostic feedback for each assessment item in the suite A211. You can see in Figure 1, that the assessment suite A211 has the Diagnostic Feedback database D211. The Learning Map provides guidance for how and why to build an immersive learning environment in which students can engage as active players in complex experiences of situated learning.

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of a Learning Map developed for a single competency

The Content Teams then begin working with a Software Design-Engineering Team to translate the Learning Maps into the designs of each immersive learning experience in the Virtual World of a ROAD-MAP teaching-learning-assessment system. The designs are translated into immersive environments so that each environment becomes a functioning portion of the Virtual World created by a 3-D gaming platform. The design is prototyped and passed through usability tests. An important intermediate step is creating a prototype that allows iterative use case analyses. We generally create the prototype using Model Driven Software Engineering (MDSE) to develop a Domain Specification Language (DSL). In turn, the DSL is used to create and populate a complex Virtual World that mimics what the Learning Map has delineated as possible interactions. In Figure 2, we show an interface from the IP Sim system we created as the prototype for an immersive experience in which undergraduate health sciences students could develop competencies in interprofessional planning and delivery of healthcare services. The prototype shown in Figure 2 allows researchers to duplicate every pathway that a student might take in an immersive environment. In the case of Figure 2, there are three scenarios that were developed by clinical experts to portray different facets for the care of an elderly man. On the graphic user interface (GUI) in Figure 2, you can see three buttons on a top navigational bar Scenario1-Scenario3, which allow a researcher to quickly shift scenarios. In this case of elder care, the GUI shows Scenario1 selected, in which we can explore possible interprofessional health team interactions in a hospital emergency room after the man fell and injured himself. Scenario2 portrays the elder man’s in his home and the interactions during a home health visit as

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a follow-up to hospital discharge. Scenario3 portrays a meeting in the elder man’s home involving him, his daughter, and a mental health team. The GUI also shows a top navigational bar for Library, Scopes of Practice, and IP Competencies. These are Learning Resources that would be available within the immersive environment for every scenario of every immersive environment for improving competencies related to elder care in this IP Sim. Along the left side of the screen in the GUI of Figure 2, you can see another navigational bar. The buttons along this bar provide interactions specific to a particular scenario. So, when the Scenario1 button is clicked on the top navigation bar, data are loaded so that the left-hand navigational bar buttons access data relevant only to the emergency room visit that was conceived as the immersive environment of Scenario1. Such a prototype and GUI design allows researchers to conduct an iterative use of case analyses driven by a Gedanken model of posing “what if” questions. Figure 3 provides a use case analysis. The GUI shown in Figure 2 allows researchers to select pathways that mimic the movement and interactions within a 3-D world. However, the authors use MSDE and DSLs to build and study prototypes rather than put enormous resources into build a complete 3-D virtual world. In a simplistic sense, such prototypes are very sophisticated storyboards, but also provide models of data architecture that can be tested in ways that show how such architecture would behave in a 3-D immersive environment. As a simple example, notice in Figure 2 that there is a button on the left-side navigational bar called “Case Encounter.” This button accesses a high quality video of a case encounter in which multiple care-givers are attending the elderly patient. Such a video allows us to see how, where, and why to construct the 3-D world in order for a student player to sensibly engage in teaching-learning-assessment environment of IP Sim. The use of content-laden learning maps such as Figure 1 allow us to create the type of prototype virtual world and GUI shown in Figure 2. This prototype allows for iterations of use case analyses to probe how and why a student might make choices within an immersive teaching-learning-assessment environment. One use case iteration is provided below in Figure 3. The use case of Figure 3 unfolds in the following manner. 1. Three students enter the teaching-learning-assessment environment. They have been assigned to complete the same learning activity in Scenario1. Each selects Scenario1, and selects the Learning Activity button on the left side of the GUI. 2. The Learning Activity functionality opens an instruction page, which reads: Scenario 1: Emergency Room Competency 3.1.1 – Respects complementary nature of health team members’ scopes of practice. Learning Activity 1 — You are providing care for an elder man who has fallen in his home and has been transported to the Emergency Department. Your colleagues include an Emergency Department triage nurse and physician, as well as a Geriatric Emergency Management RN. All of you are working together in the Emergency Room to care for this elder man. What should your colleagues’ roles be in providing care for this patient? How are these roles complementary? In what ways do these practitioners fulfill their designated roles and in what ways do they not work within their scopes of practice?

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3. Each student begins to work on this Learning Activity, but you can see in Figure 3 that we used the Gedanken method and imagined “what if” each took a different pathway within the teaching-learning assessment environment. 4. Using this approach, we had Student1 go to the library to review articles on interprofessional care. Student2 also goes to the Library but comes back to the Learning Activity and then decides to go to the Scopes of Practice resource. Student3 decides first to view the Case Records, but then goes back to the Learning Activity and subsequently decides to examine the Scopes of Practice Resource, but goes to a different area of that resource than Student2.

Fig. 2. Graphic user interface for prototype designed for iterative use case studies of a design for an immersive world developed to help undergraduate health sciences students develop competencies in interprofessional planning and delivery of healthcare

Working with expert panels in the content-skills domain, we press deeply into these types of Gedanken experiments to better understand all of the choices available to students and to think through how each path of choices might manifest in meaningful learning. An expert in interprofessional planning and delivery of healthcare might recognize the need for every practitioner to know the roles and responsibilities of different care givers in a health team. If that expert did not know a role or responsibility for a particular health team member, a logical resource to explore would be the scopes of practice for each professional in the health team. Scopes of practice are defined by professional bodies and would provide a context for what practitioners’ scope of practice allows them to do while providing patient care. However, a clinical expert might look first at the Case Records to review the history of the patient and think through the care that would be needed for this patient. Another expert might look at the emerging literature on how to establish meaningful complementary role relationships within a health team and then explore scopes of practice. So, in their attempt to complete the Learning Activity, the three students in the use case above made choices that an expert might make. That being said, the sequence of choices made by each student must also be contextualized in what each student learned and how the respective student demonstrated what had been learned.

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Fig. 3. Partial analysis of Gedanken experiments of a use case for three students’ choices in the IP Sim prototype. In this figure, the paths of three different students are described, showing the choices at each level of navigation (1o, 2o, and so on).

Developments of misconceptions have been hard to trace because we seldom have the tools to study the learning process with high resolution of both the path of learning and the outcomes of learning. The ROAD-MAP systems provide both sophisticated learning path analysis (PathFinder) and very detailed learning outcomes. These data are based on a cognitive taxonomy that an instructor or researcher can select (AssessMap). Data from both PathFinder and AssessMap can be streamed into the DeepThinking engine to develop probes of misconception development within

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frameworks of performance or learning assessment outcomes cells that represent intersections of learning paths and regions of a cognitive taxonomy. For example, Bloom’s revised cognitive taxonomy has 24 cells based on {four knowledge domains by six cognitive processes [46]}. The PathFinder engine allows us to trace the paths of learning for each of these cells while the AssessMap engine provides us with the learning outcomes for each cell. DeepThinking provides the analytical frameworks to study complex associations between paths of learning or performance outcomes in each cell of the revised Bloom’s taxonomy. However, the ROAD-MAP systems allow any cognitive taxonomy or model of cognition to be expressed in AssessMap. Such flexibility and level of resolution is unique in teaching-learning-assessment systems. In summary, the Pathfinder engine is a watchful monitor that records the choices a student makes within the Virtual World and creates a data file for the sequence of virtual spaces visited and the time spent in various interactions and with Learning Resources within each virtual space of the Virtual World. The AssessMap engine allows us to collect data on what a student learned, how well they retain the knowledge they constructed, how well that knowledge is transferred, and what misconceptions they developed. The DeepThinking engine provides the research engine that collates data from the PathFinder and AssessMap engines and allows data mining of the usually complex relationships between the paths students take through instructional activities and the learning students construct while moving along such pathways [46, 66-71].

4 Concluding Remarks Our recent research shows that successful faculty adoption and use of an instructional packet required that the packet: (1) be easy to use and reduce the time required for a faculty member to fit it to the conceptual and logistical framework for a course; (2) provide automated teaching, learning, and assessment opportunities that were within the normative vales of both students and faculty; (3) effectively use a learning environment that ameliorated differentials in perceptions of course dynamics that are common between faculty members and students; and (4) open opportunities for becoming part of a larger community of teachers and learners within and across academic institutions. Our international research partnership has studied usage patterns of ancillary instructional materials for students and faculty that could be developed to accompany ROAD-MAP systems and that could help develop faculty expertise with the learning environment. We were guided by the work we completed for healthcare education (especially with funding from NIH). We recognized from earlier work that we could develop ancillary materials that would stimulate patterns of integrated usage between a textbook, a simulation-based learning environment, and a study guide. We also recognized the value of a simple Instructor’s Manual that would guide such integration. We used this model to deploy simulations with over 40 major textbooks in the health sciences, each with its own study guide, software package, and instructor’s manual [see a small sample of the over 40 published instructional packets in references 26-38]. The publisher of these materials, Elsevier, worked with Dr. Tashiro to create a community of faculty and students with companion websites designed for each textbook-software combination and with special faculty support websites that provided forums for a broad

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range of instructional examples (collaborative learning, outcomes research, frequently asked questions, students’ perceptions of the simulations as implemented in different types of courses, and so on). We plan a similar approach for ROAD-MAP systems, providing a sound model with a good record in health sciences education to help faculty members develop expertise with the effective use of the proposed teachinglearning-assessment environment coupled to a research engine. The authors anticipate the development and evaluation of ROAD-MAP for undergraduate health sciences and then for clinician and patient education services. ROADMAP systems will have a very sophisticated, simulation-based teaching-learning assessment environment that is coupled to a research platform that can advance educational research on usability of serious games and simulations as well as on educational effectiveness. Measurable outcomes of such systems include: 1. Development and evaluation of learning environments that help health sciences students and practitioners develop competencies in understanding and evaluating complex information. 2. Development and evaluation of learning environments that use adaptive strategies to probe practitioners’ and students’ preferences to create customized learning solutions that provide educational scaffolding coupled to detailed diagnostic feedback for improving learning. 3. Analysis of the impact from using simulation-rich learning environments on faculty members’ and trainers’ workloads. A special focus will be how to promote the refocusing of instructor attention and time on strategies for improving learning outcomes and retention of students. 4. Demonstration of a process for evidence-based development of serious game environments that meet rigorous standards for teaching, learning, and assessment. 5. Demonstration of a model system for coupled teaching-learning assessment environments that automatically provide a research platform useful for developing and evaluating instructional methods and materials within a framework for evidencebased learning. Acknowledgments. Tashiro acknowledges support of a grant from HealthForceOntario that funded research on the development of the initial simulations to improve interprofessional education and care. Tashiro and Vargas Martin acknowledge support of a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) to develop models of tracking users’ choices within simulations. Hung acknowledges support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).

References 1. Federation of American Scientists: Summit on educational games – Harnessing the power of video games for learning. Federation of American Scientists, Washington, DC (2006) 2. American Association for the Advancement of Science: Invention and impact: Building excellence in undergraduate science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, DC (2004)

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3. Mitchell, A., Savill-Smith, C.: The Use of Computer and Video Games for Learning: A review of the Literature (2004), http://www.LSDA.org.uk 4. Michael, D., Chen, S.: Serious games: Games That Educate, Train, and Inform. Thomson Course Technology, Boston (2006) 5. Stapleton, A.: Proceedings from Australian Game Developers Conference Melbourne (2004) 6. Kiili, K.: Digital game-based learning: Towards an Experiential Gaming model. The Internet and Higher Education 8(1), 13–24 (2005) 7. Aldrich, C.: Learning by doing. Pfeiffer, San Francisco (2005) 8. Aldrich, C.: Simulations and the future of learning. Pfeiffer, San Francisco (2004) 9. Bogost, I.: Persuasive Games – The Expressive Power of Videogames. MIT Press, Cambridge (2007) 10. Gee, J.P.: Good Video Games + Good Learning – Collected Essays on Video Games, Leaning, and Literacy. Peter Lang, New York (2007) 11. Gee, J.P.: Situated Language and Learning: A Critique of Traditional Schooling. Routledge, London (2004) 12. Gee, J.P.: What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy? Palgrave MacMillan, New York (2003) 13. Juul, J.: Half-Real: Video Games Between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds. MIT Press, Cambridge (2005) 14. Gibson, D., Aldrich, C., Prensky, M.: Games and Simulations in Online Learning. Information Science Publishing, Hershey (2007) 15. Selfe, C.L., Hawisher, G.E.: Gaming Lives in the Twenty-first Century – Literate Connections. Palgrave Macmillan, New York (2007) 16. Shaffer, D.W.: How Computer Games Help Children Learn. Palgrave Macmillan, New York (2006) 17. Squire, K.D.: Recessitating Educational Technology Research: Design Based Research as a New Research Paradigm. Educational Technology 45(1), 8–14 (2005) 18. Squire, K.D., Giovanetto, L., DeVane, B., Duraga, S.: From Users to Designers: Building a Self-Organizing Game-Based Learning Environment. Technology Trends 49(5), 34–42 (2005) 19. Tashiro, J., Dunlap, D.: The Impact of Realism on Learning Engagement in Educational Games. Association of Computing Machinery Digital Library 978-1-59593-943-2/07/011, 113–120 (2008) 20. Tashiro, J.: Ethical Analysis of Publisher and Faculty Roles in Building and Using Electronic Educational Products. Journal of Electronic Commerce in Organizations 7(1), 1–17 (2009) 21. National Research Council: How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. National Academy Press, Washington (2000) 22. National Research Council: How students learn: History, mathematics, and science in the classroom. National Academy Press, Washington (2005) 23. Garcia-Ruiz, M.A., Tashiro, J., Kapralos, B., Vargas Martin, M.: Crouching Tangents, Hidden Danger: Assessing Development of Dangerous Misconceptions Within Serious Games For Healthcare Education. In: Hai-Jew, S. (ed.) Virtual Immersive and 3D Learning Spaces: Emerging Technologies and Trends. IGI Global, Hershey (2010) (in Press) 24. Tashiro, J.S., Rowland, P.McD.: What Works: Empirical approaches to restructuring courses in biology and environmental sciences. In: McNeal, A., D’Avanzo, C. (eds.) Student Active Science – Models of Innovation in College Science Teaching, pp. 163–187. Harcourt, Brace, & Company, New York (1997)

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25. Kelly, M., Ort, M., Semken, S., Tashiro, J.: Virtual reality excursions – Exploring earth’s environment. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River (2000) 26. Virtual Clinical Excursion: An acute care virtual hospital can be reviewed at the following Website, http://evolve.elsevier.com/staticPages/i_vce.html 27. Virtual Medical Office: A primary care clinic can be reviewed at the following Website, http://evolve.elsevier.com/staticPages/i_vmo_ma.html 28. Virtual Patient Encounters: A conditional logic system for training emergency medical services personnel can be found at the following Website, http://evolve.elsevier.com/staticPages/i_vpe_als.html 29. Fulcher, G.: Virtual Medical Office for Bonwit-West’s Clinical Procedures for Medical Assistants, 6th edn. Elsevier-Saunders, Philadelphia (2007) 30. Fulcher, G.: Virtual Medical Office for Kinn’s the Administrative Medical Assistant, 6th edn. Elsevier-Saunders, Philadelphia (2007) 31. Fulcher, G.: Virtual Medical Office for Kinn’s The Medical Assistant, 10th edn. ElsevierSaunders, Philadelphia (2007) 32. Mathers, D.: Virtual Clinical Excursions – For Black and Hawks Medical-Surgical Nursing: Clinical Management for Positive Outcomes, 7th edn. PAL Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia (2006) 33. Tashiro, J.T., Sullins, E.S., Long, G., Kelly, M.: Virtual Clinical Excursions in MedicalSurgical Nursing: Assessment And Management of Clinical Problems. St. Louis, Mosby (2001) 34. Tashiro, J.T., Sullins, E.S., Long, G., Kelly, M.: Virtual Clinical Excursions for Fundamentals in Nursing. St. Louis, Mosby (2001) 35. Tashiro, J.T., Sullins, E.S., Long, G., Kelly, M.: Virtual Clinical Excursions in MedicalSurgical Nursing: Clinical Management for Positive Outcomes. St. Louis, Mosby (2003) 36. Tashiro, J.T., Sullins, E.S., Long, G., Kelly, M.: Virtual Clinical Excursions for Basic Nursing: Essentials for Practice. St. Louis, Mosby (2003) 37. Tashiro, J.T., Sullins, E.S., Long, G.: Virtual Clinical Excursions for Nursing Care of Infants and Children. St. Louis, Mosby (2003) 38. Tashiro, J.T., Sullins, E.S., Long, G.: Virtual Clinical Excursions for Fundamental Concepts and Skills for Nursing. St. Louis, Mosby (2003) 39. Johnson, K., Tashiro, J.: Interprofessional Care and Health Care Complexity: Factors Shaping Human Resources Effectiveness in Health Information Management. In: Kabene, S.M. (ed.) Human Resources in Healthcare, Health Informatics and Healthcare Systems. IGI Global, Hershey (2010) (in Press) 40. Balkissoon, R., Blossfield, K., Salud, L., Ford, D., Pugh, C.: Lost in Translation: Unfolding Medical Students’ Misconceptions of How to Perform a Clinical Digital Rectal Examination. The American Journal of Surgery 197, 525–532 (2009) 41. Ozmen, H.: Some Student Misconceptions in Chemistry: A Literature Review of Chemical Bonding. Journal of Science Education and Technology 13(2), 147–159 (2004) 42. Michael, J., Richardson, D., Rovick, A., Modell, B.H.D., Horwitz, B., Hudson, M., Silverthorn, D., Whitescarver, S., Williams, S.: Undergraduate Students’ Misconceptions About Respiratory Physiology. In: Advances in Physiology Education, vol. 22(1), pp. S127– S135. The American Physiological Society (1999) 43. Gresalfi, M., Barab, S., Siyahhan, S., Christensen, T.: Virtual Worlds, Conceptual Understanding, and Me: Designing for Consequential Engagement. On the Horizon 17(1), 21–34 (2009)

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65. Czyzowicz, J., Kranakis, E., Krizanc, D., Pelc, A., Vargas Martin, M.: Assigning bookmarks in perfect binary trees. Ars Combinatoria 82(1), 165–179 (2006) 66. National Research Council. Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment. National Academy Press, Washington (2001) 67. Nielsen, J.: Usability Engineering. Academic Press, Cambridge (2001) 68. Lin, H.X., Choong, Y.Y., Salvendy, G.: A Proposed Index for Usability: A Method for Comparing the Relative Usability of Different Software Systems. Behavior and Information Technology 16(4/5), 267–278 (1997) 69. Alessi, S.M.: Simulation Design for Training and Assessment. In: O’Neil, H.F., Andrews, D.H. (eds.) Aircrew Training and Assessment, pp. 197–222. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah (2000) 70. Alessi, S.M., Trollip, S.R.: Multimedia for Learning, 3rd edn. Allyn and Bacon, Boston (2002) 71. Ravers, P.: An Integrative Review of Computer-based Simulation in the Education Process. Computers, Informatics, Nursing 20(5), 203–208 (2002)

Enhancing Blended Courses to Facilitate Student Achievement of Learning Outcomes Nga-Sin Lau, Lui Lam, and Bo Zhou School of Continuing and Professional Studies The Chinese University of Hong Kong {phoebelau,louis.lam}@cuhk.edu.hk, [email protected]

Abstract. Outcome-Based Teaching & Learning (OBTL) and Blended Learning (BL) are widely promoted in higher education of Hong Kong. The use of online resources is one of the key components in OBTL or BL. In this paper, we are going to study how the effective use of online resources in Blended Learning would assist students in achieving specific learning outcomes. In particular, with the facilitation and guidance of teachers and a well-designed course learning mode, most students are able to use relevant online resources effectively and efficiently among the overwhelming information on the web. Keywords: Outcome-Based Teaching & Learning, Blended Learning, Collaborative Learning, Self-reflection, Learning Outcome.

1 Introduction The recent advancement of information and communication technology (ICT) offered enormous potentials for educators in developing a better teaching and learning environment to students. One of these is the introduction of Blended Learning (BL). This approach emphasizes the integration of face-to-face (F2F) teaching and computermediated instruction in a pedagogical environment [1]. Students can have easy access to various online resources and acquire extra knowledge as a supplement to normal lectures, under the supervision and support of the teachers both inside and outside the classroom [2]. Though BL is widely adopted in higher education of Hong Kong, and is proved to be an innovative teaching and learning approach [3] [4], different educators may have different implementation methods, resulting in a variety on the achievement of student learning outcomes. The purpose of this paper was to examine the effectiveness of a blended learning environment on student learning outcomes by varying three major parameters: facilitation of teachers, collaboration with student peers, and self-reflection of students. We skipped the factor of students’ IT competency, since it has been discussed widely in the literature [5] [6], and it is proven that students with less knowledge on information technologies will have lower tendency to utilize the online resources. Some other success factors for better blended learning environment were identified in our study, which can further enhance student participation and learning progress. The paper has five main sections; it begins with an introduction in Section 1 about the current trend of learning strategies in higher education of Hong Kong. Literature P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 205–216, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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review and background of different learning options are stated in Section 2. In Section 3, we report some of the problems found during the implementation of blended learning. In view of the problems, certain areas of enhancements are identified and their impacts on student learning outcomes are analyzed in Section 4. We then conclude our paper in Section 5.

2 Background E-learning, collaborative learning, and outcome-based teaching and learning (OBTL) are at present the most common educational options in higher education of Hong Kong [7]. Independently, each of the three mentioned methods provides an opportunity for moving beyond content acquisition to develop skills and dispositions needed for life-long learning. E-learning offers greater flexibility for students to acquire knowledge in terms of time, place, and way of knowledge delivery [8]. Lecturing is not limited in classroom only. Instead it can be conducted anytime on the web, with more enriching multimedia course materials. Collaborative learning allows students to learn from peers and get exposed to different points of view [9]. Outcome-based teaching & learning (OBTL) addresses the outcomes after the completion of the course, aligning the intended outcomes with the programme curriculum and assessment, and guiding students to make continual improvement throughout the course [10]. OBTL and collaborative learning educational methods can occur without technology, and technology can be used in a non-OBTL-collaborative environment [11]. However, by integrating OBTL with collaborative web-based learning environment, it is reasonable to expect a more positive and cumulative effect in helping students to achieve meaningful learning. Consequently, today a major trend in higher education of Hong Kong is the move to blended learning (BL), which merges all the advantages from the three approaches. BL has different definitions in the literature. In general, BL combines online delivery of educational content with the best features of classroom interaction and live instruction to personalize learning [12]. It increases the options for greater quality and quantity of human interaction in a learning environment, offering learners the opportunity “to be both together and apart” [13]. A community of learners can interact at any time and anywhere because of the benefits that computer-mediated educational tools provided. BL is facilitated by the effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of learning, and is based on transparent communication amongst all parties involved with a course. It provides a ‘good’ mix of technologies and interactions, resulting in a socially supported, constructive, learning experience [14]. When talking about a ‘good’ mix of technologies and interactions, what is the composition of components to make a ‘good’ mix? Before we report our analysis on this question, we would first describe the problems that we observed in the implementation of blended learning in the following section.

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3 Problem 3.1 Implementation of Blended Learning In September 2006, blended learning was introduced and implemented in School of Continuing and Professional Studies (SCS), The Chinese University of Hong Kong. 23 blended courses were offered to top-up degree and higher diploma students in computing major as a pilot test, and another 12 blended courses from other disciplines were offered one year later. Those courses were considered as “blended” because they had fixed lecture time plus a significant portion of online activities, such as reading online articles, completing online quizzes, downloading online materials, submitting assignments and posting topics to online forum. The e-learning platform was implemented using common educational software packages such as WebCT [15] and Moodle [16]. The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) also adopted outcome-based approach to teaching and learning. An “Integrated Framework for Curriculum Development and Review” is launched in March 2004 after wide consultation [17]. The five integrated or aligned curriculum elements of the framework were learning outcomes, content, learning activities, assessment and feedback for evaluation [18]. In particular, in order to support programme teams for integrating outcomes-based approach with present blended learning or purely e-learning environment, the Integrated Framework established a guideline in defining appropriate learning outcomes, designing suitable teaching and learning environments, and then monitoring students' attainment of the desired outcomes [19], as depicted in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Two levels of guidelines for integrating outcomes-based approach with web-enhanced student learning environment

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3.2 Feedback from Teachers We interviewed three teachers from blended courses to discuss how the student engagement under the blended learning environment was. Surprisingly, all three interviewees reported unsatisfactory results. They spotted out that although the students had daily internet access, they seemed not to be enthusiastic in accessing the course content provided in the e-learning platform, unless it was compulsory as specified in the course requirement. In particular, upon reviewing the online activities conducted by the students and the achievement of the course learning outcomes, teachers identified three major problems as described below. Problem 1: Small variety of information sources With the exponential growth of knowledge, teachers would introduce key concepts of the subject in the lecture notes and encouraged students to obtain extra information from the web. Sometimes, teachers posted hyperlinks of referencing materials for students to read at leisure time. Or, they asked students to search for online resources by themselves. For the later case, teachers reported that the students did not spend much time in finding information on the web. In particular, they tended to rely on Wikipedia [20] as the major information provider. They passively perceived Wikipedia as the only repository of knowledge, without knowing the fact that some contents shown in Wikipedia may not reflect the truth. This act limited the knowledge space of students and their incentives to explore new things. Problem 2: Lack of in-depth discussion Communication and collaboration tools like online forums, chat, and email were provided in the e-learning platform, which served the purpose of facilitating discussion and interaction among student peers and teachers. However, the number of responses was unexpectedly low, and it was just slightly increased near the due dates of assignments. The content of discussion was quite straight-forward. The most often scenario was a student posted a question on the forum and another more talented student gave standard answers in keywords only. The forum seemed to serve as a “FAQ” bulletin and most of the students tended to copy someone’s answers from the forum without appropriate judgments or contributions to the discussion from their points of view. This hindered the process of peer interaction and logical thinking, where students can only be a passive knowledge receptor. Problem 3: Ambiguous learning outcomes The ultimate goal of a majority of courses offered either in blended environment or in traditional mode is to help students acquire a deeper understanding of the subject concerned as well as develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The blending of online resources with face-to-face lecture sessions aimed at providing students with more exposure to subject-related context and more interaction among teachers and peers.

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However, the extremely low students’ participation in the online environment reflected that the advantages of blended learning were vanished. One reason accounting for such situation is the very little alignment between the content of lecture sessions and the online activities. In this case, students may find it difficult to correlate the materials provided in the two environments. They may think it is a waste of time to read the online materials if they will not be covered or tested in class.

4 Methodology To tackle with the deficiencies reported by the teachers, two courses were reviewed and launched again with a revised teaching mode. The incentive for such change was to better engage students in the learning process and guide them to the learning outcomes. The following sections present our study on the effectiveness of the enhanced blended learning terminology in terms of the attainment of student learning outcomes. Three major areas were revised: facilitation of teachers, collaboration with student peers, and self-reflection of students. 4.1 Course Intended Learning Outcomes The two courses under review were Professional Development and E-Commerce, offered to second-year top-up degree and higher diploma students. The learning outcomes of the courses were to develop students’ skills in critical thinking, problem solving and collaborative working necessary for professional and academic learning. Aligning with the learning outcomes, the courses comprised of group and teamwork, interactive class-based activities, team-based projects and e-learning components. 4.2 Enhanced Pedagogy Enhancement 1: Instructor-led navigation As discussed in the literature, the role of teachers in blended learning was much like a facilitator [21] [22], who initiated online activities and encouraged students to engage and learn from them. In addition to this, teachers were advised to provide more guidance in the early stage of blended learning, such as sharing suggested readings before class to assist students locating relevant websites and summarizing information instead of replicating content from single website. Students were required to cite their sources using Harvard Referencing System [23], so as to allow teachers to keep track of students’ surfing pattern, and provide support if necessary. The guidance was minimized as students gained expertise in web navigation [24], offering them more opportunities to explore a diversity of websites and extract meaningful information. Enhancement 2: Teamwork problem-solving activities As presented early in this paper, collaborative learning is an effective strategy to foster students’ interpersonal relationships and acquire diversity of understanding from others’ perspectives [25]. Therefore, teachers were advised to extend the concepts taught in class or discussed in the forum into a case-study exercise, and allow students

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to work together as a team to solve the given problem. The case-study articulated the materials covered in both online and offline environments, which was useful to strengthen students’ understanding of the learning activities. The teams were required to negotiate and arrange clear roles, timelines and outcomes. At the beginning of the class students were asked to complete a Readiness Assurance Test (RAT) [26], which was a multiple-choice test performed individually in a set time. RAT was designed to aid the students complete information searching and understand the context before they come to the discussion, so as to encourage students to get prepared for the teamwork problem-solving activities and contribute extensively in the discussion. At the end of the discussion, the teams were required to deliver a presentation to conclude their ideas. Then, each team member had to complete a peer evaluation form and assign scores to other members for reflecting individual contribution. This allowed students to reward the team members who worked hard for the team or fairly reflect those who did not make sufficient effort to participate in team activities. Enhancement 3: Self-reflective writing Students were required to make five entries into their online self-appraisal reflective journals focusing on how they had improved their problem-solving and teamwork skills throughout the course. Reflections were intended to assist students in conveying a logical connection from a diversity of knowledge gained and reviewing personal experience [27]. During writing, students could interpret the significance or impact of the activities in the learning process, evaluate the value of what they had learnt, and further how they could apply this knowledge in the future. 4.3 Participants The population of the study consisted of 44 top-up degree students and 56 higher diploma students both in computing discipline. The two batches of students did not differ significantly in the ratio of men to women. They enrolled in courses offered by SCS and the courses lasted for 14 lessons. These students possessed solid experience in using computers and internet services, so they were reasonably knowledgeable about online learning environment. All students (n=100) had home computers with internet access. The school also provided computer facilities for classroom use and general student access. Computer labs with unrestricted internet access were open to all students and staff. Therefore, accessibility of computer and internet is not a significant parameter in our study. 4.4 Research Methods Throughout the study, the students were arranged to take part in a number of different pre-class, in-class and post-class learning activities, with mediation of online learning platforms, WebCT and Moodle. Their outputs were required to submit to the teachers through online platform as the channel of monitoring student learning progress. To evaluate the learning effectiveness of the enhanced pedagogy, both quantitative research (survey) and qualitative research (interview) were adopted in the study.

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Learning effectiveness was measured in terms of student learning outcomes and satisfaction. The survey was comprised of 12 single-choice, multiple-choice and close-ended questions on a Likert scale with 1 (Strongly Disagree), 2 (Disagree), 3 (Neutral), 4 (Agree) and 5 (Strongly Agree). If the average rating was 3 or above, the answer was considered to be positive, which implied the student tended to agree with the question. For qualitative approach, interviews were conducted with five students by asking their opinions on the enhanced blended learning. The interviews were not taped but conversations were recorded in paper so that students could freely express their views. Students were required to complete the survey individually in the last lesson of the course. The questions in the survey were categorized into four major areas: (1) LO: Attainment of learning outcomes in the enhanced BL course when compared to traditional one (2) FG: Necessity on the facilitation and guidance of teachers (3) TL: Satisfaction of team-based learning (4) SR: Appreciation of self-reflection 4.5 Results Table 1 shows the student satisfaction on the impact of the learning outcomes in different areas of enhancement. Table 1. Number of students whose rating are positive (3 or above) and negative (below 3)

Learning outcome Positive Negative

LO 92 8

TL 95 5

FG 98 2

SR 96 4

Table 2 depicts the average scores, standard deviations and percentages of population rating 3 or above (Neutral, agree, strongly agree). Table 2. Average scores, standard deviations and % of population rating 3 or above

Learning outcome Positive Negative Mean Variance Standard Deviation

LO 92.1% 7.9% 3.79 1.05 1.03

TL 94.9% 5.1% 3.93 2.18 1.48

FG 97.9% 2.1% 3.99 0.57 0.76

SR 95.8% 4.2% 3.85 0.70 0.84

According to the results of the surveys, we come up with the following data analysis: Finding 1: The majority of students had positive feedback Most students are satisfied with the learning outcome of enhancing blended courses, i.e. FG (97.9%), SR (95.8%), TL (94.9%) and LO (92.1%). A small portion of

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students had negative feedback (less than 10%). However, on interviewing with them, they addressed other external factors such as time consuming nature of activities, intrinsic problems related to teamwork learning like free-rider and conflict, the measurement of academic performance, bias and subjective judgment. Some students were prone to traditional teaching learning approach because they got used to traditional mode of learning for years, which, in turn, became conservative. On the other hand, they lacked of confidence in performing well under the new approach, which made them reluctant to accept new teaching and learning approach. Finding 2: Different ranking of four areas of enhancement Among the four areas of enhancement, FG (97.9%) ranks the highest whereas LO (92.1%) ranks the lowest. The result implies that ‘Necessity on the facilitation and guidance of teachers’ is one of the important factors in enhancing blended course learning outcome. Some students were asked about the reason behind choosing FG. They expressed FG could obviously improve effectiveness of learning outcome and hence their satisfaction. On the other hand, LO ranks the last implies that ‘Attainment of learning outcomes in the enhanced BL course when compared to traditional one’ is relatively not as important as other. Another implication of LO can be attributed to the programme or course nature and student background, in particular, higher education (foundation knowledge acquisition) but not postgraduate study (e.g. master or doctorate degree).

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Fig. 2. Percentage of students whose rating are positive (3 or above) and negative (below 3) under the four areas of enhancement

Finding 3: Other factors existed in enhancing blended course learning outcomes Even though the four areas of enhancement show positive feedback, it is obvious that there should be other factors enhancing blended course learning outcomes, such as student participation, demographic factors, cultural issues, that are subject to further investigation and study.

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Finding 4: Age of the students was not a significant factor to a more positive learning outcome and satisfaction The sample of students was selected at random. The combined sample size is 100, so a two-sample test is required to compare the means using Z-statistic. Positive: sample (npos) = 91 mean (xpos) = 24.1 standard deviation (spos) = 4.57 Negative: sample (nneg) = 9 mean (xneg) = 25.3 standard deviation (sneg) = 4.03 (a) F-statistic test One assumption in using this test is that the populations have equal variances. This should be tested using F-statistic. 2 2 The hypotheses are: H 0 = σ pos ≤ σ neg 2 H A = σ 2pos > σ neg

4.57 2 = 1.28 with (91 - 1, 9 - 1) degrees of freedom F= 4.032 2 2 The distribution under the null hypothesis, H 0 = σ pos , is shown in figure 3. ≤ σ neg

The critical values are obtained from the F-distribution tables. This is a one-tailed test so the critical area is in the right tail of the distribution.

F5% 2.99

F1% 4.89

Fcalc 1.28

2 2 Fig. 3. Distribution under the null hypothesis, H 0 = σ pos ≤ σ neg one-tailed test

As the calculated value of F lies in the main part of the distribution, it is highly likely to come from the population represented by the null hypothesis. That is the variance of the age of students with positive learning outcome is not significantly greater that the variance for the students with negative learning outcome. This also indicates the assumption that the populations have equal variances is valid. (b) Z-statistic test As the test is to determine whether ‘the age of students with positive learning outcome is significantly greater than the age of students with negative learning outcome’, one-tailed test is performed. The hypotheses are:

H 0 = μ pos < μ neg H A = μ pos ≥ μ neg

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Pooled variance = (91 − 1) x 20.85 + (9 − 1) x16.25 =21.35 91 + 9 − 2 Pooled standard deviation = 4.62

zcalc =

25.3 − 24.1 = 0.74 (Note the assumption that μ pos = μ neg ) 1 1 4.62 + 91 9

Z5% 1.66

Z1% 2.36

Zcalc 0.74

Fig. 4. Distribution under the null hypothesis, μ pos ≥ μ neg , one-tailed test

The distribution under the null hypothesis is shown in figure 4. As the calculated value of z lies in the main part of the distribution, the decision is to reject the alternative hypothesis, HA. The conclusion is that the age for students with positive learning outcome is not significantly higher than the age of students with negative learning outcome.

5 Conclusion The research study reveals again teaching through blended learning approach in higher education is obviously a must. On one hand, it helps leverage the weaknesses of traditional teaching mode. On the other hand, it encourages students’ incentive and initiative in learning. In terms of learning outcomes, blended learning approach helps exploring different students’ skills, ability, and potentials in addition to course knowledge. This is absolutely important to students especially when the current career market is growing competitive than ever. However, our study also reveals that there exist critical success factors for blended learning approach. Some of them are people, activities and resources [28]. People include teachers and course administrators, who need to get well-prepared for the course and facilitate the students in the course of learning. Student participation is another essential factor. The learning outcomes can be multiplied if they can engage and put much effort in finishing the task and cooperate with classmates. The availability and comprehensiveness of the course resources are also important.

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According to Singh & Reed (2001) [29], ‘Blended learning is the optimizing achievement of learning objectives by applying the “right” skills to the “right” person at the “right” time’. We believe the success of blended learning is a matter of teaching and learning strategies [30]. In terms of resources, our study digs into details of how online resources related to the blended learning outcomes. In short, blended learning usually includes e-learning platform or online platform, but effective and efficient use of online resources also plays an important role. Online resources become useful and beneficial to student in learning under the facilitation of teacher as well as the refinement of well-developed course materials. Otherwise, online resources would become a barrier hindering the blended learning outcomes.

References 1. Graham, C.R.: Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In: Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R. (eds.) Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs, pp. 3–21. Pfeiffer, San Francisco (2005) 2. Worthington, T.: Blended Learning: Using a Learning Management System Live in the Classroom. In: Australian National University Linking Research and Teaching Swap Shop (2008), http://www.tomw.net.au/technology/it/blended_learning/ 3. Teeley, K.H.: Designing hybrid web-based courses for accelerated nursing students. Educational Innovations 46(9), 417–422 (2007) 4. Huang, R.H., Zhou, Y.L., Wang, Y.: Blended Learning: Theory into Practice. Higher Education Press, Beijing (2006) 5. Zhang, J.P.: Hybrid Learning and Ubiquitous Learning. In: Fong, J., Kwan, R., Wang, F.L. (eds.) ICHL 2008. LNCS, vol. 5169, pp. 250–258. Springer, Heidelberg (2008) 6. Bates, C., Watson, M.: Re-learning teaching techniques to be effective in hybrid and online courses. Journal of American Academy of Business Cambridge 13(1) (2008) 7. Biggs, J., Tang, C.: Outcome-based Teaching and Learning – What is it, Why is it, How do we make it work? In: Workshop Document used in the City University of Hong Kong. Hong Kong Baptist University and University of Hong Kong (2006) 8. Bullen, M., Janes, D.: Making the transition to e-learning: Strategies and issues. Information Science Publishing, Hershey (2006) 9. Dillon, C., Greene, B.: Learner differences in distance learning: Finding differences that matter. In: Moore, M.G., Anderson, W.G. (eds.) Handbook of Distance Education, pp. 235–244. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, United States (2003) 10. Quick Start OBTL, http://www6.cityu.edu.hk/obtl/ 11. Taradi, S.K., Taradi, M., Radic, K., Pokrajac, N.: Blending problem-based learning with Web technology positively impacts student learning outcomes in acid-base physiology. Advances in Physiology Education 29, 35–39 (2005) 12. Watson, J.: Blending Learning: The Convergence of Online and Face-to-Face Education. In: Promising Practices in Online Learning, North American Council for Online Learning (2008) 13. Garrison, D.R., Kanuka, H.: Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education 7(2), 95–105 (2004) 14. Heinze, A., Procter, C.: Reflections on the Use of Blended Learning. In: Education in a Changing Environment. University of Salford, Salford, Education Development Unit (2004), http://www.ece.salford.ac.uk/proceedings/papers/ah_04.rtf

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15. WebCT, http://webct.cuhk.edu.hk/ 16. Moodle, http://hd.scs.cuhk.edu.hk/ 17. Outcomes-based eLearning at CUHK, http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/eLearning/eLoutcomes/ 18. The Development of an Outcomes-based Approach to Teaching and Learning at The Chinese University of Hong Kong (2007), http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/clear/download/ OBAwebsite_UGC_18April07.pdf 19. Keing, C., McNaught, C.: Guidelines for Web-enhanced Student Learning Environments. In: Document used in Centre for Learning Enhancement And Research (2005), http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/eLearning/download/ eL_Guidelines_6Mar06.pdf 20. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/ 21. Gjedde, L.: Developing ICT-facilitators Competencies through a Blended Learning Approach. In: Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, pp. 1530–1531. AACE, Chesapeake (2002) 22. Xu, Z.C.: When Hybrid Learning Meets Blended Teaching: Online Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) Discourse and Classroom Face-to-Face (FTF) Discourse Analysis. In: Fong, J., Kwan, R., Wang, F.L. (eds.) ICHL 2008. LNCS, vol. 5169, pp. 157–167. Springer, Heidelberg (2008) 23. Harvard System of Referencing Guide, http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/referencing/harvard.htm 24. Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J., Clark, R.E.: Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist 41(2), 75–86 (2006) 25. Smith, B.L., MacGregor, J.T.: What Is Collaborative Learning? In: Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education, National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment at Pennsylvania State University (1992) 26. Michaelsen, L., Knight, A.B., Fink, L.D.: Team-Based Learning: A Transformative Use of Small Groups in College Teaching. Stylus Publishing, US (2004) 27. Dettori, G., Paiva, A.: Narrative learning in technology-enhanced environments. In: Balacheff, N., Ludvigsen, S., de Jong, T., Lazonder, A., Barnes, S. (eds.) TechnologyEnhanced Learning: Principles and Products, pp. 55–69. Springer, Berlin (2009) 28. Mitchell, A., Honore, S.: Criteria for successful blended learning. Industrial and Commercial Training 39(3), 143–149 (2007) 29. Singh, H., Reed, C.: Achieving Success with Blended Learning. In: White Paper, American Society for Training and Development (2001), http://www.centra.com/download/whitepapers/ blendedlearning.pdf 30. Ma, D., Zheng, L.Q.: Research into the Status Quo of Learning Strategies of College Students and Blended Learning Strategy. In: Wang, F.L., Fong, J., Zhang, L.M., Lee, V.S.K. (eds.) ICHL 2009. LNCS, vol. 5685, pp. 175–185. Springer, Heidelberg (2009)

Building an Online Course Based on Semantic Wiki for Hybrid Learning∗ Yanyan Li and Yuanyuan Liu Knowledge Science & Engineering Institute, School of Educational Technology, Beijing Normal University, 100875, Beijing, China [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. By combining properties of Wikis with Semantic Web technologies, Semantic Wikis emerged with semantic enhancements. Based upon Semantic Wiki, this paper designs and develops an online course integrated with face-toface instruction to support hybrid learning. Compared with general online courses, the course has three outstanding features. First, taken the learning object as the basic building blocks, the course organizes learning content in a structured, coherent and flexible way. Second, it motivates learners to be actively engaged in the collaborative learning process by allowing convenient course authoring, editing as well as adequate interaction. Third, it enables smart resource accessing with the provision of intelligent facilities, such as semantic search, relational navigation, course management, etc. Keywords: Semantic Wiki, Online Course, Hybrid Learning, Collaborative Learning.

1 Introduction With the population of hybrid learning, the development of e-learning environment has become an indispensable complement to face-to-face instruction. Especially a wide variety of online courses which supported by diverse e-learning platforms, such as ‘Moodle’, ‘Blackboard’, ‘sakai’, have been constructed for the purpose of facilitating learners’ learning. Online courses which eliminate time and space barriers are widely adopted by educational centers at all stages, especially in higher education institutions trying to support conventional learning. However, it is noted that most of the online courses are not optimal and the problems mostly lie in their usability. First, the underlying e-learning platforms or environments for online courses are too complex to use. Second, learning materials are pre-designed and rigid without flexible search and navigation support. Third, learners usually act as passive information receiver and could not be actively involved in the learning resources construction, which leads to learners’ low motivation and lack of learning enthusiasm.

∗

The research work is supported by the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC: 60705023).

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 217–228, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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Therefore, there is a great need to focus on the usability of online courses and develop more usable and user-centered online courses [1], [2]. Wikis, one of many Web 2.0 components, can be used to enhance the usability of learning process. Wikis are collaborative hypertext authoring environments and allow people to collaboratively collect, describe, and author information. Yet most information in ordinary Wikis consists of natural-language texts, structured access and information reuse are practically not possible [3]. Semantic wikis enrich wiki systems of collaborative content management with semantic technologies. Annotations added to wiki pages are stored in a knowledge base, and possibly connected with background ontologies. Due to these annotations, semantic wikis provide enhanced navigation, search, as well as contextual adaptation of the presentation of the content. As a result, we propose to online course can take advantage of semantic wikis to promote its usability. In this paper, we try to integrate semantic wiki with conventional instruction and aim to outline concrete options for overcoming current problems. The goal of this article is on the one hand to introduce into online course based on semantic wikis through comparing the knowledge construction process with traditional online course, and on the other hand to illustrate in structural detail of online course based on semantic wikis.

2 Task-Driven Collaborative Learning Process Proponents of collaborative learning claim that learners in cooperative teams achieve higher levels of performance and retain information longer than learners who work individually [4]. Fig. 1 illustrates several phases in task-driven collaborative learning. The arrows represent transformative processes, the rectangles represent the key stages or products of these processes and the cylinder represents learning content which structured in the form of learning object (LO). In the face-to-face class, new learning task will be assigned to learners. If the learner’s prior cognitive structure cannot assimilate the new task, a cognitive conflict will be aroused to stimulate the learner's learning motivation. As a result, learners will start self-learning to master related knowledge. In our online course, learning resources are structured in the form of learning objects. This will bring a great convenience to learners. After self-learning, the learners will form personal views on the learning task. While process of forming personal views is influenced by the pre-understanding and the level of the individual mind, it’s essential to express ourselves in public statements. When someone’s view articulated in words, this public statement will be taken up in the discussion area and discussed by several participants. Different learners will discuss by their own viewpoints to make the discussion topic more deep-going and accepting and finally a shared view resulting from a clarification of differences will be formed and outputted [5]. After that, learners will further deepen their understanding about the learning task, change the minds of misconceptions and accept the sharable views as their own. At the same time, the online resources will be constantly updated because new viewpoints can be increased into the corresponding page in which they can be preserved.

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Fig. 1. Task-driven collaborative Learning process

3 Structural Modeling of Course Content The course we developed is “Introduction to Artificial Intelligence”, which is an optional course for the juniors who have computer operation skills and independent learning abilities. It takes a task-driven collaborative learning as the main teaching strategy. This course has nine modules and each learning module includes two to four learning tasks. In the learning task, learning is launched by a number of learning steps. The basic organizational form of the learning content is learning object. Learning object [6] is a reusable, media-independent chunk of information used as a modular building block for e-learning content. It has two main characteristics: First, It distinguishes learning content from learning management systems. Second, the organization of the learning content is influenced by object-oriented ideology, such as learning content is composed by reusable learning materials, object has property, encapsulation, and inheritance, different objects interact with each other, etc. After constructing the learning object, it will be stored in the repository and then can be retrieved and reused. Learning object differs in different application scenarios which is initially defined by experts and then co-edited by learners [7]. In this way, different granular learning object can be constructed to enhance sharing. Based on the characteristics of learning content, 22 kinds of learning objects are created in this course, such as the learning task, conceptual terms, knowledge points, discuss themes, character, etc. Each of them has several secondary learning objects as subclasses which have the same properties but different values. Table 1 shows two typical learning objects in our online course. According to their complexity, learning objects can be divided into two kinds: one is the atomic learning object (ALO) which

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is the smallest unit of learning content and can be combined into a larger one. The other is composite learning object (CLO) composed of multiple atomic learning objects. Take the learning task for example. It is an atomic learning object, while the character is a composite learning object which is composed by experts, teachers and students. Table 1. Two typical learning objects

Learning object 1 Title Location Learning step Proposed_time Up_link

Section1.2 Unit1 3 50minutes Section1.1

Learning object 2 Title Learning objective Key conception Location Related_link

Machine learning Master Metadata Unit5 Section5.1

Atomic learning object has its own properties, while the properties of composite learning object are the sum of its atomic learning objects’. For each learning object, we set suitable properties and related values which can be linked. In this way, learning objects can be searched and shared easily. Table 2 is about partial properties of learning objects in our online course. Table 2. Partial properties of learning objects in online course

Property

Implication

Title

the name of the learning object, and it is also the ID of the learning object the producer of related content the key concept involved in this learning object it is used to link related learning objects. to describe hypernymy to describe troponymy to describe other related relationships the time of several operations about the learning object the start of the learning object the record about the last browse the time limit about some tasks the suggested time for this task downloading related resources include txt, view, img, audio, etc. describe the learning requirement about the learning object, usually the requirement can be divided in three levels understand, comprehend and master the proposed learning sequence about the learning object

Author Key concept Link up_link down_link related_link Time Start_time Browse_time Deadline Proposed_ time Download Learning objective

Learning path Description

describe some information about the learning object, such as publisher, location, initiator, resource type, credit.

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We can achieve curricular layer-management by organizing learning materials into learning objects. Fig. 2 describes the organizational forms of our online course. There are three layers. In the first layer, according to the course analysis, several semantic properties should be defined first for different kinds of learning objects and based on the semantic properties, required raw learning materials, including text, audio, and video should be built as their values. After that, separated atomic learning objects (ALO) are composed by semantic properties and corresponding values. In the second layer, some values of semantic properties are not raw materials but atomic learning object. We call this special learning object composite learning object (CLO) which has atomic learning objects as its values. Based on the semantic properties, knowledge network is weaved to describe the semantic relationships (SR) between learning objects. In the third layer, learning objects are selected to compile learning units and all the learning units compose the course. In this way, the structured semantic learning contents are built. This curricular organizational structure can be beneficial to effectively search, navigation and other useful functions.

Fig. 2. Organizational structure of the course

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4 Functionalities for Online Course 4.1 Semantic Search Semantic wikis provide mechanisms to directly query their knowledge database. The query language used in our online course is a simple query language whose syntax is based on Semantic Media WiKi’s mark-up language for editing. Besides the technical aspect of the employed query language, the user interface strongly affects the use of query. On the one hand, the online course provides the general keyword search function. On the other hand, the query language is extended to allow advanced formatting of embedded results in a semantic pattern matching, as shown in Fig.3.

The search keywords

The search results

Fig. 3. The semantic search page

4.2 Navigation Not being isolated, learning objects are interrelated and linked with each other within a knowledge network. Relationships between learning objects can be divided into the following kinds: 1) Sequential relation. This relationship defines that one learning object is the prerequisite to the other learning object. 2) Dependency relation. This relationship indicates the interconnected relationship between learning objects, such as mutual clarification, complementation, comparison and so on. 3) Recommended relation. When finishing a learning object, different paths are provided for the further learning based on your situation. The relationship between the former learning object

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Fig. 4. Linear navigation in the online course

and the suggested ones is recommended relation 4) Inclusion relation. Inclusion relation occurs when a learning object is embedded in another. Based on the various relationship defined by learners via semantic template, the online course provides three navigation modes. z

Linear Navigation. The sequence of the learning objects with sequential relations build up a linear learning path. After finishing one learning object, we can find the next one according to the linear navigation. It is the simplest navigation and can be understood easily. Linear navigation in our online course can be described as Fig. 4. Through the unit navigation, learners can enter the unit learning. After browsing the learning objectives, learning tasks and other information in the unit sketch page, learners can click the link of the learning task to start learning. In the learning task page, there are corresponding learning steps and different steps direct to different learning content. Usually, step1 is to learn the related knowledge. Step 2 may be the extending learning or discussion; Step 3 is generally practice and test. During the study of related knowledge, learners can also check the related key concepts through learning object’s property list in the upper right corner of the page. Following linear navigation, learner’s general learning process is shown in Fig. 5.

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Fig. 5. Linear-navigation supported learning process

z

z

Hierarchical Navigation. By assembling learning objects with some constraints, such as difficulty level, learning goal, etc., the online course provides a hierarchical chart of learning objects for learners. In this way, learners can choose learning objects suited to their learning level through the links between learning objects in the same hierarchical chart. Networked Navigation. The links between all learning objects are weaved into a network. For the experienced users, this network navigation supports them to traverse and explore in a flexible way. Through comparing related learning objects and searching forward and backward between learning objects, learners can deepen their study and learn more advanced knowledge, such as understanding the complex relationships between difficult learning theories.

4.3 Resource Co-construction By taking advantage of wiki features, our online course supports resource coconstruction. With proper privilege management and under teacher’s guidance, learners can collaboratively contribute to the learning content by means of simple operation such as page editing, modifying, etc.

Fig. 6. Co-construction page about reading materials

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Meta-data description about the uploading resource

Fig. 7. The interface of uploading resources

Especially, we provide the resource co-construction function for learners. Fig. 6 shows the interface to add reading materials. As the figure shows, what you only do is to input the title of the reading material, and then click the “submit” button. If there does exist a reading material of the same title, then the interface will be shifted to the exact page. The learner can browse the content and modify or delete it if it’s necessary. If there is no matching learning material, the learner will then be required to fill in the metadata of the reading material and save the page (see Fig. 7). Accordingly, learners can contribute to the content of the page. It is to note that the version record function provided by the course can save operation history to avoid malicious modify.

Operation User name Grade

Fig. 8. Participation information about learners

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4.4 Course Management Only teachers and administrator are eligible to use course management. This module provides user account management, resource management, and user behavior statistics. By recording user’s operations such as page editing and browsing, each user’s contribution can be computed and viewed in the descending sequence, as shown in Fig. 8. Thus, teachers can learn about each learner’s performance and afford timely assistance. Additionally, hot pages are also displayed in the order of descending for teacher reference.

5 Comparison Compared with traditional online courses, the online course based on semantic wiki has the following four significant features. z Collaborative knowledge construction. A wiki is a collaborative web site whose content can be edited by visitors to the site, allowing users to easily create and edit web pages collaboratively [8] and the collaborative features of wiki makes online course particularly well suited for cooperative learning environments. Usually, the online course provides a ‘discussion forum’ where learners are able to discuss principal points of a specific domain, following a wiki-based structured dialogue. In such situation, there is no any restriction concerning the ‘who takes the final decision’ or the ‘who should be the host of the dialogue’. Actually, our goal is not only to allow co-existence and interoperability of conflicting views but more importantly support learners in achieving consensus finding. So discussed issues that have been viewed, discussed, and agreed by all learners, are shaped into public, shared and collective knowledge which will be added into ‘co-construction module’. In this way, learners have changed their role form passive recipient to initiative constructor. In addition, knowledge construction considers learning as collaborative production and continual improvement of views shared by each learner. Emphasis is given not in individual achievement but rather in collective knowledge advancement supported by wiki technology. z Modular learning content. Taken learning objects as the basic building blocks, learning content are structured and organized in a more flexible way. Thus, administrator or teachers can easily assemble or reorganize modular learning objects for course adjustment. Meanwhile, all the data can be easily exported in the format of XML files and reused in other applications. z Flexible and convenient search and navigation support. One of the major challenges in e-learning development is search and discovery of an appropriate learning object among the distributed content repositories. Online course based on semantic wikis can provide high efficient retrieval and navigation. Since the entered metadata are available, the online course can be queried semantically and all concepts satisfied the query will be found. Currently, queries are formulated as in ‘predicate=object’ or ‘predicate = literal’. Usability of the Wiki website is further enhanced by using the metadata to automatically create a sitemap

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or any hierarchy of relationship types in use, a feature common unstructured Wiki environments lack [9]. Activity recording for e-portfolio. In the semantic wiki environment, learners’ operation history will be recorded as a part of learner’s e-Portfolio, which can be used to discover each learner’s contribution to the online course. With such records, teachers can have an intuitive understanding about each learner's participation and activity in the online course. The operation history can also be used to depict the learners’ learning map which can not be provided by the traditional eportfolio. With this map, teachers can provide more efficient guide and learners can also reflect their learning process through their own e-portfolio. In this way, learners can deepen their cognition and promote their meta-cognition.

6 Conclusions This paper describes the design and development of an online course based on the semantic wiki with the purpose to effectively support hybrid learning. By organizing learning content in a structured, coherent and flexible way, the distinguished feature of the online course is to make learners be actively engaged in co-constructing the learning content dynamically and empower semantic-based navigation and resource retrieval. The development of the course is completed and the ongoing work is to apply it in the practical learning settings and improve it according to the feedback from learners.

Acknowledgment We would like to thank KSEI team members of Beijing Normal University, Ms. Chen, Mr. Ma, Mr. Yin and Mr. Feng for their cooperative work on the course design and development.

References 1. Zaharias, P.: Usability and e-Learning: The road towards integration. ACM eLearn Magazine (2004) 2. Martin, L., Roldán Martinez, D., Revilla, O., Aguilar, M.J., Santos, O.C., Boticario, J.: Usability in e-Learning Platforms: heuristics comparison between Moodle. In: Sakai and dotLRN. OpenACS and.LRN Conference 2008, International Conference and Workshops on Community Based Environments, Guatemala, pp. 75–84 (2008) 3. Oren, E., Breslin, J.G., Decker, S.: How semantics make better Wikis. In: Proceedings of WWW 2006, pp. 1071–1072. ACM Press, New York (2006) 4. Stahl, G.: A Model of Collaborative Knowledge-Building. In: Fishman, B., O’ConnorDivelbiss, S. (eds.) Fourth International Conference of the Learning Sciences, pp. 70–77. Erlbaum, Mahwah (2000) 5. Webb, N.M., Troper, J.D., Fall, R.: Constructive activity and learning in collaborative small groups. Journal of Educational Psychology 87, 406–423 (1995)

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6. Chao, J.: Student Project Collaboration Using Wikis. In: 20th Conference on Software Engineering Education & Training, CSEET 2007, pp. 255–261 (2007) 7. Yanyan, L., Mingkai, D.: Building a Semantic Resource Space for Online Learning Community. In: Wang, F.L., et al. (eds.) ICHL 2009. LNCS, vol. 5685, pp. 342–352. Springer, Heidelberg (2009) 8. Schaffert, S., Bischof, D., Buerger, T., Gruber, A., Hilzensauer, W., Schaffert, S.: Learning with semantic wikis. In: Proceedings of the First Workshop on Semantic Wikis – From Wiki To Semantics (SemWiki 2006), Budva, Montenegro, June 11-14, pp. 109–123 (2006) 9. Krötzsch, M., Schaffert, S., Vrandečić, D.: Reasoning in Semantic Wikis. In: Antoniou, G., Aßmann, U., Baroglio, C., Decker, S., Henze, N., Patranjan, P.-L., Tolksdorf, R. (eds.) Reasoning Web. LNCS, vol. 4636, pp. 310–329. Springer, Heidelberg (2007)

A Hybrid Learning Compiler Course M.L. Barrón-Estrada1, Ramón Zatarain-Cabada1, Rosalío Zatarain-Cabada1, and Carlos A. Reyes García2 1

Instituto Tecnológico de Culiacán, Juan de Dios Bátiz s/n, Col. Guadalupe, Culiacán Sinaloa, 80220, México 2 Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica (INAOE) Luis Enrique Erro No. 1, Sta. Ma. Tonanzintla, Puebla, 72840, México {rzatarain,lbarron,vponce,rcabada}@itculiacan.edu.mx, [email protected]

Abstract. Teaching a course in compiler construction is considered always a challenge because there are several problems to be addressed as time, complexity and motivation of students. In this paper, we present a hybrid learning approach along with a tool for use with courses of compiler construction. The key to our method is to combine theoretical and practical topics of the course using various technologies such as mobile learning, intelligent tutoring systems, learning social networks with direct learning. The ultimate goal is to stimulate the student's abilities to work creatively, collaboratively or individually, as well as their ability to solve complex problems. Keywords: Hybrid learning, Social learning networks, Compiler tools, MLearning.

1 Introduction There are many different approaches for teaching compiler courses. Mernik [1] proposes using a software tool named LISA which facilitates learning the conceptual understanding of compiler construction by experimenting, estimating and testing different lexical and syntax analyzers, and attribute evaluation strategies. Using the tools defined inside the environment of LISA, a compiler student can specify a new language and later produce the implementation for that language. The approach of this method is that students learn by experimenting, simulating, observing, constructing and debating the programs they create. Another different approach by Adams [2] is teaching compiler courses by using a non-traditional programming language in compiler courses: The XML markup language. Adams main arguments for using that approach is that students keep motivated because they develop their own grammar, which is hardly ever done in a compiler course, besides learning more about a technology that is extensively used in the Internet. Another advantage reported by Adams is that students can easily test the compiler project by using the tool xmllint. Similar approach of using a non-traditional programming language for the compiler project is applied by Henry [3]. By using its own invented Game Programming P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 229–238, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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Language (GPL), the student project consists of implementing a compiler/interpreter for this “game oriented” language. The main gain of this approach, reported by Henry, is keeping high the motivation of students by designing a tool for compiling and testing video games, a very popular field among computer students. In his paper, the author reports that students felt they were building something useful, which is rarely seen in compiler courses. A different method for a compiler course is presented by Griswold [4] where he describes integrating some software engineering practices into the course. The same approach could be used in different courses like operating system. The main argument of the author for using software engineering techniques is the regular lack of skills, teamwork, and discipline of students to overcome the complexities of a very large project like implementing a compiler. In order to integrate the required material to the students, Griswold concentrates in techniques and principles, instead of methodologies, and then he customizes the techniques into the compiler construction domain and size. White, Sen, and Stewart [5] describe an original approach where they use real compiler code into the course. The main goal of this method is to offer a precise picture of how the main concepts of compiler courses are addressed in an industrial compiler. The novel idea is to use a debugger on the compiler. This tool can be used to highlight (show) the important parts of the compiler code that are related to the main concepts covered into the course. But also, it is used to hide the irrelevant one. The key of the method is that students learn more by watching what happen with the variables and data structures while a piece of code of the compiler is running. Our method is different because we combine face-to-face instruction with other methods of instruction like mobile learning, web-based learning as well as adaptive or intelligent learning. To do this, we have developed a software tool that allowed us to create learning material for the compiler course to be executed in different learning environments. Thus, some theoretical topics are taught in a mobile learning environment, while other more practical issues are seen or worked in a collaborative environment of Web 2.0 adaptive or intelligent education. Finally, the rest of the course material is covered in a direct or traditional face-to-face instruction. We taught the compiler course by studying one real commercial compiler, the JDK Java compiler. Students built in one semester a compiler for a subset of the Java programming language, the MiniJava Programming Language described by Appel in [6]. Some students also implemented a MiniJava Virtual Machine for testing the target of the compiler. Right now, the same students are taking their second semester (compiler II) and they are extending the compiler in different ways: some of them are working with a JIT (Just-in-time) compiler. Others are working more with the .NET platform and others are implementing a visual debugger for the MiniJava compiler. All of those projects are going to be considered as the thesis for the students. The remainder of this paper is organized as follow. Section 2 presents the tool architectures. Section 3 describes the compiler course. Section 4 discusses experiments and results and conclusions are presented in section 5.

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2 Zamná and MLTutor Architectures The compiler learning material was implemented using two tools we built: Zamna, a social learning network and MLTutor, an editor of adapted m-learning courses. We combine both tools to implement specific learning material for both technologies: web-based and mobile learning. The rest of the course, not implemented with the software tool, was covered in traditional (face-to-face) classes. Figure 1 illustrates the architecture of the Web 2.0 tool Zamná. The user enters Zamná through a browser. The user workspace contains a news section, a user profile, an inbox part, a section of courses, communities, documents, lessons and friends. The component profile makes use of the intelligent module to indicate the user's learning style. A viewer is responsible for displaying the contents of a course according to their learning style defined by the intelligent module. The courses are stored in data bases or repositories. A course can be downloaded from a repository, in order to be exported and viewed on any mobile device. Zamná includes a component called Communities. A community is a small set of networks focused on different areas of knowledge for specific purposes. Each community is stored in a community repository; the same applies to lessons.

Fig. 1. Zamná Architecture

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Figure 2 shows the architecture of MLTutor [7]. A course is created by importing already prepared learning material in different standard formats like html, pdf, doc or SCORM learning objects from any type of source. The author can also insert learning material by using a simple editor included in the tool. The learning material is classified into four different types of learning objects: text, image, audio, and video. In each section the author inserts learning objects and defines a Felder-Silverman Result Score (FSRS) for every dimension: Input (visual/verbal), Perception (sensitive/ intuitive), Understanding (sequential/global) and Processing (active/reflective). The scores defined by the authors will decide what learning objects are presented to the students depending of their learning style. Another way to understand this approach is that the authors create a Knowledge set which contains all the possible learning objects in different learning styles; the learners only “see” part of the set (a knowledge subset) depending of their own learning styles. Another important learning object the authors insert into the knowledge repository is a quiz. These can be in every part of each section. The quiz is essential for the dynamic courseware generation because from the test results, the neural networks classify learning styles. After the author create the knowledge base of the ITS, she/he can save it and export it to a Mobile Learning format used to display tutoring systems on mobile devices. The saved/exported file will enclose three elements: a XML file corresponding to the learning style model, a predictive engine for navigation purposes, and the Kohonen Neural Network for learning style classification. Another option to the output of the visual editor is to export the learning material to SCORM format. The benefit of this format is the availability of the material in any distance learning environment.

Fig. 2. MLTutor Architecture

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Figure 3 shows the main interfaces of MLTutor (back) and Zamná (top). With respect to the tree-structure of MLTutor interface, we can observe a course created with two main chapters and six topics (four topics for chapter one and two topics for chapter two).

Fig. 3. Main interfaces of MLTutor and Zamná

3 A Compiler Course The topics covered in our compiler course are: Introduction to compilers, lexical analysis, syntactic analysis, semantic analysis, intermediate-object code generation, and code optimization. Topic Introduction to Compiler was initially studied in the web (material produced by Zamná). The introduction for each of the next five chapters was covered in mobile devices together with some easy exercises. More complex exercises were seen in face-to-face presentations. The social network (Zamná) was used to work in team projects (a mini-java compiler). Students also create learning material with MLTutor and they uploaded in the social network. The compiler course in both of our environments (m-learning and the social learning network) is adaptive with respect to learning style model of Felder-Silverman [8]. The model categorizes both the ways in which students learn, and how teachers teach students. The main goal is that in each category holding the model, the learning needs are met by the students. In order to identify a student’s learning style, a course makes use of an artificial neural network trained previously to do student classification. The process of constructing a new tutoring system (an adaptive or intelligent tutoring system) consists of three main steps. During Step 1 a tree structure of the adapted

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or intelligent tutoring system is designed by the main instructor(s) of the learning material. In the structure the designer specifies the course information (title, general description, author name, etc.), the unit names, and for each sub unit, the designer defines names and tags related to that sub unit, and all the prerequisites the student should get done. In the tree structure, the designer also inserts quizzes (multiple selection and choice). Quizzes are an important element to provide adaptation capabilities to the produced tutors. In step 2 the tree structure is filled with domain contents (a knowledge base), and some other learning resources. At the beginning of the creation the instructor or teacher authors the tutoring system by inserting different learning objects like text fragments, images, audio/video clips, and by defining learning styles, prerequisites, and quizzes. After the author creates the adaptive course, she/he can save it and export it to a Mobile Learning format or to a format used in the social learning network (step 3). The saved/exported file will enclose three elements: a XML file corresponding to learning resources or contents; a predictive engine for navigation purposes; and an Artificial Neural Network for learning style classification. Figure 4 shows the interface of the editor for the topic syntactic analysis. Dashed lines represent paths for different learning styles.

Fig. 4. The MLTutor Editor interface for syntactic analysis

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3.1 A Learning Style Classifier We implement an artificial neural network using the Kohonen model [9]. This network is used by the XML interpreter for classifying students’ learning styles. At the beginning, an interpreter selects content (learning objects) based upon the student´s learning style, obtained from the student profile. The learning style can be modified according to evaluations applied to the student (figure 5). The main reason to use a Kohonen neural network is to avoid using specialists in the network training process. The input layer of the neural network has 7 neurons. The Kohonen layer has 1600, organized in a lattice with hexagonal cells with dimensions of 40x40 neurons. The number of iterations used for training the neural network was selected through a process of trial and error. The value used was 5000 iterations, which allowed the network to learn from the signals without over-training. Two values are also determined based on experimentation; initial learning rate, with a value of 0.1 and the width of the initial colony, with a fixed value of 20. The data space used for training the network was collected through a process involving fieldwork. In this work we evaluated 47 high school students. Each student was given the Questionnaire Learning Styles Inventory of Felder-Soloman [10]. Through this questionnaire we identified and recorded the learning style of each student, which is represented by a vector of three elements.

Fig. 5. The Learning Style Classifier

3.2 The Student Project The student project was divided into four mini projects and was to be implemented by teams of three students. Next, we describe the mini projects. • Mini Project #1: It consists of implementing a Scanner and a Parser for the Mini-Java programming language [6] using the compiler-compiler tool Javacc. At this point, the only challenge is to define the necessary lookaheads of the different structures of the Mini-Java syntax.

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•

•

•

Mini Project #2: This part of the compiler project consists of three parts: building an abstract syntax tree, implementing symbol table management and type checking. The student could use the Java Tree Builder tool (JTB), which can be used together with JavaCC. JTB takes a Javacc file with the lexical and syntactic specifications and produces a set of syntax tree classes which represent the grammar. The tree uses the Visitor design pattern and is used as the input for the JavaCC tool. JavaCC takes the Visitor tree and produces a parser which can make both works: syntax analysis and syntax tree building. Mini Project #3. It was in this part where students implemented the code generation which consisted in producing Bytecodes (Java or MSIL). Before they start building the implementation, we made a small introduction, in two weeks, of the Java Virtual Machine. Once students understood the semantic of Java or MSIL bytecodes, they implemented a visitor for the Java Bytecode generator. By traversing the syntax tree produced by JTB, the visitor translates to Bytecodes the different declarations, expressions and statements found in each of the nodes of the syntax tree. The output of the code generator is a file with an extension .jbc or .msbc. Then, the .jbc or .msbc file is translated by an assembler to a Hex file with extension .sly which is later interpreted by the Mini-Java Virtual Machine (MJVM) or by some of the tools used for executing MSIL files. Mini Project #4. The teams of students who choose to implement a compiler producing Java Bytecodes also implemented a Mini-Java Virtual Machine. This part of the project was started at the same time that the Java Bytecode generator. One member of the team was working with the generator, another with the virtual machine and the last one with the integration of both programs (output and input formats, testing, etc.).

4 Experiments and Discussions Figure 6 shows four different pictures of the compiler course displayed on the web (top) and on a mobile device (bottom). The material was created by both instructors and students. One of the advantages of using a social learning networking is the exchanging and sharing of learning objects among community members. Last semester (August-December 2009) we started using this hybrid learning approach in the compiler course (System Programming I). At the end of the semester we ask the students to complete an opinion poll with questions about the organization of the course and about the usability of the tools (MLTutor and Zamná). The results of the poll are very positive. This semester (January-June 2010) we are just starting to compare the course with respect to both approaches (hybrid a traditional face-to-face methods).

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Fig. 6. The Compiler Course on the Web and Mobile Devices

5 Conclusions The results of the first evaluation of the tools in the hybrid approach show that students are more enthusiastic with respect of using different learning technologies in a complex course like Compiler. The next step is to evaluate and compare results of two different groups of students: one group learning with the traditional face-to-face approach, and group learning with the hybrid approach. We also want to experiment team work in mobile devices. In this moment we only experiment team work in the social learning network (Zamná). Acknowledgments. The work described in this paper is fully supported by a grant from the DGEST (Dirección General de Educación Superior Tecnológica) in México.

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References 1. Mernik, M.: An Educational Tool for Teaching Compiler Construction. IEEE Transactions on Education 46(1), 61–68 (2003) 2. Adams, D.R., Trefftz, C.: Using XML in a Compiler Course. In: ACM ITiCSE 2004, pp. 4–6 (June 2004) 3. Henry, T.R.: Teaching Compiler Construction Using a Domain Specific Language. In: ACM SIGCSE 2005, pp. 7–11 (February 2005) 4. Griswold, W.G.: Teaching Software Engineering in a Compiler Project Course. ACM Journal of Educational Resources in Computing 2(4), 1–18 (2002) 5. White, E., Sen, R., Stewart, N.: Hide and Show – Using Real Compiler Code for Teaching. In: ACM SIGCSE 2005, February 23-27, pp. 12–16 (2005) 6. Appel, A.W.: Modern Compiler Implementation in Java, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002) 7. Zatarain-Cabada, R., Barrón-Estrada, M.L., Urías-Barrientos, E., Osorio-Velázquez, M., Reyes-García, C.A.: Multiple Intelligence Tutoring Systems for Mobile Learners. In: Eighth IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, ICALT 2008, Santander, Spain, pp. 652–653 (July 2008) 8. Felder, R.M., Silverman, L.K.: Learning and Teaching Styles in Engineering Education. Engineering Education 78, 674–681 (1988) 9. Kohonen, T.: Self-Organization and Associative memory, 3rd edn. Springer, Heidelberg (1989) 10. Felder, R.M., Solomon, B.A.: Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire, http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html

Understanding Online Knowledge Sharing: An Exploratory Theoretical Framework Will Wai Kit Ma1 and Allan Hoi Kau Yuen2 1

Department of Journalism & Communication, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, 10 Wai Tsui Crescent, North Point, Hong Kong SAR, PR China [email protected] 2 Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, PR China [email protected]

Abstract. Online learning has been getting popular in higher education. Key functionalities of online learning environment include the access to a wider perspective of learning resources and the provision of social interactions between instructor-learners and among learners-learners. Recent empirical findings in online learning have acknowledged the importance of online knowledge sharing as an integral part of online learning, through the various forms of learner interactions within online learning environment, such as discussion forums, collaborative learning and communities building. However, recent studies still find mixed results that instructors and students are not always fully engaged in online learning activities. Without frequent and persistent interactions, it is doubtful whether online knowledge sharing could really take place in online learning environment. Thus, the present study examines prior literature to explore the motivational factors to online knowledge sharing. It is found that perceived online attachment motivation and perceived online relationship commitment are two determinants to online knowledge sharing. As a result of the literature review, theoretical propositions are developed to explain online knowledge sharing. Discussion section explains the theoretical and practical implications. Keywords: Online knowledge sharing, motivation, perceived online attachment motivation, perceived online relationship commitment.

1 Introduction With the recent rapid development in information technology and in the access to the Internet, online learning is getting popular in higher education [e.g., 1, 2, 3]. Within online learning environments, one of the key aspects is to provide a wider perspective of social dimension in learning [e.g., 4, 5, 6]. Online learning environment has become a shared common meeting place for online learners. Online learning environments are also places for online learners to meet and to interact. Online knowledge sharing through these informal social interactions among the online learners facilitates the learning processes. P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 239–248, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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However, a review of prior studies reveals several problems. Empirical study indicates that students are “reluctant to consider being taught via the Internet” [7]. It is not uncommon to find that, in some cases, the participation is fairly poor [8]. Moreover, empirical studies reveal that students experience isolation, loneliness, anxiety, distress and low sense of community while using online learning environment [e.g., 9, 10, 11]. More research is needed to inform system designers of improving the functionalities and interface designs, or to inform administrators to devise better implementation strategies in online learning environments. Theoretically, there is still a gap in research to provide a better understanding of online knowledge sharing through the use of online learning environments. To echo this, recent studies still call for a change in the way in exploring the problems and the solutions to sustaining online learning, for example, to include a wider social perspective than the technology itself [12-14]. Thus, the aim of the present study is to review relevant literature in order to understand the motivation to online knowledge sharing. As a consequence, the results of the study would provide insights to academics to the understanding of online participation and to inform practitioners to the design and implementation of online learning environments.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Online Knowledge Sharing Knowledge sharing is an integral part of learning. Vygotsky suggests that through interactions with others, learners acquire new concepts and strategies [15]. Meanings and interpretations are initiated through social interactions. In the knowledge sharing process among learners, Roschelle suggests that it is “the process of mutually contributing to shared knowledge” and it is about “democratic participation, intellectual progress, and gradual convergence” to undergo conceptual change” [16]. Firstly, online learning environments facilitate learners to work collaboratively, regardless of the time or geographical location of the learners. Specifically, online learning environment facilitates collaborative tasks that, for example, online learners are formed into small groups, given with the common goals to engage them into meaningful discussions in problem-solving tasks [17]. In completing collaborative tasks, online learners share different point of views and develop solutions from the different viewpoints [18]. Each online learner spends time to explain his/her ideas and experiences that widen the scope and perspective of each learner in interpreting a problem. Therefore, online learners help each other and learn from each other. Prior studies suggest that a sense of belonging would be a pre-requisite for the success of collaborative learning. For instance, the development of a sense of belonging increases social interactions beyond the content-learner limit [19]; participants can relate to one another and share a sense of community and a common goal [20]. Hiltz et al. find strong correlations between the degree of collaborative learning in an asynchronous learning network (ALN) course and the learning outcomes [21]. Secondly, online learning environments foster the building and sustaining of learners’ community. The sense of belonging refer to “a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a

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shared faith that members’ needs will be met through their commitment to be together” [22] while the building of learners’ community will create a sense of belonging, identity, emotional connection and well-being [23]. A strong sense of belonging will increase “the flow of information, the availability of support, commitment to group goals, cooperation among members, and satisfaction with group efforts” [24]. People who have a strong sense of community are described as better adjusted, feeling supported, having stronger levels of social support and social connectedness [25]. Haines, Hurlbert and Beggs suggest that this sense of belonging creates a trust community that is “more likely to provide support to others” [26]. With a strong sense of belonging, there would probably be a larger pool of more willing individual learners being ready to provide support when in need [27]. On the other hand, if such a sense of belonging does not exist, prior studies find that online learners may feel isolated and are likely to be unwilling to take the risks involved in learning [28]. In this review, online knowledge sharing is defined as “the online communication of knowledge so that knowledge is learned and applied by a learner in an online learning environment” [29]. With respect to this definition, communication of knowledge should take place in an online learning environment, the learner should understand and learn from the knowledge, and the learner is able to apply the knowledge. Online learning environment is defined as “learning environments that are allowing interactions and encounters with other participants and providing access to a wide range of resources via the Internet” [4]. 2.2 Perceived Online Attachment Motivation (POAM) First, the need to belong is argued as an innate drive to human beings. When online learners appear in online learning environment, the need to belong drives online learners to have social contact. An online learner has social interactions with other online learners. Second, being accepted is the beginning step to social interactions. If online learners receive positive feedback from their peers, they develop and form new relationships. Through ongoing, frequent and regular social interactions, they develop good relationships, receive positive feedback and have trust in the relationship. Under these circumstances, online learners create a strong sense of belonging. They are attached to both the online learning environment and their peers. They are committed and willing to contribute and share ideas, experience and knowledge, and they value each other. As a result, online learners have high level of satisfaction and learning motivation. Third, there may be chance of not being accepted, ignored, excluded or rejected. Online learners try to but receive no feedback from others. They have minimal social interactions with one another and have a low sense of belonging to the online learning environment. They cannot develop positive and trusted relationships with other online learners. They avoid the online learning environment and escape from active engagement in the online learning environment, thereby not having much online knowledge sharing. People will not be satisfied with mere interactions, for example, with strangers or with others one dislikes. Weiss (1973) suggests that feelings of loneliness may either be caused by an insufficient amount of social contact (social loneliness) or by a lack of meaningful and intimate relatedness (emotional loneliness) [30, 31]. The need to belong is for regular social contact with those to whom one feels connected [32].

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Accordingly, the need to belong should be marked by both aspects. Moreover, there is satiation effect of forming relationships, that is, there would be a diminishing effect for satisfaction with an additional relationship. People form relationships but will stop forming new ones when they have enough. Individual differences mediate the processes in social interaction and communion with others. For example, people with higher attachment motivation (secure attachment style) have higher levels of self-esteem and self-confidence [33]. On the other hand, shy and anxious individuals find it more difficult to form social bonds. They are frequently less liked and accepted by others when they interact offline [34]. Recent studies find that deindividuation (i.e., people mainly use written communication with anonymity and a lack of physicality) online for socially excluded individuals produces more positive outcomes in forming and maintaining interpersonal relationships instead [12, 35-37]. It is found that the Internet attenuates social anxiety and insecurities [37]. Shy and anxious individuals were found to have more positive outcomes when communicating online. They are perceived to be equal or more outgoing, more confident, less shy, less anxious and less uncomfortable when communicating via the Internet [35]. Hill [38] suggests that motivation for social contact can be considered as “a central influence on human behavior”. Similarly, Nikitin & Freund [39] argue that social affiliation appears to be a central human need. Attachment theory conceptualizes “the propensity of human beings to make strong affection bonds to particular others” [40]. People motivated to keep attachments with others feel safe with each other [41]. That explains why people are very active in seeking support from their social networks. Echoed to all these, Baumeister and Leary refer to that “human beings have a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal relationships” and hypothesize the human need to belong [32]. In this study, Perceived Online Attachment Motivation (POAM) is defined as “the degree to which an individual believes that he or she can improve his or her social interaction and the sense of communion with others in an online learning environment” [42]. With respect to this definition, an online learner is able to form new relationships with other peer learners in an online learning environment so that the learner feels as part of the communion with the online learning environment. However, the degree to which the online learning environment facilitates the forming of new relationships varies from one to another. A learner may perceive a difference in the degree to which an online learning environment could facilitate the forming of new relationships among peer learners. 2.3 Perceived Online Relationship Commitment (PORC) According to the evolutionary selection mechanism, people are reinforced with the feeling of positive affect when forming social relationships while people are distressed and have negative affect when broken, threatened, or rejected from relationships. Therefore, at all times, people learn not to break relationships as final broken relationship is associated with distress and negative affect. According to the need to belong theory, an individual is satisfied only if there are both frequent and regular social interactions and the existence of a secured and trusted social bond. If either one

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is missing, the need to belong cannot be satisfied. Therefore, an individual must have an established relationship and intend to persist in the established relationship. Commitment has been described in diverse ways in various contexts [43]. Meyer and Allen relate commitment to individual’s desires, needs and feelings of obligation to remain in the organization, community or a relationship [44]. Commitment has been investigated in general social system, such as a community [45] or friendships [46]. Prior studies examine commitment to close relationship between dates, couples, parents and children, and husbands and wives [47, 48]. Studies also find that people’s commitment extends to family, friends and relatives [49]. According to the need to belong theory, to satisfy the need to belong does not refer to a particular relationship or a particular partner. That is, the need to belong can, in principle, be directed toward any other human being, and the loss of relationship with one person can be replaced to some extent by any other. This is partly echoed by the construct, “quality of alternative”, as in the Investment Model [50]. The commitment level depends on whether there is a substitute for the established relationship. That is, if there is a choice, online learner may evaluate and assess in order to make up the mind to decide whether he/she wants to persist in the established relationship. That is, the presence of substitute may affect the commitment level. Relationship commitment reflects an individual’s internal representation of dependence on an established relationship. This relationship commitment is long-term in nature and is a psychological attachment to the relationship [48]. Relationship commitment suggests that “an individual’s intrinsic motivation to persist in a relationship” [47]. In this study, PORC refers to “the degree to which a learner tends to continue with an established relationship in an online learning environment” [50]. It is about an online learner having an established relationship with any other peer online learners using the online learning environment. It is about the commitment of online learners to maintain the relationship. Because of the commitment, online learners are willing to be good to the relationship partners, to spend time and effort to maintain the established relationship in the online learning environment. This commitment can pass through ups and downs. Even at times the relationship is not in good condition, online learners are willing to maintain the relationship, for the benefit of the relationship partners. Some online learning environments facilitate online learners to maintain the established relationship while others do not. PORC is about how online learners would assess each online learning environment in terms of the extent in which it could help them to maintain established relationships there. People often cite the possibility of receiving social support, if and when needed, as one of the major benefits of close relationships [51].

3 Summary Based on the foregoing literature review, it can be argued that knowledge sharing through participation and social interaction is an important facilitator of knowledge acquisition, and an integral part of online learning. However, the key issue of why learners participate and interact in online learning activities has not been clearly explained in previous studies. A search of prior literature suggests that the theory of the

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need to belong may explain the motivation for participating and interacting in online learning environment through the mechanisms of POAM (to form social bonds) and PORC (to maintain those bonds). Thus, based on the prior literature reviewed, the following propositions are suggested: 1. POAM is hypothesized to have direct and significant relationships toward Online Knowledge Sharing (online knowledge sharing). That is, the more an individual learner perceives that an online learning environment will enhance his/her online attachment motivation (i.e., to have social interactions and communion with other online learners), he/she will have more online knowledge sharing in the online learning environment. 2. PORC is hypothesized to have direct and significant relationships toward online knowledge sharing. Similar to POAM, the more an individual learner perceives that an online learning environment will enhance his/her online relationship commitment (i.e., to persist in the established relationship with other online learners), he/she will have more online knowledge sharing in the online learning environment. 3. PORC is hypothesized to have direct and significant relationship with Perceived Online Attachment Motivation POAM. Online learners have the basic needs to belong and would have a need for social interaction and communion with other online learners. The presence of the need to persist in the established relationship will strengthen the need for social interactions among the online learners.

4 Discussion The aim of the present study is to understand online knowledge sharing through the review of prior theoretical and empirical studies. Based on prior literature, the present review proposes that POAM and PORC are two determinants in explaining online knowledge sharing. The present study makes several unique contributions to the literature. First, from a review of prior theoretical and empirical studies, it identifies two constructs: POAM and PORC, as the fundamental needs of learners in using online learning environment. This is to echo the calls for a wider social perspective to explain online users’ behavior. This provides additional insights to explain the inconsistent learners’ behavior in engaging or participating in online learning activities. This is the first study which includes both constructs to explain online knowledge sharing. Based on this review, future studies could operationalize the two constructs in order to measure online knowledge sharing of specific online learning environments. System designers will obtain significant design guidance well before significant investment is placed. Second, based on this review, further studies could investigate and extend to include other factors in order to find out its boundary limits in explaining the phenomena. Prior studies have found factors which affect online participation, for example, gender, experience and familiarity in online learning environment, and prior subject knowledge. Their effects on online knowledge sharing would provide additional insights for both academics and practitioners in the field. In hindsight, the findings make sense conceptually: learners who have a need to belong would pay more time and effort to log on and stay in the online learning environment. They have a desire to interact with other learners there. Through the social

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interaction and information/knowledge exchange among the users, as theorized by Vygotsky [15], knowledge is shared among the learners in the common meeting place. Learners reported that through the interaction with other learners using the online learning environment, they understand the subject better and they are able to apply their knowledge. That explains why POAM predicts online knowledge sharing as proposed. At the same time, learners form relationships within the online learning environment and develop social bonds with other learners there. According to the theory of the need to belong, both cognitive activities and emotional reactions of people would pertain to relationships as negative affect would result when relationships are broken, threatened or refused [32]. That also explains why POAM predicts online knowledge sharing. Both POAM (the desire for social contact) and PORC (the desire to pertain a relationship) reflect the definition of the theory of the need to belong which includes both the forming and the maintaining of relationships components. As theorized, the conditions to satisfy the need to belong should be associated with a secure social bond and frequent interactions among the members. Therefore, it explains the causal relationship between POAM and PORC. Specifically, learners are driven to engage in more online knowledge sharing because the online learning environment enhances learners’ social interactions and communion with their peers, and the online learning environment enhances learners to continue with an established relationship there. The propositions on online knowledge sharing suggest several important practical implications for system designers and administrators. First, for instance, the propositions suggest that online learning environment will inhibit learners’ online knowledge sharing if it cannot help enhance learners’ social interactions and communion with others using the online learning environment or if it cannot help learners continue with an established relationship. These simultaneous conditions for an online learning environment have important practical implications for designers, particularly in the Course Management System / Learning Management Systems (CMS/LMS) design tradition, which overemphasize social interactions and over-look learners’ continuance with established relationships. For example, most online learning environments are designed to foster social interactions through one-way broadcast such as announcement, calendar, resources download; or through two-way communication such as discussion forums, chatroom, etc. However, learners are grouped by courses. At the end of each semester, all the courses, learner groups, discussion records and resources are removed. Everything is cleaned and nothing is left. Relationships and memories will not last. At the commencement of another semester, new courses and communities are created. Students are imported into the courses to form communities from scratch. Student learners have no say to maintain their hard-earned relationships but have to develop and form new relationships again. Thus, a major conclusion of this study is that PORC - the desire to continue an established relationship in an online learning environment, is an equally strong correlate of online knowledge sharing and should not be ignored by academics and practitioners in the implementation of online learning environments. The importance of interpersonal relationship in online knowledge sharing provides significant implications for administrators to devise implementation strategies, for example, to allow community building throughout the whole four-year undergraduate program.

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5 Conclusion In conclusion, the present study acknowledges the importance of the recent development of online learning but identifies the research problems in the inconsistent participation of both instructors and student learners. A review of recent literature suggests that the theory of the need to belong in interpersonal relationship has strong relationship with online knowledge sharing, and hence online learning. POAM and PORC are reviewed and their relationships with online knowledge sharing are analyzed, with respect to prior theoretical and empirical studies. Propositions incorporating the two constructs: POAM and PORC, are suggested to explain online knowledge sharing. Further studies are suggested to operationalize the constructs and to empirically test the propositions.

Acknowledgement This project is funded by Departmental Research and Staff Development Fund, Department of Journalism and Communication, Hong Kong Shue Yan University (2010), REF: Project1-2010-Dept. of JC.

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The Effects of “Facilitating” in an Online Asynchronous Teachers Training Course Wenge Guo1, Wen Yan2, and Jianjun Hou3 1

Graduate School of Education, Peking University 2 Institute of Education, Beijing 3 School of Distance Learning, Peking University [email protected]

Abstract. With the online teachers training course——“Educational Technology Competence Construction Plan for K-12 Teachers"——as a research context, this study analyzes the effects of the "facilitating" on the participation and cognitive progress of learners in three variables, including the quantity of discussion, the depth of discussion, and cognitive level of postings. The research suggested that the "facilitating” can obviously improve the depth of discussion and cognitive level of learners, which indicates that "facilitating" is an important factor to improve the participation of online learners and to enhance online learning quality. Keywords: Facilitating, the quantity of discussion, the depth of discussion, cognitive code schema.

1 Background Due to the separation of teachers and students in time and space, online facilitators play important roles to improve the participation of learners and maintain the ongoing teaching dialogues in asynchronous online discussion. In the context of asynchronous discussion board, "facilitating" means that the online facilitator employs the communication strategies including encouragement, clarification and question to carry on the discussion, and promote the ideas exchange between students, and help online learners to link the theories to practice and perform significant knowledge construction in the collaborative process. Now, the effects of the “facilitating” in online learning have become an important topic in distance education. Picciano (2002) pointed out that the presence of teaching can make learners to participate the online asynchronous communication. Fulford & Zhang (1993) suggested that the interaction between teachers and students in distance learning can enhance the satisfaction of online learning observably. Similarly, D.Wakley (2002) also proved that the “facilitating” is an important factor of enhancing the asynchronous discussions effects. Many scholars analyzed the strategies of online “facilitating” by investigating online interaction between teacher and student. Classifying the online learners into the active participants and the onlookers, Li Hongbo et al (2008) proposed an “onlookers” facilitating strategy that the online P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 249–258, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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facilitator should pay more attentions to “onlookers” in asynchronous discussion – by means of self-introduction, providing plenty learning resources and feedback promptly to induct “onlookers” to participate the online discussion – to enhance the effect of asynchronous discussion. Zhong Keding et al (2005) put forward three strategies based on the personality structure features of learners to improve the quality of online discussion: (1) cultivating a friendly and harmonious atmosphere to make learners have spiritual togetherness, (2) creating a communication environment to make online learners link theory to their on-hand practice and share their ideas and stories each other; (3) developing online discussion rubric to make learners manage their online learning process. Karen Hallett (2004) brought forward a series of strategies of online teaching dialogues to advance the asynchronous discussion, such as teachers should formulate discussion regulations in asynchronous discussion, promote critical thinking and encourage students’ participation in asynchronous discussion. Tavalin (1998) pointed out some tips of online teaching dialogues, for example, teachers should respond to previous dialogue at an appropriate time and cite some viewpoints properly. In addition, in the course of interaction, teachers should avoid to “speak” imperatively and minimize to “comment” evaluatively. Zane Burch (2008) analyzed his personal experience in online teaching and interviewed some online teachers, and summarized a series of strategies of online teaching. In his views, during an asynchronous teaching process, the timely evaluation and feedback for each learning activity will help learners to make clear the learning objectives and improve the learning achievement. As regards the open-ended discussions and inquiry tasks, the facilitator should design evaluation tools to help students to reflect and evaluate their learning outcome themselves. Of the above researches on online asynchronous discussions, some reviewed the literatures and distance education theories and brought forward a series of strategies of online teaching dialogues; the other analyzed their online teaching experience and summarized the teacher-student communication tips of online asynchronous teaching. All of these strategies and tips have not been proved if the strategies of online facilitating improved the online learning achievement. In this paper, we will explore the effects of online facilitating. The researchers chose an online training course----“Program of Construction of Educational Technology Competence Construction Plan for K-12 Teachers” developed by Peking University(here-in-after to be referred as “ET training course”)----as the situation of online learning, and sampled two classes----the experimental class with a facilitator and the control class without facilitator----as the research objects, and analyzed the quantity of discussion, the depth of discussion, the cognitive level, and proved empirically that the online facilitating improve the online learning outcome.

2 Research Design 2.1 Core Concept: Online Course with Facilitating, and the Online Course without Facilitating ET training course was run on a CMS developed based on Moodle (Wenge guo, 2009). The designer added an “teacher comment” box to the forum modules (as Fig 1), the online facilitator will score and comment the postings on this box.

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Fig. 1. Teacher score and comment interface for discussion postings

Online course with “facilitating”: When learners enroll ET training course, a facilitator will be appointed for each class. During the course of online training, each discussion posting will be scored and commented by the facilitator according to the pre-determined evaluation rubric to facilitate the online learners to link the education theories to on-hand practice deeply. The facilitators’ facilitating strategies include encouraging, clarifying and questioning. The “teacher comment” is only opened to the special online learner, and the other learner can’t read the comment. So the thread of the forum will not be interrupted or oriented by the facilitator’s comments. Online course without “facilitating”: When learners enroll ET training course, no facilitator was appointed for this class. When one module closed, the discussion postings will be scored by CMS automatically according to the size of posting and logon time. In this situation, a critical thinking posting with 300 words and a third-class posting with 300 words will be graded same score. 2.2 The Sampled Online Course: ET Training Course The ET training course includes 8 modules, each module includes three learning activities: reading and quiz, discussion, and assignment(Wenge guo, 2009). The discussion implements asynchronous mode with "threaded discussion”, and the unfolded dialogue tree shown in Fig 2. In this study, the researchers chose five asynchronous discussion boards of module 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7 as samples, and analyzed the content of student-student communication.

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Fig. 2. The quantity of discussion and the depth of discussion

The asynchronous discussion was conducted in groups, each group including 7-10 learners. Learners can browse all postings, but can only upload postings and replying postings in their group. In order to create a communication environment, ET training course puts forward two participation policies: (1) every learner must send an original posting, expressing his/her point; and reading their peers’ posting, reply two postings; (2) all learners are required to post “one posting and two reply” within 3-5 days to create a learning community of “synchronous in module-level and asynchronous in posting-level” (Wenge guo, 2009). In this study, the experimental class----Class A has 45 learners, and the control class ---- Class B has 65 learners. All the learners are Chinese k-12 teachers. Class A enrolled the ET training course in May 2007, and Class B enrolled the ET training course in January 2008. Both the experimental class and the control class were required to accomplish all online learning activities of 8 modules. The difference between Class A and Class B is that an online facilitator was arranged for Class A to score and comment the discussion postings; and Class B has no facilitator to score and comment, system will evaluate the postings based on the size of postings and the logon time automatically. 2.3 Research Methods This study analyzed the effects of the facilitating in online asynchronous discussion board quantitatively and qualitatively. 2.3.1 Analyzing “The Quantity of Discussion" and "The Depth of Discussion" Polhemus et al(2001) used the quantity of discussion and the depth of discussion to describe the status of social interaction in asynchronous discussion board. The "quantity of discussion" refers to the total quantity of postings and “the depth of discussion” refers to the discussion layer of the dialog tree. For example, in the discussion of Fig. 2, there are 8 postings totally, with 6 layers in terms of discussion layer. Therefore, "the quantity of discussion" is 8, and "the depth of discussion" is 6. The two variables can be used to describe the social interaction status in an online community. For example, if both the quantity of discussion and the depth of discussion are relatively high, it means the better status of online discussion and the higher level of social interaction; if the quantity of discussion is higher but the depth of discussion is lower, it means that the online learners “speak” in online discussion individually but don’t share or challenge each other, and the social interaction level is lower; if both the quantity of discussion and the depth of discussion are lower, it means that the online discussion lacks the necessary social interaction.

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Table 1. Cognitive Code Schema for Original Posting Cognitive

Detailed description

Encoding

level

Level 2

Describe the events and experiences with non-professional terms briefly. Describes the events and experience with professional terms.

2

Level 3

Able to use basic theories to interpret events or experience.

3

Level 4

Able to interpret events or experience on the basis of causal relationship. When explaining the reasons and results, able to combine situation elements of events; or when involved in ethical questions, able to explain events or experience according to the current situation and by citing guiding principles.

4

Level 1

Level 5

1

5

2.3.2 Analyzing the Content with Cognitive Code Schema With reference to the Taxonomy of Teacher Reflective Thinking proposed by Simmons et al(1989), the researchers figured out the cognitive code schema for the original posting and replying postings respectively, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2. By using the two content-coding schema, researchers analyzed the content of postings in the five discussion boards. Table 2. Cognitive Code Schema of Replying Cognitive

Standard

Encoding

level Level 1

Simply support or object the original postings

1

Level 2

Not only support or objection, but also add some statements

2

Level 3

Not only support or object, but also add some statements with evidences

3

According to the foregoing introduction, both the experimental class ----Class A and the control class ----Class B enrolled same online course, but the Class A is an online class with facilitating and Class B is an online class without facilitating. Does the “facilitating” make some difference to the cognitive level of Class A and Class B? In the next part, the researchers will analyze the content of original postings and replying postings of both Class A and Class B, aimed to compare the cognitive levels of Class A and Class B, and comprehend the role of “facilitating” in online education.

3 Data Analysis 3.1 Comparison of “The Quantity of Discussion” The researchers analyzed the quantity of discussion of Class A and Class B. The results showed that Class A sent 636 postings including 238 original postings and 398 replying

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posting, and Class B sent 904 postings including 333 original postings and 571 replying posting. In addition, if counted according to per capita quantity of postings, the per capita quantity of original postings in Class A is 1.06; that in Class B is 1.02; the per capita quantity of replying in Class A is 1.77; that in Class B is 1.71, there was no significant difference. The researchers considered that the reasons of no significant difference include: (1) the participation policy of “one original posting and two replies”; (2) mandatory grouping, which limits the team members to participate in other group’s discussion. Therefore, with regard to the quantities of discussion, there was no significant difference between Class A and Class B. 3.2 Comparison of “The Depth of Discussion” The researchers has also analyzed and calculated the depth of discussion of Class A and Class B, the results are shown in Fig.3.

Fig. 3. Comparison of “the depth of discussion”

As shown in Fig. 3, in Class A, there are 17.16% postings which “the depth of discussion” is greater than or equal to 3. It indicates that 17.16% of original postings got replying from the peers and the “two-way” interaction has taken place. In Class B, there are 6.82% postings which “the depth of discussion” is greater than or equal to 3 only; for the other 93.18% postings, “the depth of discussion” is less than or equal to 2. The data shows that the original postings have not aroused further discussion. During the learning process, the Class B maintained “one-way” interaction, and the effective ideas exchange has not taken place. The data in Fig. 3 shows that "the depth of discussion" of Class A is much better than Class B, and demonstrates that the facilitating can effectively improve the interactive level of online learners. 3.3 Comparison of the Cognitive Level According to the research hypothesis, if the facilitating can effectively improve the quality of online interaction, Class A should have higher cognitive level of discussion

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than Class B in the same module; as time goes on, the cognitive level of discussion postings of Class A should presents upward trend. Therefore, the cognitive level of the following discussion board should be higher than the previous module. To validate this hypothesis, the researcher analyzed 238 original postings and 398 replying of Class A and 333 original postings and 571 replying of Class B by using the Cognitive Code Schema shown in Table 1 and Table 2, and found the cognitive level curves of discussion postings in Module 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7, as shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. 3.3.1 The Cognitive Level Curve of Original Posing The two curves in Fig. 4 represent the cognitive level curves of original postings in Class A and Class B respectively.

Fig. 4. The cognitive level curves of original postings

Starting point: In Module 2, the average cognitive level of Class A and Class B is 3.43 and 3.26 respectively. This shows that in the starting point of online training, learners in Classes A and B have relatively close cognitive level. Trends: In Modules 3, 5, 6 and 7, the difference of cognitive levels between Class A and Class B is enlarged. The cognitive level of Class A shows a rising trend, while Class B shows a trend of decline. Cognitive level of original posting in each module: as shown in Fig. 4, all cognitive levels of discussion postings of the five modules of Class A are higher than those of Class B. This shows that the facilitating have effectively improved the learning outcome of online training. In each module, the cognitive level achieved by learners of Class A is higher than learners of Class B. As time goes on, learners of Class A gradually developed their skills of linking theory to practice and critical reflection. Therefore, the holistic cognitive level of Class A increases gradually. While in Class B, due to the lack of timely facilitating, learners failed to conduct further discussion, and as time passes, they gradually lose interest in asynchronous discussion, and the holistic cognitive level of Class B decreases gradually. Thus, in the context of ET training course, the facilitating truly make some difference in enhancing the motivation of learners, cultivating critical thinking skills, and improving the learners' cognitive level.

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3.3.2 The Cognitive Level Curve of Replying The two curves in Fig. 5 represent the cognitive level curves of replying in Class A and Class B respectively.

Fig. 5. The cognitive level curves of replying

Cognitive level of replying in each module: as shown in Fig. 5, the cognitive levels of replying in Class A are much higher than those in Class B. Furthermore, the cognitive levels of a majority of replying in Class A are above 2; those in Class B are below 2. This indicates that when giving replying, the learners of Class A not only present the positions of support or objection, but also provide evidences for support or objection. However in Class B, most of learners only express simply support or objection to reply their peers’ postings without supporting evidences. Trends: as the asynchronous discussion activities continue, the cognitive level curves of replying of Classes A and Class B have not shown the trend of obvious increase or decrease, but rises and falls. Researchers consider that the possible reasons include: the cognitive level of replying postings mainly depends on the original postings and the comments of online facilitator. At first, the facilitator reminds the online learners to express their support or objection to original postings with evidences or cases to reach the cognitive level 2; further, the facilitator guides the online learners to enrich the statement of original posting and link theories to their on-hand experience to reach the cognitive level 3. The two tasks have different degrees of difficulty. The former is easier to attain, namely, to express support or objection positions with evidences; the latter is harder to achieve, namely, to reflect their on-hand experiences and link theories to the practice. This may closely correlate with the current status of in-service teachers training. The regular in-service teachers training in China is still in the mode of “lecture”, and the k-12 teachers have used to be passive listeners rather than participators. When Peking University initiated this online teachers training program in 2007, many online learners----Chinese K-12 teachers----didn’t know how to “speak” in the online discussion, they posted paragraphs of learning theories such as constructivism on the discussion boards, but seldom narrated their teaching stories and discuss their

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teaching problems each other. Indeed, when teachers used to passive training, the task of cultivating the critical thinking skills is a long-term effort, one online training course can’t complete this mission in a very short period.

4 Conclusion and Summary This paper chose ET training course as the context, and sampled the postings of five discussion boards as data. The researchers analyzed the quantity of discussion, the depth of discussion, and the cognitive level of original posting and replying postings of the experimental class and the control class. The result showed that: (1) due to the participation policy of “one posting, two replying”, the quantity of discussion of Class A and Class B had shown no significant difference; (2) the depth of discussion of Class A is better than Class B, indicating that the discussion of Class A is much deeper and the interaction between student-student is more effective; (3) the cognitive level of original postings and replying postings of Class A is significantly higher than Class B. In addition, the cognitive level curves of Class A shows the tendency of increase; the cognitive level curves of Class B does not rise but declines. This study demonstrated that the "facilitating” have significant effects for promoting the participation of online learners and enhancing the cognitive level of online learning, and proved that the active “facilitating” is an important factor for increasing the satisfaction of online learning and improving the quality of online learning.

References 1. Wakley, D.: The New Rules of Engagement: Keeping Online Students Involved and On Track in Asynchronous Discussion Forums. Journal of Instruction Delivery Systems 16(2), 6–12 (2002) 2. Fulford, C.P., Zhang, S.: Perceptions of interaction: The critical predictor in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education 7(3), 8–21 (1993) 3. Hawkes, M., Romiszowski, A.: Examining the reflective outcomes of asynchronous computer-mediated communication on in-service teacher development. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 9(2), 285–308 (2001) 4. Hallett, K., Aiping, S., Xianhua, C.: Design strategy of network discussion. Journal of Distance Education 1, 24–26 (2004) 5. Hongbo, L., Yong, C., Sheng, L., Shuang, C.: Pay attention to the “divers” in asynchronous interaction of distance teaching. China Adult Education (1), 132–133 (2008) 6. Yujuan, L., Keding, Z.: Ascertain online discussion in domestic distance education from the theory of dialogue. Modern Education Technology 15(3), 33–36 (2005) 7. Picciano, A.G.: Beyond student perceptions: Issues of interaction, presence, and performance in on online course. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 6(1), 21–40 (2002) 8. Polhemus, L., Shih, L.F., Swan, K.: Virtual interactivity: The representation of social presence in an online discussion. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA (2001)

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9. Simmons, J.M., Sparks, G.M., Starko, A., Pasch, M., Colton, A., Grinberg, J.: Exploring the structure of reflective pedagogical thinking in novice and expert teachers: The birth of a developmental taxonomy. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA (1989) 10. Tavalin, F.: A guide to online critique. Montpelier, VT: The WEB Project. Available: The WEB Project, 270 Putney Mountain Road, Putney, VT 05346 (1998) 11. Guo, W.: From an Online Training Course to a “Virtual” Teacher Training Academy: Design and Implementation of Peking University Asynchronous Online Teacher Training Program. Hybrid Learning and Education (2009) 12. Burch, Z.: Providing effective feedback for online learning. Open Education Research 14(1), 53–57 (2008)

Developing a Mulitmedia Learning Model Based on Hands-On Learning: A Cognitive Apprenticeship Approach Bo-Yen Wang, Ming-Hsiang Su, and Pao-Ta Yu Department of CS&IE, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi, China [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This article is attemptted to design a hands-on learning model with the concept of multimedia learning. The framework of cognitve apprenticeship as the pedagogical fundamental was applied in developing the hands-on activity. Advanced technology could assist the learning activities in classroom such as digital video camera, interactive white board, real object projector, etc.. In this model, electronic devices were controlled conherently by the novel software whcih may elaborate hands-on learning environment. The learning activities in classroom were fouced on the programming language teaching. The participants in this survey were vocational high school student who may get used to learn with hands-on experience. This design introudce the concept of hands-on teaching with the framework of cognitive apprenticeship and highlight the importance of e-learning software whcih integrates the audio and video inputs of the electronic devices. Keywords: Multimedia Learning, Cognitive Apprenticeship, Hands-on activity, Computer programming instruction.

1 Introduction Hands-on learning, with the characteristic of learning by doing, can invoke learners’ critical thinking which cause deep investigation on learning subject alone with classroom resources and pre-design activities [1]. The classroom activities which designed with hands-on approach could transfer the instruction method from lecturing type into interactive type. The interest of students in classroom can be influenced by the handson activities as the situational factor [2]. The relationship between hands-on activities and learners’ interest had been explicitly explained in [3]. Therefore, the curriculum designed with hands-on activities would be more active than traditional lecturing class, because the learning motivation of students was triggered by the practical work in classroom. Skill teaching and learning has been considered as the fundamental steps to achieve the practice based profession [4]. The purpose of this study is to design a skillslearning model which applied with hands-on activities. Since the instruction model of cognitive apprenticeship could solve the education problem of brittle skills and inert P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 259–269, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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knowledge[5], our learning model design also takes the framework of cognitive apprenticeship into pedagogical consideration. In the view of improving learning effectiveness, multiple modes of teaching material such as visual and audio contents should be provided during the teaching activity[6]. In this study, we had developed a learning model based on multimedia learning concept due to avoid the split-attention effect [7] and improve the effectiveness of classroom learning. The following sections will explain the developed leaning model in detail. Section two will be the background review. Section three will propose a multimedia learning model which applied in programming class. This mode will follow the characteristic of cognitive apprenticeship. The final section will be the conclusion and discussion of future extension.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Hands-On Learning Hands-on learning, as stated in [1], had depicted a direct method for students to learn by testing and observation. Well-design hands-on learning activity provides direct experience for students to become independent learners with inquiry skills and working-out abilities. The application of hands-on learning was spread widely among various knowledge domains such as experiment activities in science, training course of medical school and learning experience with engineering concept. Hands-on activity could not only guide the cognitive development of students from concrete to abstract, but also increase the motivation and engagement when apply with interesting learning activity[8]. Therefore, we developed a learning model which emphasized on the learning activity with hands-on approach. 2.2 Multimedia Learning The multimedia learning, which performs comprehension leaning on text and image, is to construct mentally presentation of word and picture[9]. According to dual-code theory, text and picture could be percept through different channels[10]. Complicated text and picture presentation could overload the working memory of human brain so that interfere learning. The split-attention effect, which causes by the phenomenon of working memory overloading, can be avoided with the application of multimedia learning. The split attention principles, as Ayres[11] stated, is a format in material to integrate the information for learner to engage ‘complete’ cognition. Hands-on course with cognitive apprenticeship approach pushed the instruction design in this study to provide with multimedia based course. The interaction between instructor and learners was expressed with a multimedia format to make the learning activity more interesting and the cognitive process more effective.

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2.3 Cognitive Apprenticeship There were four aspects in traditional apprenticeship: modeling, scaffolding, fading and coaching for teacher to perform instruction. The principle of apprenticeship is to carry out the learning activity which is easily observed by students[12]. However, the observations of teacher’s demonstration would be helpful for students in learning practical skills. The thought of teacher and students should be visible in each other. Open the tacit processes during learning so that the students can observe, enact and practice points out the major difference between cognitive apprenticeship and traditional apprenticeship. The teachers and the students will help one another in the cognition of knowledge under the situated environment of social learning. This study applies the characteristic of cognitive apprenticeship. We use large share screen to integrate the computer screen of teacher and the computer screen of student. The ‘open’ scenario do not only make teacher and student both have the visions of operations, but also make these operations visible to the others students in the classroom. Social learning activity could take place under such a context.

3 The Learning Model The scenario of this learning model was the instruction design for teaching computer programming language. The concept of sub routine in visual basic had been taught in the class. There were 20 students in this class. There were two major components in this model: multimedia learning environment and hands-on learning activity based on the cognitive apprenticeship. 3.1 Multimedia Learning Environment Setting Up In order to fit the criteria of multimedia learning, the classroom in this learning model were equipped with two image projectors to construct a larger share screen. Dual screens were set as the display of teacher’s screen and student’s screen due to the framework of cognitive apprenticeship. The layout of the classroom was illustrated as Fig.1. The members in classroom had been divided into three parts: teacher site, student site and the other students. The teacher site is equipped with computer that can output the main screen and extend screen simultaneously. The student site is equipped with normal computer for programming operation. The display output of student site was received by screen capturing device in teacher site. The other students as the audience in the classroom. The displayed items in this large screen were controlled by software which install on the computer of teacher site. The control software, operated by teacher’s computer, which can integrate the display output from student site and the display output from teacher site. Teacher can use highlight tools during the learning activity. The dual screens system can display the teacher‘s demonstration and the student practice simultaneously so that the other students can recognize the difference between teacher’s operation and the student’s operation. The cognitive processes become effectively when these events occur. Fig.2 shows the block view of control system.

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Fig. 1. Layout of classroom

Fig. 2. Block view of control system

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Fig. 3. Snapshot of control system

Fig.3 shows the snapshot of the control software. The system provides four major functions that can satisfy the requirement in this learning model: (1) Video source integration (2) Images capturing (3) Virtual Mark Pen (4) Motion recording. The software could be set with different display templates for teacher s to switch back and forth. The mechanism of templates provides the convenience not only in designing the hands-on activity, but also in developing the teaching methods of cognitive apprenticeship. 3.2 Hands-On Learning Activity Based on the Cognitive Apprenticeship Table.1 shows the framework of cognitive apprenticeship in design learning environment proposed by Collins[12]. There were four dimensions to constitute learning environment. The learning model in our design has only focused on the dimension of method. The reason to narrow the research dimension is the practical consideration in designing hands-on activity. The methods involved instruction activities for students to engage, invent, observe and explore during learning so that the principle of handson activity can be coherently designed with this ‘method’ approach. There were six teaching methods in the method dimension. Three groups were divided due to functional classification. The core group, which contains modeling, coaching and scaffolding, supports students to acquire skills through the observation and guided practice. Articulation and reflection constitute the second group which makes students to concentrate their attention on the expert problemsolving and gain cognition of their own problem-solving strategies. The final group only contains the exploration that may encourage learner to move forward to deep cognition.

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METHOD

SEQUENCING

SOCIOLOGY

Domain knowledge Heuristic strategies Control strategies Learning strategies Modeling Coaching Scaffolding Articulation Reflection Exploration Global before local skills Increasing complexity Increasing diversity Situated learning Community of practice Intrinsic motivation Cooperation

Table 2. The actions of the members in the classroom

Phases Modeling

Teacher

Performing material with hints Coaching Offering help for the Student A Scaffolding Shows the operations step by step Articulation Ask a related question Reflection

Student A Student B The other (Prior selected) (Posterior selected) students Observation None Observation

Performing the hands-on task

None

Observation

Following the step which teacher operates Perform the solution for the question Observation and listening the comment from the teacher

None

Observation

None

Observation

Demonstrate the solution of the problem and make a comparison between Student A and Student B Exploration Propose another Observation or problem give feedback

Be Asked to solve Observation the same problem

Observation or give feedback

Volunteer in demonstrating the proposed problem

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The hands-on activity design will base on the sequences of the proposed teaching methods. There were six phases in this model. Table.2 demonstrates the actions of the members in the classroom during these phases. 3.2.1 Modeling In this phase, teacher should perform the task for the student to observe, students may build the concept model during this learning activity. The teacher in this class will perform a piece of programming code to express the usage of sub routine. The snapshot of the large share screen shows as Fig.4. The display of student site was disabled in order to magnify the effect of modeling. According to the theory of dual coding, the PowerPoint slide contains the text description aside the teacher’s display to reduce the cognitive overload.

Fig. 4. Snapshot of modeling phase

3.2.2 Coaching In the coaching phase, the teacher may observe the student to carry out the task and offer help for the student to achieve expert level. In our design, the teacher asked a

Fig. 5. Snapshot in coaching phase and Scaffolding phase

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student to the student site and performed the programming code. The screen of student site was captured and displayed with teacher’s demonstration simultaneously on the large share screen. Meanwhile, the teacher uses software tools (virtual mark pen) as the pen to point-out the error or highlight the important part during the student perform the programming task. Fig.5 shows the snapshot in this stage. 3.2.3 Scaffolding In scaffolding phase, the teacher has to help student out the trouble in performing task. The control software in teacher site may assist the teacher to perform the scaffolding activity. In this phase, the teachers write a code step by step and ask student to follow the step. The virtual mark pan may be used on the occasion of making highlight or pointing out the error. The control software may combine these visual sources (the operation of teacher, the operation of student and the hand writing from teacher’s concern), it gives a good reason to use multimedia learning concept in performing cognitive apprenticeship task. Fig.5 also shows the snapshot of this phase. 3.2.4 Articulation In the phase, students may articulate their knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving processes. Inquiry learning would be an effective method in articulation. To accomplish the requirement of this phase, student’s screen of last phase would be captured on the large share screen and open a new screen for student. There were four sections on the large share screen: the PowerPoint slide, the captured screen of teacher from the formal phrase, the captured screen of student, and the present screens of student. The captured mechanism reveals the advantage of process inquiry learning. In the beginning of this phase, teacher asks student a related question and observes him/her to carry out with formal mentioned skill. Teacher still use the virtual mark pen to highlight the important area. The captured screens remain on the large share screen were used as the hint for student to solve the question. Fig.6 shows the snapshot in this phase.

Fig. 6. Snapshot of Articulation phase

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3.2.5 Reflection Reflection involves the cognitive process of student when comparing his/her works with teacher or another student. In this phase, the inquiry learning activity extends from the formal phase. The screen of student’s works was captured and remains on the large share screen. Another student was asked to solve the same problem in the formal phase. Teacher use the virtual mark pen to compare the works of present student with the formal student. After the present student finishes his/her work, teacher performs the answer of the question and compare these works one another. The effect of reflection would become obviously when the works perform by another student and teacher himself/herself. There were five visual images on the large share screen: (1) Captured screen of formal teacher’s demonstration (2) PowerPoint slide for the hints (3) Captured screen of formal student’s work will be used as comparison (4) Operation screen of the new student working on the same problem (5) Teacher’s operation for solving the same problem. Fig.7 shows the snapshot.

Fig. 7. Snapshot of Reflection phase

3.2.6 Exploration In the final phase, students should solve the problem on their own in order to fade the support of teacher. To let student exploring the answer, teacher propose another problem and ask for a volunteer to solve it. The hint should be wiped out on the large share screen. The only screen remains would the operation screen of the volunteer. Teacher as the observer to see the improvement of the learning. The final comment will be given with virtual mark pen tools by the teacher. Fig.8 shows the snapshot.

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Fig. 8. Snapshot of Exploration phase

4 Conclusion There still remain three dimensions of cognitive apprenticeship for future discussion. The interaction with other students in the classroom may involve advance issues of cooperative learning and social learning; instruction design should take these issues into consideration such as point out the error by another students. The other view of future improvement is the teaching with real objects. The presentation of computer programming language learning is a 2D view approach, to teach in real objects will be another challenge in the video displaying equipments and the activity design, and thus our feature works may use the real object projector as part of instruction design.

References [1] Haury, D.L., Rillero, P.: Perspectives of Hands-On Science Teaching, ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics and Environmental Education, Kenny Road, Columbus, Ohio (1929) [2] Bergin, D.A.: Influences on classroom interest. Educational Psychologist 34(2), 87–98 (1999) [3] Holstermann, N., Grube, D., Bögeholz, S.: Hands-on Activities and Their Influence on Students’ Interest. Research in Science Education [4] Woolley, N.N., Jarvis, Y.: Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship: A model for teaching and learning clinical skills in a technologically rich and authentic learning environment. Nurse Education Today 27(1), 73–79 (2007) [5] Chee, Y.S.: Cognitive apprenticeship and its application to the teaching of Smalltalk in a multimedia interactive learning environment. Instructional Science 23(1), 133–161 (1995) [6] Mayer, R.E.: Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist 32(1), 1–19 (1997)

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[7] Mayer, R.E., Moreno, R.: Split-attention effect in multimedia learning: Evidence for dual processing systems in working memory. Journal of Educational Psychology 90(2), 312– 320 (1998) [8] Klahr, D., Triona, L.M., Williams, C.: Hands on what? The relative effectiveness of physical versus virtual materials in an engineering design project by middle school children. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 44(1), 183–203 (2007) [9] Mayer, R.: Introduction to multimedia learning. In: The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, pp. 1–16 (2005) [10] Schnotz, W.: An integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In: The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, pp. 49–69 (2005) [11] Ayres, P., Sweller, J.: The split-attention principle in multimedia learning. In: The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, pp. 135–146 (2005) [12] Collins, A., Brown, J., Holum, A.: Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator 15(3), 6–11 (1991)

Hybrid Learning of Physical Education Using National Elaborate Course Resources Ya-jun Pang Department of Physical Education, Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology, Henan Province, P.R. China, 471023 [email protected]

Abstract. Hybrid learning is becoming one of the important applications by integrating e-learning and traditional face-to-face instruction together. Instructors are interested in how to design a hybrid course in a more eﬀective way. In this paper one hybrid learning model of physical education is presented. As an introduction to the reader, challenges in hybrid learning of physical education and National Program of WebDelivery for Elaborate Courses in China are provided. Based on the categories of physical education learning contents, the learning matrix of physical learning is proposed. Adopting it the best instructional strategies can be adopted in hybrid learning of physical education. Then the objectives and results of the research are explained. The results suggest that such instructional advice as hybrid learning is popular and can promote physical education, and the computer-based education platform with video editing functioning can improve e-learning teaching. Keywords: Hybrid learning, national elaborate course, physical education, higher education, learning matrix.

1

Introduction

With the development of ICT (Information and Communications Technology), computer and internet have become widely used in the higher education, and the trend of higher education is globalized and sharing. As a modern instructional method, “hybrid learning” or “blending learning” is increasingly popular throughout the world [1]. Hybrid learning mode is focusing on face-to-face (F2F) instruction combining with e-learning, so it has certain advantages over traditional teaching mode. In hybrid learning context, both teachers’ instructional role (such as guiding, heuristic teaching, monitor or tutor) and students’ initiatives, creativity and passion are promoted. Studies have indicated that hybrid learning can economize time and improve eﬃciency. In higher education, however, there is neither standard nor simple framework to scaﬀold hybrid learning for all disciplines. The practices of hybrid learning are often tailored by diﬀerent needs and requirements of individual or organization. In addition, focus are

This work is sponsored by the Youth Foundation (2009QR26) and Educational Innovation Foundation (09-JY019) of Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 270–281, 2010. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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more placed on practices of content-delivery-focus course whose knowledge are delivered and acquired by reading and writing, such as language learning, mathematic learning rather than on experience-practice-focus one whose knowledge is delivered by self-practice and teacher’s instructions, such as physical education. Generally speaking, physical education course focuses on teacher’s standard demonstration action and students’ self-practice or self-experience. As far as physical education is concerned, nowadays most universities adopt traditional F2F instruction. The main reason is that F2F instruction is convenient for both teachers and students to intercourse emotion and would promote the process of training and teaching. But disadvantages also exit in traditional learning that can be redeemed by hybrid learning.This paper represents a simple framework to scaﬀold hybrid learning for physical education in higher education.

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Hybrid Learning of Physical Education in China

As one kind of strategic measure for educational innovation and application of ICT in higher education, OER (Open Educational Resource) and its practice are emerging throughout the world [2], such as MIT OCW (MIT Open Course Ware), Chinese NPWDEC (National Program of Web-Delivery for Elaborate Courses), and so on. The NPWDEC was promulgated by Chinese Ministry of Education in 2004, which asks the university to publish all national elaborate course materials on the website and make them free and shared [3]. The core of NPWDEC is to promote quality-oriented education and have students get the best education. Up to September 2009, 2208 national elaborate courses were evaluated and published (http://www.jingpinke.com) including 31 physical education courses. With the development of elaborate courses and e-learning in China, hybrid learning courses have been implemented as a supplement of the traditional F2F instruction [4]. Although hybrid learning was well practiced in many China’s universities and lots of experience has been acquired [5,6], there are three reasons to be considered for which lead to that experience and frameworks, including computer-based educational platforms, would not be directly adopted by physical education course. The ﬁrst major reason is how the instructor should deal with styles of physical education teaching and learning. As mentioned above, physical education focuses on the student’s self-practice and teacher’s direction. The common scenario of physical education course in China’s university is: ﬁrstly, the teacher presents standard demonstration actions; secondly, the teacher shows decomposed actions and explains main instructions of each decomposed actions; and then the teacher repeats standard demonstration actions; ﬁnally, the student practices by himself/herself following teacher’s instructions or separately acting with teacher’s or classmates’ help. During the last process, the teacher’s main duty is to ﬁnd out student’s mistakes or non-standard actions and then put forward improved instructions. In this education context, the cooperation and F2F intercourse between the teacher and the student plays very important role. This is a signiﬁcant diﬀerent between the physical education course and others.

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Therefore, the traditional F2F mode and teacher-centered instruction are still highly valued physical education class in China. The shortcoming of either traditional physical education mode or e-learning is obvious. For example, on the one hand, as far as traditional F2F instruction is concerned, during self-practice out of class student can’t ﬁnd out which action is wrong or non-standard; on the other hand, communication or intercourse between the teacher and students is not easy to realize. So, it is necessary that hybrid learning should be implemented in physical education course. Based on above illustrations, when the constructor adopts the hybrid learning mode in physical education in general higher education, two key points must be considered ﬁrst. Firstly, the teacher must be certain what should be studied only in traditional F2F instruction, and what just ﬁt e-learning. Secondly, the university teacher of physical education must know how to deal with student’s learning styles. Due to the characters of physical education and traditional instructional mode culture background, F2F is adopted in China’s school but students have been accustomed to learning it passively. Since e-learning, in general, requires more responsibility on the part of the students, the hybrid learning mode should be able to promote student’s self-directed and self-practice, can promote physical education teaching and extend the physical education learning into after-class activity. The second reason is how the instructor should evaluate students’ perceptions, attitudes and teaching eﬀect. In this paper, we just focus on the physical education instruction of students who are not preparing to become teachers of physical education. E-learning as supplement, F2F instruction is based on the assumption that, by simply providing individual with access to technology, it is expected to enhance student autonomy, support individualized learning, improve the quality of the learning experience successfully and build up students’ long-life physical training habit. Since how to blend two diﬀerent modes of instructions has not been fully examined, it is important for the instructor to devise one evaluation system of the new hybrid learning mode when integrating e-learning teaching approaches into the conventional F2F physical education instruction mode. The third reason is how the instructor should construct the computer-based education platform for national elaborate course in hybrid learning context. Generally speaking, the education platform of the national elaborate courses is composed of ﬁve main parts, they are [7,8]: – – – –

Theory material which is something like textbook; Courseware which is the lecture used by teacher in classroom; Video or audio documents which are the live record of real classroom; Web-based communication toolkits, such as BBS (bulletin board system) or message board, which can be used to realize cooperative learning or asynchronous learning; and – Item bank which is to evaluate students’ learning experience by himself/ herself or by teacher. As far as the content-delivery-focus course is concerned, learning can be carried out by reading theory material and watching teaching video. The student can

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know whether he/she has grasped the knowledge and the teacher can evaluate students’ learning eﬃciency by online mimic examination. The computer-based education platform for national elaborate course is competent for the contentdelivery-focus course while it fails to meet physical education, and its evaluation system is not feasible, too. By its function, it is not easy and even impossible for the student to check whether his/her actions are right or not. Therefore,the computer-based education platform for physical education through using the national elaborate course resource must be extended and revised in hybrid learning context.

3

Categories of Physical Education Learning Contents

Generally speaking, the physical education learning content can be classiﬁed into academic knowledge, skill knowledge, emotion-related knowledge and societyrelated knowledge (Table 1). – Theory material which is something like textbook; – Academic knowledge: to promote students’ physical education culture quality in order to teach them approaches of self-exercise and long-life physical education. The learning of physical education academic knowledge is something like content-delivery-focus course. – Skill knowledge: to teach students what are standard demonstration actions and their instructions. In traditional F2F instruction mode, skill knowledge teaching is core of physical education course. – Emotion-related knowledge: to cultivate students’ physical training habits or hobbies and right physical education attitude, and to help student establish right life value orientation and cultivate excellent will power. The emotionrelated knowledge should be acquired by physical education practices. – Society-related knowledge: to help students obtain basic daily life skill, to adapt to the change of society, to cultivate students’ environmental protection consciousness and so on. The society-related knowledge should be acquired by physical education practices. Based on above analysis, we can draw the conclusion that the physical education teaching and learning is a long practice process and the physical education learning would be anyplace, anywhere and anytime. In the China’s university, however, each student has only 2 hours physical education learning by once a week. Therefore, the university instructor should extend the physical education from traditional classroom into out-course by e-learning in order to obtain better education eﬀect. According to the 25th Statistical Survey on the Internet Development in China, which was issued by China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC), up to Dec. 31st , 2009, there are 384 million internet users. Out of them, 24.2% of the internet users have an educational background of college level or higher. In addition, studies show that Computer and Internet has signiﬁcantly changed the learning styles and daily training habit of college students, and 80% of college students have took online activities as important

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Y.-j. Pang Table 1. Categories of Physical Physical Learning Contents Categories

Components

Academic

• • • •

Skill

• Basic skill • Special basic skill • Special skill

Emotion-related

• • • •

Society-related

• Outward bound training

Physical education common theory Health care Exercise prescription Speciﬁc sports items theory

Physical Education hobbies cultivation Physical training habits cultivation Physical education attitude cultivation Value orientation and will quality cultivation

part of their daily life in China [9,10]. It is obvious that the hybrid learning of physical education is necessary and feasible in China’s university.

4 4.1

Hybrid Learning Model of Physical Education Learning Matrix

Based ont the categories of physical education learning contents, we have noticed that each one contains diﬀerent inherent character, so the instructor must adopt diﬀerent instructional mode to best support the physical education learning. According to the categories of physical education contents and their learning styles, a learning matrix is proposed in the research (Figure 1). In the matrix, the X-axis illustrates a “focus” on the delivery of physical education instruction. The left end of the X-axis targets delivery of instructional content. Contents include physical education academic knowledge and some theory of skill/emotional-related/society-related knowledge. The right end of the axis targets delivery of instructional experiences through activities and experiences such as instructions of skill/emotional-related/society-related knowledge. The Y-axis in the matrix illustrates who controls “navigation” of the physical education learning process. At the bottom of the Y-axis, navigation of the learning process is controlled by a “guide”. Generally speaking, the guide is the instructor or other learner, who makes decisions on students’ action or delivery of learning events or instructions to students during physical education performance. At the top of the axis, navigation of the learning process is controlled by the learner self. Self-directed or self-practiced learners own the responsibility for identifying their learning needs, and implementing their unique learning paths.

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Fig. 1. Learning Matrix of Physical Education Course

In proposed learning matrix, the learning of physical education academic knowledge focuses on content-delivery and can be accomplished by learner through reading white paper or book. Therefore, the e-learning instruction mode is suggested in hybrid learning practice. When the instructor constructs the education platform, the physical education academic knowledge can be represented in articles, white papers, FAQ and so on. At same time, it should be equipped with item bank to evaluate learning eﬀect or to realize online examination. The distance of physical education skill learning in proposed learning matrix away the bottom and top end of Y-axis is almost equal, while it is nearer to X-axis. In addition, area in right-up quadrant is bigger than the one in rightbottom quadrant, while area on right is bigger than the one on left (refer to Figure 1). The main reasons include 1) the physical education skill learning is practice focus; 2) the physical education skill learning is teacher-directed, that is, students should practice by themselves under the control of teacher; 3) the physical education skill learning eﬀect can’t be evaluated by him/herself, that is, he/she should turn to the team member or teacher to check whether his/her action is right or not; 4) there are few instructions and theory can be delivered by content and 5) students should spend more time out of the class to perform physical education skill learning. Based on the position illustrated in proposed learning matrix, the hybrid learning of physical education should pay more attention to “guider” and the education platform should be equipped with convenient communication and cooperative tools. The positioning of emotion-related or society-related learning in the proposed learning matrix illustrates the following: When the students perform learning under the guider’s control, the emotion-related or society-related learning is more content-deliver focused, while it is self-practiced when learning

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process is performed under students’ self-control. That is, as far as emotionrelated or society-related physical education learning is concerned, the teacher’s role is a guider rather than an instructor. During this learning process, the teacher should tell students whether the action is good or not, while student is an executor, making practices and taking advice by themselves and forming good physical training habits/hobbies/attitude or social reasonability from selfexperience. The value of the proposed learning matrix is that the positioning on the learning matrix can tell instructor clearly which instructional strategies should be used to learning and realizing the teaching aim and obtaining good teaching eﬀect. Continuing with the presentation strategies example, the physical education academic learning can be associated with a lecture or a web-based presentation layout, which is to say the e-learning is perfect. The video component or video editor/communication tools may be developed for physical education skill performance, and the hybrid learning mode is appropriate. 4.2

Education Platform

The education platform plays very important role in hybrid learning. As mentioned above, the national elaborate course has been well researched and developed in China’s universities. Therefore, we decide to design and develop one physical education platform to perform hybrid learning of physical education through using the resource of national physical education elaborate course . As we have seen, the signiﬁcant character of physical education is focusing on guiding and communicating during learning process. And we also notice that, the ineﬀectiveness of current education platform for national elaborate course is due to lack of convenient communication toolkit, by which the instructor can guide students to learn and point out their mistakes. For the above reasons, we design and develop one education platform named PEHLP (Physical Education Hybrid Learning Platform with video editor, PEHLP) through using the resource of national elaborate course combining un-linear video editing technology, which is composed of ﬁve modules (refer to Figure 2) as follows: – Education platform for national elaborate course : it is the core of PEHLP, where the student can perform learning and or the teacher can perform teaching. The Education platform for national elaborate course is composite of the video or audio documents, the theory material learning room, the BBS, the item bank for physical education theory, and so on. – Web Capture Module: the user can record his/her learning practices (actions practices) and upload them to the education platform for national elaborate course through the Web Capture Module for the teacher or the participants reviewing later. – Video Editor Module: it is an interface, where the student or the teacher can review the captured video, which was commit by the student, and remark the

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Fig. 2. Architecture of Physical Education Hybrid Learning Platform

wrong or non-standard actions information (text, audio or image) frame by frame. The main functions of the video editor module include video opening and browsing, graphic drawing (line, circle, sketch, text and etc.), video decomposition (to decompose the video into image frame by frame in order to review), video synthesis (to make the reviewed images into the reviewed video), and so on. – Video Player Module: it is an interface, where the reviewed video, which is supplied by the reviewer through the Video Editor Module, can be played or be located by review remark links. – Video Diagnosis Module (unimplemented in current version): to perform intelligent diagnosis based on the demonstrated actions database and remark the wrong or non-standard actions information. The demonstrated actions are supplied by the teacher. From the practices, we notice that it takes the reviewer many time to review the video frame by frame. As an assistant for the student or the teacher, we suggest that the PEHLP should be equipped with the Video Diagnosis Module in order to accomplish eﬃciently video review. The value of PEHLP is that it takes the video document and its video review as main measure to perform physical education. The PEHLP supplies the teacher and the student with an immersed learning environment, where they can communicate with each other conveniently and seamlessly. In addition, the teacher can clearly evaluate students’ learning eﬀect while the students can ﬁnd out their wrong and non-standard action and can obtain the teacher’s instructions through the video review function.

5 5.1

Implement Purpose

The primary aim of this project is to devise one simple framework of hybrid learning of physical education based on the proposed learning matrix which can

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promote students’ life-long physical education and cultivate their health physical training habits and hobbies. The following issues were speciﬁcally focused on: – Would the hybrid learning promote physical education eﬀect? – How do students perceive the diﬀerence between the traditional F2F learning and hybrid learning? 5.2

Students

The respondents consisted of 130 calisthenics students in Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology (refer to Table 2). They were divided into two groups: (1) experimented group whose students were instructed by the hybrid learning. (2) contrasted group whose students were instructed by the traditional F2F learning. All students have at least 3-year computer experiences. We invited specialists to evaluate the respondents by the physical quality (including power, speed, resistance, ﬂexible, etc.), the skill level, the calisthenics theory level and the innovation ability. The statistic results show there are no signiﬁcant diﬀerences between the students of experimented group and teh contrasted group (Pearson coeﬃcient is 1.0 and signiﬁcance of correlation coeﬃcient 0.01≤0.05, refer to Table 2). Table 2. Indicators before Experiment Grade Group

2008 2007

Experimented Contrasted Experimented Contrasted

Averaged M ark

N

30 30 35 35

P/S

T heory P hysical Skill Level Quality

Inno. Ability

76.1 76.4 77.1 76.7

51.7 52.1 49.4 52.5

77.2 75.1 71.2 72.1

65.3 64.9 61.5 62.9

1.0/0.01 1.0/0.01

Notes:(1) P/S-Pearson coeﬃcient and signiﬁcance of correlation coeﬃcient; (2) N is the number of students.

5.3

Course Design

The hybrid learning course was designed in order to encourage students to improve their calisthenics skill and promote their calisthenics interests. The experiment started from Match to July in 2009. In hybrid learning context, the instructional strategies were adopted according to the proposed learning matrix. In addition, we also asked student to do the following: – Download and read calisthenics academic knowledge from the PEHLP at least one time each week for one and a half hours;

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– Take an online examination in the PEHLP to evaluate his/her calisthenics academic knowledge learning eﬀect; – Use the PEHLP to record his/her calisthenics practices and upload it for two hours once a week ; – Review classmates’ practice videos at least once a week by video review interface; and – Watch course real record or his/her videos reviewed by teacher or classmate and practice it following instructions by twice a week for two hours.

6

Results

Content analysis was used to explore the information collected from participants. The results revealed that hybrid learning can signiﬁcantly promote calisthenics teaching/learning eﬀect (refer to Table 3). From experimented results (Table 3), the Pearson signiﬁcance of correlation coeﬃcient is 0.64 and 0.44 is greater than 0.05. That is to say, there are diﬀerences between the students experimented group and contrasted group on test indicators. Comparing Table 2 with Table 3, we notices that theory level, physical quality, skill, innovation ability of experimented group has increased to 15.1%, 9.9%, 32.7% and 72.2%, especially skill and innovation ability. In contrast, indicator of students in contrasted group has increased to 0.01%, 2.0%, 1.7% and 18.4%. Therefore, that hybrid learning can promote physical education eﬀect. To ﬁnd out why hybrid learning can promote physical education eﬀect, we surveyed on physical education attitude, physical education aim, learning initiative and so on (refer to Table 4). The results show that 97% of students in experimented group like calisthenics, 86.2% of them are eager to take part in calisthenics learning, 92.3% of them think calisthenics skill have been promoted, and 86.2% of them like hybrid learning. From the view of psychology, if people like something he would do him best to perform it. Table 3. Indicators After Experiment Grade Group

2008 2007

Experimented Contrasted Experimented Contrasted

Averaged M ark

N

30 30 35 35

P/S

T heory P hysical Skill Level Quality

Inno. Ability

87.8 78.1 88.5 75

86.7 60.6 87.3 63.3

79.4 77.5 83.2 63.7

80.5 65.4 87.4 64.5

0.36/0.64 0.55/0.44

Notes: (1)P/S-Pearson coeﬃcient and signiﬁcance of correlation coeﬃcient;(2) N is the number of students.

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Content

Indicator

Experimented Group Contrasted Group N

%

N

%

45 10 7 3

70.8 14.4 10.8 3.0

12 19 18 16

18.5 29.2 27.7 24.6

Positivity What is your attitude to Normal calisthenics participate? Negative

56 6 3

86.2 9.2 4.6

18 35 12

27.7 53.8 18.5

Promote obviously Yes No

13

20.0

4

6.2

47 5

72.3 7.7

31 30

47.7 46.1

Yes No

56 9

86.2 13.8

17 48

26.2 73.8

How did you like the calisthenics?

Is your calisthenics skill promoted?

Would you like hybrid learning?

Creasy Prefer Like Dislike

Notes: N is the number of students.

7

Discussion and Conclusions

We have seen that the hybrid learning can promote physical education. Based on the results of this research we can draw some conclusions: First of all, the results of this research suggest that the hybrid learning can promote students’ initiative during physical education learning and they would like to learn more physical education academic knowledge under the ﬂexible condition. The studies have shown that it is beneﬁcial to cultivating life-long physical training habit, setting up right value orientation and adapting to society easily once people have enough physical education academic knowledge. Secondly, the instructor can decide which instructional strategies will be adopted according to the proposed learning matrix by this paper in hybrid learning context. The contents of physical education can be classiﬁed into physical education academic knowledge, skill, emotion-related knowledge and societyrelated knowledge and they have diﬀerent inherent characters. This suggests that the instructor must adopt diﬀerent instructional mode to best support physical education. The proposed learning matrix illustrated four contents instructional characters, so it represents the instructional strategies. Thirdly, the education platform must be quipped with video review function in hybrid learning. The physical education focuses on teacher’s standard demonstration action and students’ self-practice or self-experience, so education platform should pay more attention to “guider”. The power video review function can make communication between teacher and student convenient and eﬃcient

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and can obtain the immersed environment in e-learning which is protected in traditional F2F instruction context. To sum up, e-learning is a growing trend in education. Students are increasingly spending more time on the internet and computer. This has forced instructor to move some of the learning process to online mode. Hybrid learning is a new trend of education approach by combining the advantages of classroom training and e-learning. However, it is a challenging to teachers in designing an eﬀective hybrid course that can enhance students’ learning, especially for experiences and practices focused course. This paper studies the hybrid learning of physical education by using national elaborate course resources. The experiment results show the studies have positive eﬀects on physical education. The author expects the research can be worked as a foundation for course designers and teachers in designing their hybrid course of physical education.

References 1. Graham, C.R.: Blended learning systems: Deﬁnition, Current Trends, and Future Directions. In: Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs, pp. 3–21. Pfeiﬀer, San Francisco (2005) 2. Chan, J.K.Y., Law, K.C.K.: Structured Blended Learning Implementation for an Open Learning Environment. In: Blended Learning, pp. 630–640 (2007) 3. China Ministry of Education: The Outline of Eleventh Five-year Plan of National Education Undertaking Development (2006) (in Chinese) 4. He, K.: New Development of Instructional Technology Base on Blend Learning. Journal of National Academy of Education Administration (9,) 37–79 (2005) (in Chinese) 5. Tan, C., Liu, Y.: Hybrid Learning and Discussion on its Implementation Measures in Distance Education. Modern Distance Education Research 81(3), 36–38 (2006) (in Chinese) 6. Qi, Y.: Analysis on Application of Hybrid Teaching Mode in Higher Education. In: Hybrid Learning: A New Frontier, City University of Hong Kong, pp. 151–160 (2008) 7. Zhou, J.: Research on the Status Quo, Problem and Solutions of National Elaborate Course. Dissertation of ZheJiang Normal University (2008) (in Chinese) 8. He, K.: The Status Quo of Construction of Digital Education Source. E-education Research 198(10), 5–9 (2009) (in Chinese) 9. Liu, B.: The Impact of BBS as a Campus Internet Culture on Students’ Learning. Modern Distance Education Study (2), 24–27 (2005) (in Chinese) 10. Liu, Y.: Thoughts on College Students’ online Activities. E-education Research (6), 61–64 (2003) (in Chinese)

Key Factors of Effecting Blended Learning Satisfaction: A Study on Peking University Students∗ Guodong Zhao and Shuai Yuan Peking University, China, 100871 86-10-62759993 [email protected]

Abstract. Blended/hybrid learning provides a new learning environment that combines face-to-face teaching with technology-mediated instruction. Based on blended learning practice in Peking University in recent years, this paper mainly discusses the factors that effecting student’s satisfaction in blended learning environment, and proposes an analytical model of evaluating student satisfaction in blended learning situation, which includes four dimensions: learner characteristics, instructor characteristics, course characteristics, and system characteristics. According to the model, the researchers design a questionnaire to research the PKU students’ attitudes on blended learning. The statistics results shows that e-learning adaptability, perceived usefulness, in-time of teacher’s response, perceived ease of use and course applicability are the important factors that can affect the learners’ satisfaction in using blended learning. Finally, the paper also proposes some suggestions to promote the use of blended learning in PKU. Keywords: blended/hybrid learning, student satisfaction, Peking University.

1 Introduction In recent decades, rapid development of ICT has facilitated a convergence between traditional face-to-face and technology-mediated learning environments, which is socalled “blended/hybrid learning”. The blended learning environments try to take advantage of the merits of both learning environments [1]. Noticeably, the emergence and development of blended learning in higher education area is highlighted strikingly in many research literatures, not only in U.S.A. and Europe, but also in Asian countries. For example, the President of Pennsylvania State University regards the convergence between online and residential instruction as the “single greatest unrecognized trend in higher education today” [2]. Similarly, the American Society for Training and Development regards blended learning as one of the top ten emergent trends in the knowledge delivery industry [3]. ∗

NOTE: The paper was presented in International Conference on Hybrid Learning 2010, held by International Hybrid Learning Society, the Chinese University of Hong Kong and City University of Hong Kong.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 282–295, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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Data from different countries confirms this tendency in higher education. Gartner’s report indicates that “continued growth in the use of technology to support teaching and learning. The number of fully remote courses and programs of study have grown during the past 10 years, while hybrid or blended courses and programs that combine face-to-face mediated learning with technology support have grown even faster. results from the Gartner 2008 e-learning survey reveal that more than 55% of all courses offered are fully online or hybrid course” [4]. In British, the survey of Universities and Colleges Information Systems Association (UCISA) indicates that 96% are using VLE (Virtual learning Environment) among 164 colleges and universities, and web dependent course rises noticeably [5]. Additionally, blended learning also develops rapidly in Asian higher education institutions. Research literature shows that percentage of blended learning comes to 90% in national and private universities of South Korea [6]. In Singapore, the survey of Ministry of Education (MOE) shows that 75 percent of schools are using Learning Management System (LMS), and the information technology standard committee (ITSC) survey shows over 80 percent of e-learning courses are available to staff and students among the schools, institutes of higher learning (IHL) and junior colleges (JC) in Singapore [7]. In recent years, more and more Chinese universities and colleges also pay great attentions to blended learning with the e-campus development. Survey data indicates that at present more than 60% higher education institutions have built CMS (Course Manage System), which is being used as technological platform of blended learning [8] . Particularly promoted by Project about Undergraduate Instruction Quality by Ministry of Education, many universities have taken the ICT as the important tools to improve teaching reform and to facilitate teaching activities in face-to-face instruction.

2 Blended Learning in Peking University As the Initiators of world-top university project in China, Peking University always attaches more importance to ICT use in teaching reform. Reviewing the past decades of technology enhanced learning experience in PKU, the exploration of blended learning is sketchy divided into three phases: Exploring period, Multi-platform period and PKU Academic online period (see Figure1). Peking University was the first university in China Mainland that connect all the student dormitories to Internet in 1999, the first one that connect all the teacher apartment buildings in 2002 and No.1 of covering all the campus with wireless network. Based on such good ICT infrastructure, Peking University began the exploration on blended learning in the end of 1990s. At the beginning, there was not a developing plan about blended learning. Depending on their interests, some teachers who have good ICT skills attempted to use different technology enhanced learning tools, such as self-made course websites, BBS, ftp, e-mail and kinds of courseware authoring software. Apparently, such experiments require teachers have high ICT skills level, but not every teacher could afford these trials. According to the survey data [8], before 2004, the total number of blended learning course in PKU was less than 100.

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Fig. 1. History of Blended Learning in Peking University

In 2004, the situation changed markedly. Peking University declared the PKU Ecampus Construction Plan (2006-2015) and brought blended learning into the whole School ICT blue print. The plan indicates that Peking University will set up topranking, stable and effective E-learning system… to provide faculty a convenient online platform of preparing lessons, and to facilitate online learning in undergraduate and post graduate instruction. The final goal is to improve the teaching quality and efficiency. Subsequently, the Ontoedu1, a home-grown Course Management System developed by Center of Modern Educational Technology (CMET) began providing service for PKU faculty. From then on, some teachers of schools and departments (mostly liberal arts) in Peking University began using Ontoedu as the platform of blended learning. However, other schools and departments also built their own CMS by outsourcing or open source software2. That is to say, there are at least five CMSs used in Peking University, which was a heavy burden for the technological support and maintenance, and the popularization of blended learning in Peking University was very difficult at this period. For this reason, the blended learning in PKU developed very slowly at this period, from 2004—2008, the total courses with blended learning are only more than 400, which is less than one seventh of PKU total courses. Obviously, the e-learning in PKU fell behind to other areas in E-campus project, such as Eadministration, E-research and E-life. In 2007, consulting the foreign universities experience in blended learning, PKU began to consider the issue of single CMS for whole university. After one-year trial in 1

Before 2008, the CMET actually developed and maintained two CMS, one is Ontoedu, the other is college English system. 2 For example, the Guanghua Administration schools set up own CMS by outsourcing IT company; The Graduate School of Education also built its CMS by Moodle.

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several CMS software, the Blackboard 8.03 was chosen and the PKU Academic Online was established in 2008. Based on Blackboard 8.0, the PKU Academic Online consists of Adobe Rapid E-learning Solution, Apple Podcast Producer, On-demand Video system, Interactive Response System (IRS) and Lecture Recording System. Meanwhile, the PKU Academic Online also becomes one part of PKU campus portal by single identification system. Since 2008, all the schools and departments of Peking University began adopting PKU Academic Online for blended learning. The centralization of all blended learning activities on the same CMS is beneficial for decreasing cost of technology support and service of blended learning. According to statistics data, since 2008—2010, the average click number exceeds 300000 per month; the number of active courses is more than 2300; the number of active accounts comes to 8000. In sum, the blended learning in Peking University comes to a period of rapid development.

3 Statement of Research Question It is well-known that blended learning mode is a new challenge in higher education institutions to teachers and students. Student issues in blended learning emerge from the traditional academy and from the developing online environments in higher education. Prensky [9] suggested that digital natives (the Net Generation), who expect the immediacy of technology, collaborative learning opportunities, and active learning environments, force faculty and administrators to adopt more effective pedagogies. Oblinger et al. [10] claimed that these students’ computers and personal technologies are a way of life. The Internet is more important to them than television, and they learn primarily through the processes of trial and error. We should not be surprised, therefore, that some tension exists between the millennial generation’s preferred learning styles and what higher education currently offers—even in blended courses [11]. Up to now, the practice of blended learning in Peking University goes through more than ten years. So, we should pay attention to such questions as what effect this new learning mode produce in PKU instruction? Furthermore, for students, what are their attitudes toward it? In other words, what is the student satisfaction about blended learning? Those questions are worth discussion and researching, which is valuable for the popularization of blended learning in Peking University and other higher education institutions in China.

4 Literature Review Researchers recognize the potential for transforming learning when combining both face-to-face and technology-mediated instruction [12, 13]. Charles R. Graham [1] once said that the Sloan Consortium’s five pillars (learning effectiveness, student satisfaction, faculty satisfaction, cost effectiveness, and access) can be used as an organizing

3

The Blackboard 8.0 Academic suit includes learning management system, teaching resource management system and community management system.

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framework of blended learning, which is a good method to measure the effect of ICT in learning process. In this paper, the student satisfaction is the study core. Several issues mediate student satisfaction with blended learning. Some studies report consistently high satisfaction levels for blended courses [14], while others indicate somewhat less positive attitudes [15]. Some studies indicate that students with an intuitive cognitive style experience a lower sense of community in their blended courses than students with analytic approaches to learning [16]. Conversely, studies such as those conducted by Rovai and Jordan [17] have revealed a greater sense of community in blended courses when compared with face-to-face and fully online courses. Even though investigators report conflicting results about student satisfaction, most studies with substantial and stable samples have found predominately positive reactions; the majority indicate that convenience, flexibility, and the reduced opportunity costs involved in the learning process are the primary factors [18]. These elements tend to be independent of several potentially biasing factors, such as class size and discipline. Additionally, the course management system is also an important factor that effecting learner satisfaction in blended courses, which involve in satisfaction on using of CMS. In 2002, based on first Model of Information System Success in 1992, DeLone and McLean [19] proposed an updated IS success model (See Figure 2).The updated model consists of six interrelated dimensions of IS success: information, system and service quality, (intention to) use, user satisfaction, and net benefits. The arrows demonstrate proposed associations between the success dimensions. The model can be interpreted as follows: A system can be evaluated in terms of information, system, and service quality; these characteristics affect the subsequent use or intention to use and user satisfaction. As a result of using the system, certain benefits will be achieved. The net benefits will (positively or negatively) influence user satisfaction and the further use of the information system.

Fig. 2. Depiction of the Updated Information Systems Success Model

There are many researches of student learning satisfaction. Knowles [20] concluded that learning satisfaction represents the pleasant feelings or attitudes towards learning. Pleasure or positive attitude means satisfaction. On the contrary it is dissatisfactory. Therefore, the learning satisfaction can be used to explain the motivation and learning results of learners. Long [21] also believed that learning satisfaction refers to the pleasant feelings or attitudes which learners felt through the process of learning.

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Many studies have shown that a variety of factors will influence the students’ elearning satisfaction. Arbaugh and Duray [22] indicated that the “curriculum flexibility”, “class size”, “the degree of students using” have a significant influence to system satisfaction and curriculum satisfaction. In addition, the significant factors include “age”, “class size”, “previously experience” and other variables. Webster and Hackley [23] argued that technical characteristics, teacher characteristics, student characteristics and course characteristics will also affect the student satisfaction in e-learning progress. We believe that above research results could be the basis of study on Peking university student satisfaction under blended learning environment.

5 Study Design and Research Method 5.1 The Conceptual Model of Student Blended learning Satisfaction Based on McLean’s updated IS success model and other literatures, and also considering about the actual situation in Peking University, this researchers developed the “conceptual model of learning satisfaction on Peking University Students” as a research instrument to examine key factors of students’ blended learning satisfaction (See Figure 3). The new model includes four dimensions: student characteristics, teacher characteristics, course characteristics, and the system features, with “learner satisfaction” as the dependent variable. Because of PKU students owning the same campus network speed and cost, the new model does not include the infrastructure features such as e-learning related technical support, network flow, and network cost etc.

Fig. 3. Conceptual model of learning satisfaction about PKU students

5.2 Research Methodology Based on the above research framework, the researchers designed a blended learning satisfaction scale, which includes 14 variables. Consulting by the some experts, every one of the 14 variables is irreplaceable. Each statement is designed to be measured

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with a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Web survey is adopted in this study, and convenience sampling was employed in this survey. According to mentioned scale above, an online questionnaire was designed by Limesurvey4. The survey was conducted from December 10, 2009, to December 28, 2009. During this time, the survey was open to any potential respondents in Peking University Intranet IP address5. The survey objects are the full-time students from 30 schools and departments of Peking University, including undergraduates, graduate students, and doctoral students. Generally, the study was divided into two stages: z The first is the pre-testing study. In pre-testing of the investigation, there were 57 valid responses in total. Checking the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, we testified the scale is effective. z The second is the main survey. A total of 524 responses to the study were received, in which there are 313 complete and valid responses.

6 Data Analysis 6.1 Pre-testing After the pre-testing of the questionnaire, we first checked the reliability and validity of the student learning satisfaction scale using Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS 16.0) to prove it a valid instrument. Reliability concerns the consistency of a measure. That is, the tendency to obtain the same results if the measure was to be repeated by using the same subjects under the same conditions [24]. In general, a commonly used threshold value for acceptable composite reliability is 0.70 [25]. Reliability of the survey is evaluated using Cronhach Alpha. All 14 items show an alpha of 0. 896. Moreover, odd-even split-half method shows that Pearson correlation coefficient reach 0.893, as well as split-half reliability coefficient which is corrected by Spearman-Brown formula is 0.943. Validity concerns the degree to which a question measures what it was intended to measure, and not something else [24]. Content and face validity of our survey was addressed through a panel of experts formed by some teachers from the department of educational technology in Peking University. Some modifications were done to the survey based on their feedback. Each item has also been checked via independent samples t-test to be decided whether significant distinctive or not. Principal Component Factor analysis was used to examine structural validity through the Varimax Rotation Method. Various item purifications were done. Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness can be considered

4 5

Limesurvey is open source software that used as web survey (online survey). To generate responses as many as possible, researchers used the BBS of Peking University and Campus Portal News to notify the gateway of the questionnaire. In addition, we also provided bonus for some students filling in questionnaire, who were randomly chosen and received a beautiful cup.

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cognitive constructs. The other factors are student characteristics, teacher characteristics and course characteristics. 6.2 Main Study Introduction of Survey Results. In the main survey. A total of 524 responses to the study were received, in which there are 313 complete and valid responses. The respondent pool consisted of 53.44% male and 46.37% female. 80.92 % of the participants were Undergraduate students, while others were Graduate students and Doctoral students (See Table 1). All the participants were from 29 departments of Peking University. Table 1. PKU Students Participating in the Survey Grade Freshman Sophomore Junior Graduate Post graduate Doctoral candidate

Percentage 29.20% 24.43% 19.66% 7.63% 14.51% 3.63%

The survey data shows that 95.4% of PKU students once heard about PKU Academic Online, 91.2% often log on and browse it, and 85.9% have one or more courses in it. Meanwhile, the PKU students’ average on line time per week is about 26.4 hours, while the average time in PKU Academic Online is 6.2 hours. That is to say, one fourth online time of students is in PKU Academic Online every week. Additionally, nearly one-third students say the biggest problem of PKU Academic Online is “lack of learning resources”, and 13.4% complain that “studying by computer is uncomfortable”. However, 66.9% students express that they can operate PKU Academic Online skillfully; the student activities in PKU Academic Online show as Table 2, nearly 71.7% of the students choose downloading the courseware, followed by browse course content 59.2% and submit coursework 52.7%. Table 2. The Student Activities in PKU Academic Online Activities Download the courseware Browse of course contents Examining course notices and schedule Submission of coursework Discussion Ask questions Upload learning resources Participation in Online Video Classroom Team learning Others

Percentage 80.2% 59.2% 53.6% 52.7% 29.8% 17.2% 12.9% 8.9% 8.7% 0.5%

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Finally, the survey indicates that 55.7% students feel satisfied about the situation of PKU Academic Online; 82.5% students show interests about studying in PKU Academic Online; 65.9% would like to choose blended courses in PKU Academic Online. Linear Regression. Checking the reliability and validity of the 313 responses received from the main survey, we find it appropriate. Because of the 12 independent variables irreplaceable, a linear regression analysis has been run to see if all 12 items are significantly related to student e-learning satisfaction, with “learner satisfaction” as the dependent variable. The results of the stepwise regression are presented in Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5. Table 3. Coefficients

Model …… Constant q11 q6 6 q12 q1 q4 q10

Unstandardized Coefficients Std. B Error …… …… 1.112 .289 .413 .105 .349 .085 .345 .084 .327 .090 .175 .070 .156 .073

Standardized Coefficients

t

Sig.

Beta …… .215 .206 .197 .180 .109 .093

…… 3.850 3.945 4.100 4.121 3.619 2.485 2.124

… .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .014 .034

95% Confidence Interval for B Lower Upper Bound Bound …… …… .544 1.681 .207 .619 .181 .516 .180 .509 .149 .504 .036 .314 .011 .300

The regression coefficient is another widely used measure of association between two interval-ratio variables and it can be used to introduce the idea of an asymmetric measure [26]. Table 3 lists the regression coefficients of the six regression models constructed via stepwise regression method. There are six independent variables significantly related to e-learning satisfaction: students’ attitude to learn with a computer, teachers’ timeliness response, course applicability, convenience to use, easy to operate, and performance improving. The non-standardized regression equation is as follows: Y = 1.112 + 0.413*q11(convenience to use) + 0.349*q6(course applicability) + 0.345*q12(easy to operation) + 0.327*q1(students’ attitude to learn with a computer) + 0.175*q4(teachers’ timeliness response) + 0.156*q10(performance improving) (1) Table 4 shows the R Square values, adjusted R Square values, and Std. Error of the Estimate for each of the six constructs. R2 is a statistic that will give some information about how well the regression line approximating the real data points. An R2 of 0.577 indicates that the regression line well fits the data. And the six-independent model can explain 57.7% of the variance. The Durbin-Watson value of 1.903 is approximately equal to 2, which indicates no autocorrelation.

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Table 4. Model Summaryg Model 1 2 3 4 5 6

R

R Square a

.645 .706b .731c .747d .756e .760f

.416 .498 .534 .558 .571 .577

Adjusted Std. Error of R Square the Estimate .414 1.360 .495 1.263 .530 1.218 .552 1.189 .564 1.173 .569 1.167

Durbin-Watson

1.903

Multicollinearity refers to the statistical phenomenon in which two or more predictor variables in a multiple regression model are highly correlated (Wikipedia). According to the study of many scholars, a serious collinearity is believed leading to a collapse. A usual check for a multicollinearity problem is to see if the largest condition index is greater than 30. If condition index is larger than 30, then there is strong collinearity. Table 5 shows Model Dimension, Eigenvalue, Condition Index, Variance Proportions calculated via Collinearity Diagnostics. The largest condition index is 15.411, which indicates there is no strong collinearity problem that we can ignore the effect of multicollinearity. Figure 4 illustrates the normal P-P plot of regression standardized residual. The normal probability plot below is another test of normally distributed residual error. Under perfect normality, the plot will be a 45-degree line. In our study, it is sure that the actual residuals fall on or close to the 45-degree line. Table 5. Collinearity Diagnosticsa Model …… 1 2 3 6 4 5 6 7

Eigenvalue …… 6.690 .083 .068 .051 .041 .039 .028

Variance Proportions Condition Index (Constant) q11 q6 q12 q1 q4 q10 …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… 1.000 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 8.973 .01 .01 .02 .08 .05 .19 .52 9.897 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .74 .43 11.482 .44 .00 .31 .11 .14 .00 .00 12.825 .06 .00 .59 .01 .59 .02 .00 13.088 .49 .04 .01 .54 .16 .05 .00 15.411 .00 .95 .07 .25 .04 .00 .04

Fig. 4. Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual

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Therefore, we can prove that this research does not violate the basic assumptions of regression. The conclusion is creditable.

7 Conclusions The result of the stepwise regression shows that the perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, students’ attitude to learn with a computer, teachers’ timeliness response and course applicability are significantly related to blended learning satisfaction. Now let’s discuss parts of them. 7.1 About Perceived Ease of Use Perceived ease of use is a significant predictor of student blended learning satisfaction. And it is more significant than perceived usefulness. This result was surprising to us since the findings of researches conducted by Davis [27] Karahanna [28] and Lin Jiajing [29] regarding perceived usefulness more significant. However, it is also reasonable. The PKU Academic Online began using just from September 2008 and blended learning is still under developing stage. Compared with the foreign students, the information literacy which is used to describe the process of information-seeking and information use competencies of the mainland students is relatively insufficient. Therefore, whether the system is easy to use gains more concerns. In the survey, many participants state that the biggest problem they met in blended learning is how to operate the e-learning system. For example, some participants expressed that: z “The operation of the online learning system is too complicated.” z “I like online learning. It is so powerful. But the interface design is not simple enough. I am keen to get some training on the learning systems. In our opinion, that is the way to improve the learning satisfaction.” 7.2 About Computer Learning Adaptability There is another key factor called computer learning Adaptability self-efficacy which may be considered an intrinsic motivational factor. It represents that the student feels comfortable or different levels of computer anxiety when learning with a computer. Many mainland students are not accustomed to use computers to learn. They prefer to print everything out, including course materials or homework. On-screen reading may lead to psychological and physical symptoms of anxiety, which will affect their satisfaction with blended learning system. 7.3 About Timely Feedback The interaction between participants and tutors plays an important role in the learning process. During the blended learning process, it was observed that interaction takes place when participants send e-mail to the tutor with questions they have not understood, upload their homework, take an exam, or post a query in the forum. Feedback on assignments must be in a timely manner to keep learners involved and motivated [30] . If the teachers could give timely feedback to the students, student satisfaction will be greatly enhanced. One participant expressed the following opinion:

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z “When the tutor responded promptly to my queries or pointed out my effort direction after the examination timely, I felt very nice and was willing to learn with blended learning.”

8 Suggestions In this research, we demonstrated the applicability of our blended learning satisfaction model to guide the study design. A primary contribution of the research is in furthering our understanding of how to define, assess, and promote students blended learning satisfaction. Through this research, we find that Peking University students’ learning satisfaction is relatively high. However, we still need to keep it up in many areas, such as: Firstly, with regard to the developers and the administrator of blended learning system, they must improve the interaction design and function of the system. The study habits of the mainland students must be paid more attention to. According to the many students’ proposal, the developers should develop real-time chat plug-in to the learning system on the function of social network. Secondly, as for the tutors, it is important to provide training on ICT skills and methods of using the blended learning system. Not only does the tutor organize the teaching content but also helps participants to learn online effectively by motivating them. Speaking of the mainland students, we found that participants’ information literacy contributes a lot to the blended learning success. Information literacy is a “set of skills” that can be learned. The set of skills includes a certain attitude toward learning itself, the use of tools, such as online tutorials, the use of techniques, such as working with groups; and the use of methods, such as a reliance on mentors and coaches [31]. At the end, it has to say, how to improve the information literacy is still urgent for the mainland students.

References 1. Graham, C.R.: Blended learning systems: definition, current trends, and future directions. In: Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R. (eds.) Handbook of Blended Learning:Global Perspectives, Local Designs, pp. 3–21. Pfeiffer Publishing, San Francisco (2006) 2. Young, J.R.: ‘Hybrid’ teaching seeks to end the divide between traditional and online instruction. Chron. High. Educ. A-33 (March 22, 2002) 3. Trends in e-learning, http://www.learningcircuits.org/2002/nov2002/finn.htm 4. Zastrocky, M., Harris, M., Lowendahi, J.-M.: E-learning for Higher Education: Are We Reaching Maturity. Industry Research. ID Number: G 00156361 (2008) 5. Browne, T., Hewitt, R., Jenkins, M., Walker, R.: 2008 survey of technology enhanced learning for higher education in UK. Universities and colleges Information systems Association (2008) 6. Li, H.: ICT Use in South Korea Higher Education. XinHua Review in Higher Education Edition, the 19th Journal (April 2009)

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7. Bashar, M.I., Khan, H.: E-Learning in Singapore: A Brief Assessment. U21Global Working Paper, No. 003 (2007) 8. Zhao, G.: Comparative Research on ICT Use in Education. JianSu Education Publishing Company, Nanjing (2008) 9. Prensky, M.: Digital natives, digital immigrants. Part 2. Do they really think differently. On Horizon 9(6), 1–6 (2001) 10. Educating the Net Generation, http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/pub7101.pdf 11. Alavi, M., Dufner, D.: Technology-mediated collaborative learning: a research perspective. In: Hiltz, S.R., Goldman, R. (eds.) Learning Together Online: Research on Asynchronous Learning Networks, pp. 191–213. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah (2005) 12. Garrison, D.R., Kanuta, H.: Blended learning: uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. Internet Higher Educ. 7(2), 95–105 (2004) 13. Graham, C.R., Robison, R.: Realizing the transformational potential of blended learning: comparing cases of transforming blends and enhancing blends in higher education. In: Picciano, A.G., Dziuban, C.D. (eds.) Blended Learning: Research Perspectives, pp. 83–110. Sloan Consortium, Needham (2007) 14. Dziuban, C.D., Hartman, J., Moskal, P.D.: Blended learning. EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Res. Bull. 2004(7), 1–12 (2004) 15. Utts, J., Sommer, B., Acredolo, M.W., Maher, M.W., Matthews, H.R.: A study comparing traditional and hybrid internet-based instruction in introductory statistics classes. J. Stat. Educ. 11(3), 171–173 (2003) 16. Graff, M.: Individual differences in sense of classroom community in a blended learning environment. J. Educ. Media. 28(2-3), 203–210 (2003) 17. Rovai, A.P., Jordan, H.M.: Blended learning and sense of community: a comparative analysis with traditional and fully online graduate courses. Int. Rev. Res. Open Dist. Learn. 5(2), 13 (2004) 18. Vignare, K.: Longitudinal success measures of online learning students at the Rochester Institute of Technology. In: Bourne, J., Moore, J.C. (eds.) Elements of Quality Online Education: Practice and Direction, vol. 4, pp. 261–278. Sloan Consortium, Needham (2006) 19. DeLone, W.H., McLean, E.R.: The DeLone and McLean Model of Information Systems Success: A ten-Year Update. Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4), 9–30 (2003) 20. Knowles, M.S.: The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus earning and the learning organization: Examining the connection between the individual and the learning environment. Human Resource Development Quarterly 9(4), 365–375 (1970) 21. Long, H.B.: Contradictory expectations? Achievement and satisfaction in adult learning. Journal of Continuing Higher Education 33(3), 10–12 (1989) 22. Arbaugh, J.B., Duray, R.: Technological and Structural Characteristics, Student Learning and Satisfaction with Web-based Courses An Exploratory Study of Two On-line MBA Programs. Management Learning 33(3), 331–347 (2002) 23. Webster, J., Hackley, P.: Teaching effectiveness in technology-mediated distance learning. Academy of Management Journal, 40(6) (1997) 24. Quantitative research methods in educational planning, http://www.sacmeq.org 25. Park, S.Y.: An Analysis of the Technology Acceptance Model in Understanding University Students Behavioral Intention to Use e-Learning. Educational Technology & Society 12(3), 150–162 (2009)

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26. Quantitative Data Analysis, http://www.gao.gov/special.pubs/pe10111.pdf 27. Davis, F.D.: Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use and User Acceptance of Information Technology. MIS Quarterly 13(3), 319–340 (1989) 28. Karahanna, E., Straub, D.W., Chervany, N.L.: Information Technology Adopting Across Time: A Cross-Sectional Comparison of Pre-Adoption and Post-Adoption Beliefs. MIS Quarterly 23(2), 183–213 (1999) 29. Jiajing, L.: A Study of Key Influential Factors on Satisfaction of E-Learning. National Kaohsiung Normal University/Graduate Institute of Information & Computer Education/Master’s thesis (2003) 30. Smith, P.L., Dillon, C.L.: Comparing distance learning and classroom learning: Conceptual considerations. The American Journal of Distance Education 13(2), 6–23 (1999) 31. Guidelines on information literacy for lifelong learning, http://archive.ifla.org/VII/s42/pub/IL-Guidelines2006.pdf

Experience of Blended Learning in School Education: Knowledge about Perimeter of Closed Shapes Siu Cheung Kong1,∗, Cheuk Lin Chan2, and Fu Lee Wang3 1

Department of Mathematics and Information Technology, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, Hong Kong [email protected] 2 Po Leung Kuk Chee Jing Yin Primary School, Education Bureau Primary Mathematics Learning Centre, Hong Kong [email protected] 3 Caritas Institute of Higher Education, 18 Chui Ling Road, Tseung Kwan O, Hong Kong [email protected]

Abstract. Blended learning (BL) weaves face-to-face instruction into computer-mediated instruction in formal academic settings. This study shares an experience of BL in the teaching and learning of a mathematics topic “Perimeter of Closed Shapes” in primary education. Teacher-directed instruction and student-centered learning activities were conducted in a classroom learning environment; and an online learning platform was developed for the consolidation of knowledge that was acquired in class. The evaluation results show that students could effectively acquire knowledge of the target topic under the BL approach in the designed learning context, irrespective of the frequency of using the online learning component in the BL environment. This study reveals that critical factor for the successful implementation of BL is the starategies of teachers for handling learning diversity among students. Keywords: Blended Learning, Computer-mediated Instruction, Face-to-face Instruction, Online Learning, Mathematics Education, School Education.

1 Introduction The innovative use of information technology (IT) in educational settings has induced the convergence between traditional face-to-face learning environments and computer-mediated learning environments ([1], [2]). The term “blended learning” is then being used with increased frequency in academic circles. Blended learning (BL) refers to the combination of face-to-face instruction and computer-mediated instruction. It is regarded as an effective approach for providing a rich educational experience because of its integration of the strengths of face-to-face learning paradigm with the advantages of computer-mediated learning paradigm ([2], [3], [4]). On the one hand, BL allows a high degree of human spontaneous in-class communication, which is an inherent benefit of face-to-face instruction. On the other hand, BL provides a high ∗

Correspondind author.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 296–305, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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flexibility for participation in computer-based learning activities without time and place constraints, which is an inherent advantage of computer-mediated instruction. Computer-based technologies play the central role in a BL environment. There is diversity in BL environments in which a variety of mixed modalities of learning is possible. To date, the most common way to create a BL environment is to blend face-to-face and online activities ([1], [3], [4]). Online learning activities complement learning activities in the face-to-face instructional environment. Web-based learning materials such as online handouts, online assignments and online quizzes are used to supplement classroom face-to-face instruction. The balance between face-toface and online components varies in different situations based on the nature of instructional goals, characteristics of students, background of instructors, and types of online resources. Fig. 1 shows the most common model in a BL environment.

Face-to-face component

Online component

Learning context Fig. 1. The most common model in a BL environment

The nature of the targeted knowledge, the pedagogical goal of the targeted subject, and the proportion of face-to-face to online interactions are the interlinking issues that are important for the design of a successful BL environment ([2], [3], [5], [6]). Researchers have suggested that the manner and style of teachers in the BL environments are central to the successful implementation of the BL approach ([5]). With the increase in the IT proficiency of students and the availability of domestic Internet access, BL is regarded as an appropriate method of instructional delivery for students at junior grades by taking two implementation issues into consideration ([7]). To facilitate the cognitive construction of students in the process of knowledge acquisition, more learning time should be allocated for the face-to-face component of BL in school education. To reduce the cognitive load of students in the process of knowledge consolidation, more directed and asynchronous learning activities should be provided in the online component of BL in school education. With the aim of inspiring the future development of BL in school education, this study shares an experience of adopting BL in the teaching and learning of primary mathematics in Hong Kong.

2 Learning Context “Perimeter of Closed Shapes” is a typical topic of the learning dimension “Measures” in the primary mathematics curriculum in Hong Kong. Primary school students usually find the acquisition of the knowledge about “Perimeter of Closed Shapes” challenging because it is difficult for them to thoroughly establish within several mathematics lessons the abstract association between an irregular closed shape and a regular closed shape in the calculation of the perimeter of an irregular closed shape

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([8]). Previous studies have suggested that the BL approach is one of the feasible methods to address the pedagogical goals of the targeted subject ([4], [9]). The BL approach not only provides students with opportunities to interact with teachers and fellow classmates face-to-face to acquire knowledge of formal procedures for finding the perimeter of closed shapes in class, but also offers students the chances to exploit the features of displaying pictorial representations in the electronic practice activities to reinforce the abstract association involved in the calculation of the perimeter of closed shapes after class. In this regard, this study created a learning context for BL in the teaching and learning of the topic “Perimeter of Closed Shapes” in primary mathematics education. In the learning context of this study, a BL environment which combined face-toface teaching and electronic practice activity was designed for four classes of Primary Four students in a primary school in Hong Kong to learn the targeted topic. Table 1 shows the profile of the four classes of Primary Four students who participated in this study. The four classes of students had different levels of learning ability in mathematics, which were reflected in the mathematics examination holding just before the study. The corresponding results are shown in the “mathematics mean score” row in Table 1. Four classes of students were divided into two groups, the IPLTGp group (learning with a digital learning tool called “Interactive Perimeter Learning Tool (IPLT)” in some of the lessons) and the TradGp group (learning without the IPLT during the whole teaching period). Both groups of students learned the targeted topic under the same BL approach within the teaching period. The only difference between these two groups in this learning context is that the IPLTGp group used the digital learning tool IPLT to complete the student-centered learning activities in several lessons during the teaching period. Table 1. Profile of the four classes of Primary Four students Profile EliteIPLTGp EliteTradGp At-riskIPLTGp At-riskTradGp Number of students 36 36 25 25 Ratio of boys to 14 : 22 15 : 21 16 : 9 16 : 9 girls Mean age in years 8.97 (S.D. = 0. 17) 9.19 (S.D. = 0.35) 9.16 (S.D. = 0.37) 9.08 (S.D. = 0. 28) Mathematics mean 70.00 (S.D. = 11.45) 78.50 (S.D. = 7.97) 52.56 (S.D. = 15.37) 62.12 (S.D. = 11.68) score (max = 100)

The two components in the designed BL environment in this study included a faceto-face classroom learning environment for knowledge acquisition and an online learning environment for knowledge consolidation. Fig. 2 shows the mode of BL employed in this learning context. The proportion of face-to-face interactions was designed to be higher than that of the online interactions in this learning context. This blending strategy was adopted for the following reasons. Synchronous face-to-face interactions in the classroom facilitate the comprehension of students of the taught knowledge that is cognitively demanding while asynchronous online practices after class benefit the reinforcement for students of the acquired procedural knowledge ([2]). In this way, the students in this BL environment were enabled to learn the concepts of lines and shapes via face-to-face instruction inside the classroom, and to

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Learning process (Teacher-centered instruction & Student-centered activities)

Consolidation

Face-to-face component

Online component Learning context

Fig. 2. The mode of BL employed in this learning context

practice the conceptual knowledge and computation skills to solve problems that are involved in finding the perimeter of closed shapes without time and location constraints. The face-to-face classroom learning environment included two components: teacher-directed instruction and student-centered learning activities. The students acquired and discussed the subject knowledge in the face-to-face in-class learning process. During the scheduled lessons, the teachers used PowerPoint presentations to demonstrate the calculation of the perimeter of closed shapes. Students were then requested to complete questions on the activity worksheets to build up knowledge about the subject content. The teachers subsequently asked the students to give answers and the corresponding explanations. Class discussions followed when there was a diversity of answers suggested by the students. The students in the EliteIPLTGp and At-riskIPLTGp classes, as mentioned, were also invited to complete student-centered learning activities with the use of the digital learning tool IPLT within class time. For the online learning environment, an electronic learning platform entitled “ELearn” was set up on the Internet. Students were asked to review the knowledge and practice the skills that had been acquired in lessons by accessing this online learning platform. “E-Learn” consisted of two zones, the “Revision” zone and the “Practice/Exam” zone, for knowledge reinforcement. The “Revision” zone enabled students to learn and revise the subject knowledge online. Students could access three of the PowerPoint files through which they had learned in class, and to a Flash animation that introduced the concept of finding the perimeter. In the “Practice/Exam” zone, students could answer questions that were randomly designated by the system (“Test”) or assigned by the teachers (“Practice” and “Exam”). Each teacher determined the number of questions that were selected from the question bank for each “Practice” or “Exam” paper. For each paper, a time limit from 15 to 30 minutes was set for each attempt. “Practice” papers could be attempted an unlimited number of times whereas “Exam” papers had to be attempted once within the set time. The scores of the students were recorded to track their learning progress. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show samples of the questions in the “Practice” paper and “Exam” paper, respectively. The questions that are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 are in English, but the Chinese version of these questions was provided for the students.

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Fig. 3. A sample question in the “Practice” paper

Fig. 4. A sample question in the “Exam” paper

3 Evaluation Methods The centerpiece of the evaluation of a BL environment is the investigation of the potentials of the computer-based technical component adopted in the BL approach ([3]). In view of this, the evaluation focus of the abovementioned learning context in the designed BL environment falls on the issues in relation to the online learning platform “E-Learn”. There were two specific research questions in the evaluation study: 1. 2.

What are the usage patterns of “E-Learn” for supplementing face-to-face classroom teaching and learning? What are the learning achievements of students of varying mathematical abilities in the designed learning context?

To study the potential of adopting “E-Learn” to supplement face-to-face classroom teaching and learning, a computer record system was created to trace the frequency of the use of the online learning platform by teachers and students. The usage frequency

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of teachers of this online component was checked by counting the number of papers in the “Practice/Exam” zone that the teachers had assigned during the teaching period. The usage frequency of students of this online component was investigated by calculating the average numbers of papers and questions in the “Practice/Exam” zone that the students had attempted within the teaching period. To study the potential of using “E-Learn” to enhance the learning achievements of students, a set of identical pre-test and post-test instruments were designed to collect quantitative data measuring students’ knowledge of perimeter before and after the teaching period. A test paper consisting of eight questions about finding the perimeter of closed shapes was designed.

4 Results and Discussion The learning context in the designed BL environment was evaluated based on the pattern of use of teachers and students and the learning achievements of students on the issues in connection with the online learning platform “E-Learn”. Because the AtriskIPLTGp class did not use “E-Learn” (due to the repeated delay of its use because of the underlying belief of the teacher that she needed to better prepare the students before the start of the consolidation process), the data that are presented in this section are from the teachers and students in the three classes who used this online learning platform. 4.1 Computer Records of Usage Frequency With regard to the computer records of the frequency of the use of the online learning platform “E-Learn” by teachers, the figures indicate that the teachers used the online learning platform to encourage the after-class knowledge consolidation of students. The teacher of the EliteIPLTGp class assigned four online “Exam” papers to the students to further challenge them in line with the progress of the classroom teaching. The teacher of the EliteTradGp class assigned eight online “Exam” papers, encouraged her students to complete the papers on a non-compulsory basis, and provided online individual feedback to students. The teacher of the At-riskTradGp class assigned three online “Practice” papers in the computer room during a lesson. The results reveal that the teachers adopted different strategies for the assignment of papers to cater to the different learning needs of the students. It is noteworthy that the teachers whose students had higher learning ability were inclined to assign online “Exam” papers to students to reinforce the acquired knowledge in the form of challenging tests; while the teachers whose students had lower learning ability tended to assign online “Practice” papers to students to consolidate the learned knowledge in the form of repetitive drills. With respect to the computer records of the frequency of using the online learning platform “E-Learn” by students, the findings reflect that the students generally liked to use the online learning platform to consolidate the acquired knowledge. Tables 2 and 3 show the average number of Practice/Exam papers and questions attempted by students in each class on the “E-Learn” platform.

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Table 2. The average number of Practice/Exam papers attempted by students in each class on the “E-Learn” platform Type of paper “Practice” “Exam”

EliteIPLTGp M (S.D.) 0.72 (0.74) 8.67 (2.18)

EliteTradGp M (S.D.) 0.17 (0.70) 5.92 (1.63)

At-riskIPLTGp M (S.D.) 0.00 (N.A.) 0.00 (N.A.)

At-riskTradGp M (S.D.) 4.84 (5.01) 0.00 (N.A.)

Table 3. The average number of Practice/Exam questions attempted by students in each class on the “E-Learn” platform Type of paper “Practice” “Exam”

EliteIPLTGp M (S.D.) 8.25 (9.25) 64.06 (19.28)

EliteTradGp M (S.D.) 0.89 (3.72) 49.00 (14.32)

At-riskIPLTGp M (S.D.) 0.00 (N.A.) 0.00 (N.A.)

At-riskTradGp M (S.D.) 29.32 (13.38) 0.00 (N.A.)

The average number of online “Exam” papers completed by students in the EliteIPLTGp class is higher than the number of papers assigned by the teacher. It is also worth noting that these students completed some online “Practice” papers without being asked to do so by the teacher. The average number of online “Exam” papers completed by students in the class EliteTradGp class is less than the number of papers assigned by the teacher. It is also noteworthy that these students attempted a number of questions in the online “Practice” papers without being assigned to do so by the teacher. No online “Practice” or “Exam” paper was attempted by the students in the At-riskIPLTGp class because their teacher did not assign any paper. The average number of online “Practice” papers attempted by students in the At-riskTradGp class is higher than the number of papers assigned by the teacher. However, the students did not attempt any online “Exam” papers without being asked to do so by the teacher. These results reveal that students with different learning abilities had different patterns of using the online learning platform. In general, the students who had higher learning ability (i.e., the EliteIPLTGp and EliteTradGp classes) were enthusiastic about using “E-Learn” for knowledge consolidation in the form of challenging tests. They were also self-motivated to seek further practice opportunities. In contrast, the students who had lower learning ability used the “E-Learn” for knowledge consolidation only under the instruction of the teacher and were not self-motivated to seek further practice opportunities. 4.2

Learning Outcome of Students from Pre-test—Post-test Instruments

The students could learn the “Perimeter of Closed Shapes” under the designed learning context. Table 4 and Fig. 5 show the effects of the designed learning context on the students. The paired t-test result in Table 4 indicates that the mean difference between the pre-test and the post-test measures of the students is significantly different. In this regard, the students gained significantly in the learning of “Perimeter of Closed Shapes” under the designed learning context.

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Table 4. Means, standard deviations and paired t-tests of the pre-test and post-test measures for the four classes of students who participated in the study Group

No. of students

EliteIPLTGp EliteTradGp At-riskIPLTGp At-riskTradGp * p < .05. *** p < .001.

36 36 25 25

Pre-test Mean (S.D.) 3.47 (2.06) 4.00 (1.49) 3.56 (1.96) 5.44 (1.90)

Post-test Mean (S.D.) 6.53 (1.28) 6.36 (1.33) 5.76 (1.76) 6.28 (1.99)

Paired t-test -10.16*** -10.98*** -5.75*** -2.55*

t(35) t(35) t(24) t(24)

7 6 5

EliteIPLTGp EliteTradGp At-riskIPLTGp At-riskTradGp

4 3 2 1 0 Pre-test

Post-test

Fig. 5. Effects of the designed learning context on four classes of students on their knowledge and concepts of finding perimeter of closed shapes

It is found that the frequency of students in accessing the online learning materials was not considerably influential in the learning achievements of students. With respect to elite students, both classes had trials of exam papers but no practice papers in “E-Learn”; and the former completed more exam papers on the “E-Learn” platform. Table 5 shows the mean, standard deviation and t-test result of the post-test for the two classes of elite students, GPMGp and TradGp. Table 5. Means, standard deviations and t-tests of the post-test measure for students who participated in the two elite experimental groups IPLTGp Elite

M 6.53

TradGp (S.D.) (1.28)

M 6.36

(S.D.) (1.33)

t-test 0.54

From Table 5, the mean difference in the post-test results between these two classes is not statistically significant. This shows that the two classes of elite students achieved similar learning outcomes, irrespective of the number of completion of exam papers on the “E-Learn” platform. The similar result is found among at-risk students. In the teaching period, both at-risk classes had no trials of exam papers, but one of them completed a number of practice papers on the “E-Learn” platform. Table 6 shows the mean, standard

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deviation and t-test result of the post-test for the two classes of at-risk students, GPMGp and TradGp. Table 6. Means, standard deviations and t-tests of the post-test measure for students who participated in the two at-risk experimental groups IPLTGp At-risk

M 5.76

TradGp (S.D.) (1.76)

M 6.28

(S.D.) (1.99)

t-test -1.09

The mean difference in the post-test results between these two classes is not statistically significant. This shows that the two classes of at-risk students achieved similar learning outcomes, regardless of the access to “E-Learn” for the practice purposes. 4.3 Implications The evaluation results of the learning context in the designed BL environment reveal that BL is an educational strategy that can expand the teaching experience of teachers and enhance the learning experience of students. Two implications in connection with the development and implementation of the BL approach were drawn based on the abovementioned evaluation results. The first implication relates to the need for the development of a BL environment. The completion of additional online practice exercises by the students with varying learning abilities, without being asked to do so, as shown in the usage frequency of “E-Learn” by students in this study indicates that there is a need to take advantage of the use of IT to provide supplementary learning resources and practice opportunities to support the after-class knowledge consolidation of students. The second implication relates to a factor for the successful implementation of BL. The usage frequency of “E-Learn” by teachers and students imply that there is a positive relationship between the strategies of the teacher in handling learning diversity and the patterns of using the online component in a BL environment. In the classes in which the students with higher learning ability, the teachers assigned more online tests and exercises for after-class knowledge consolidation. In other words, students with higher learning ability were provided with more opportunities to use the platform. In contrast, students with lower learning ability were given fewer opportunities to use the resources in “E-Learn”. This reveals the need to understand and thereby realizing the role of teachers as a learning facilitator to motivate students to selfregulate the use of online learning component in the BL environment for subject learning and teaching.

5 Conclusion Blended learning (BL) is an emerging trend in education. It integrates aspects of faceto-face instruction with computer-mediated instruction in formal academic settings. This study shares an experience of BL in primary education in Hong Kong. Teacherdirected instruction and student-centered learning activities were conducted for

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knowledge acquisition in a classroom learning environment; and an online learning platform was developed for knowledge consolidation in a self-directed learning environment. The findings reveal that the strategies of teachers regarding the use of IT in handling learning diversity affects the opportunities for students to use the online learning platform for learning purposes. It is believed that the findings of this study can shed light on the successful implementation and the future development of BL in school education settings.

References 1. Aspden, L., Helm, P.: Making the Connection in a Blended Learning Environment. Educational Media International 41, 245–252 (2004) 2. MacDonald, J.: Blended Learning and Online Tutoring: Planning Learner Support and Activity Design. Gower, Aldershot, England, Burlington, VT (2008) 3. Graham, C.R.: Blended Learning Systems: Definition, Current Trends, and Future Directions. In: Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R. (eds.) Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs, pp. 3–21. Pfeiffer Publishing, San Francisco (2006) 4. So, H.J., Brush, T.A.: Student Perceptions of Collaborative Learning, Social Presence and Satisfaction in a Blended Learning Environment: Relationships and Critical Factors. Computers and Education 51, 318–336 (2008) 5. Osguthorpe, R.T., Graham, C.R.: Blended Learning Environments. Quarterly Review of Distance Education 4, 227–233 (2003) 6. Thorne, K.: Blended Learning: How to Integrate Online and Traditional Learning. Kogan Page, London (2003) 7. Darche, K., Reed, P., Leven, B., Heater, D.: Application of Blended Learning in K-12 (2006), http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Blended_Learning_in_K-12 8. Barrett, J.E., Clements, D.H., Klanderman, D., Pennisi, S.J., Polaki, M.V.: Students’ Coordination of Geometric Reasoning and Measuring Strategies on a Fixed Perimeter Task: Developing Mathematical Understanding of Linear Measurement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 37, 187–221 (2006) 9. Moyer, P.S.: Using Representations to Explore Perimeter and Area. Teaching Children Mathematics 8, 52–59 (2001)

A Review of Mobile Learning in the Mobile Age Jeanne Lam1,∗, Jane Yau1, and Simon K.S. Cheung2 1

HKU SPACE, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 2 Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong [email protected]

Abstract. With the advent of mobile communication technologies, mobile learning (m-learning) is a new type of learning which allows people to learn across context and without restriction of location. This paper attempts to review the evolution of m-learning and to find out the learning trends and readiness of using mobile technologies within the community so that some practices could be encouraged to enhance learning experience. It is found that the latest mobile technologies are mature to support m-learning. As proven in many successful cases, m-learning has the advantages on boosting interaction and collaboration among students and teachers. M-learning is now perceived as the extension of e-learning that really makes learning available anywhere and anytime. When developing m-learning as a new learning option for student, it is necessary to balance between the organisational or student needs and the rapid technological changes. Security and copyright issues should also be carefully considered. Keywords: mobile learning, e-learning, mobile technologies, learning experience.

1 Introduction Mobile technologies have become an important part of people’s life around the world. They affect the way people interact with each other and shape the future how people communicate, work and travel in a changing global climate. In the mobile age, people can talk to others, access information, record and share their thoughts with friend as well as acquire knowledge using mobile devices anytime and anywhere. Most importantly, the newer development in mobile phone technology tends to provide potentials in rich multimedia experiences and resources which make learning different: from formal to informal, from static to dynamic, and from personal to shared. In response to the political, economic and social changes in today’s society, educational institutions strive to use of mobile technologies in support of their organizational strategies, visions and business process so as to gain competitive advantages and survive in the global market. As recognized by Traxler and Kukulska-Hulme (2005), educational institutions generally faced the following three challenges: Firstly, the emergence of knowledge-based economy shifts many industries especially financial industry to look for the knowledge workers and results in a great demand for ∗

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informal and life-long learning. Secondly, these workers are the important human assets within the organizations as well; to be able to update and upgrade their knowledge and skills, organizations always deliver them more training. Thirdly, the number of students is increasing. In this way, mobile-learning has become one of solutions to meet the large demand of learning. Walker (2007) addressed that mobile learning provides an alternative way to learn online with advantages of smaller device, better access, flexibility and ubiquity, it allows people to learn anywhere, anytime and any device; it also provides organizations with opportunities to explore more new pedagogies in teaching and learning. There are several advantages of mobile learning perceived by educationalist that it transforms the learning process and change the way that teachers teach and students learn, creates new opportunities to traditional classroom, offers flexibility and mobility in teaching and learning, expands students’ learning experiences in terms of time and place, enhances quality of work, facilitates communications and interactions among teachers, students and course administrators as well as encourages the mode of collaborative learning (Seong, 2006). Handheld computers, devices and phones are small and portable which can fit in our bags and pockets. They enable people to communicate and gain access to a variety of information anytime and anywhere. With its unique characteristics and capabilities, there are increasing number of studies (Sharples, 2000; Lonsdale et al, 2004) explored the potential of these technologies in educational use in terms of new and engaging forms of learning. This paper examines the revolution of mobile learning in this mobile age and access the readiness of introducing mobile learning. Different types of mobile technologies and the types that are suitable for education will be explored and examples of using mobile learning in support of blended learning in education will be examined.

2 The Evolution of Mobile Learning 2.1 Distance Learning, Electronic Learning and Mobile Learning Mobile learning, also known as m-learning, evolved from 1970s and spread widely in 2000s. Although it has a close relationship with d-learning (distance learning) and elearning (electronic learning), it is distinct from them in terms of learning across context (mobility) and learning with mobile technologies. It allows people to learn with mobile devices or portable technologies without restriction of location. In other words, m-learning is a logical extension of e-learning which has the potential to further expand and make learning available anywhere and anytime (Winters, 2007). A project named “From e-learning to m-learning” (Keegan, 2002) supported by Leonardo Da Vinci programme of the European Union illustrated that the development of education and training at a distance can be categorized into three stages: move from d-learning (distance learning) to e-learning (electronic learning) to mlearning (mobile learning). In fact, the development of d-learning was influenced by technologies in associate with the Industrial Revolution in 18th – 19th centuries of Northern Europe and North America. At that time, teaching at a distance started with industrial technologies such as postal communications and transport. In 1980s, e-learning was constituted by the Electronics Revolution associated with development of telecommunications industry.

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In this period, there were three factors contribute to Electronics Revolution: the speed up of chips, development of broadband (technologies which help transmit data, video, audio, image and so on) and the advocates of deregulate. It also led to group-based distance teaching and evolution of World Wide Web and Internet. Till the late 20th century, m-learning was evolved as a result of the Mobile and Wireless Revolution. According to the statistics, there were merely six billion populations and 500,000,000 mobile phones in the world in late 1999. The researcher (Keegan, 2002) in this project pointed out that the nature of distance education was changed from electronic revolution in 1980s to mobile learning in 1990s. The changes in electronic revolution in 1980s have made distance education possible with face-to-face and eye-to-eye contacts and group-based at a distance. Besides, the mobile revolution in 1990s has provided students an alternative to opt for distance learning with mobile technologies instead of traditional college education. 2.2 The Transition of Electronic Learning to Mobile learning As Wagner (2005) predicted mobile learning will be the trend of future education which allows learners to have different and rich learning experience: ‘The success of mobile learning will ultimately revolve around a mosaic of rich converged experiences. These experiences will rest, in turn, on a foundation of converged network and device technologies, wireless services, rights management, content management, search management, and transactional processing power.’ (Wagner, 2005, p.52) The experiences provided by mobile learning include portable and personalized learning experience which enable learner learning “any time, anywhere and any device”. Wagner (2005) further pointed out that using m-learning in appropriate contexts, mobile learning will facilitate communication, creativity and collaboration. However, application of mobile device will be a huge challenge in education. The challenges may include technical and administrative challenges when an innovative scheme is introduced. As Naismith et al. (2004) raised, how educators to best use of mobile technologies in support of teaching and learning pedagogically (learner-centred) has become a big issue. In fact, e-Learning and mobile learning can provide support that enhances teaching and learning inside and outside classroom in a blended mode which delivers with combination of other educational resources (Heinze & Procter, 2004). As many studies (Ruberg, Moore, & Taylor, 1996; Warschauer, 1997; Graham, Allen and Ure, 2003) found that, the benefits of blended learning approach are multifold which improves pedagogy and focus more on learner-centered strategy, allows learners to participate in their studies actively, enables them to construct knowledge socially and collaboratively and increases flexibility and cost effectiveness. The transition from e-learning to m-learning has been marked in many studies (Mosakhdermin-Hosseini & Tuimala, 2005; Sharma and Kitchens, 2004; Laouris & Eteokleous, 2005). Among them, Laouris & Eteokleous (2005) provided a more concrete comparison between e-learning and m-learning by underlying characteristics and changes of these two types of learning environments. For example, changes from interactive to instinctive, formal to informal and multimedia to learning objects. Table 1 below shows the terminology which summarized by Laouris & Eteokleous (2005) in comparing the characteristics between e-learning and m-learning.

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Table 1. Comparison of characteristics between e-learning and m-learning

e-Learning Computer Bandwidth Multimedia Interactive Hyperlinked Collaborative Media-rich Distance learning More formal Simulated situation Hyperlearning

m-Learning Mobile GPRS,Gs, Bluetooth Objects Spontaneous Connected Networked Lightweight Situated learning Informal Realistic situation Constructivism, situationism, collaborative

Sources: Laouris & Eteokleous, 2005, p.3. In view of such changes between e-leaning and m-learning, some scholars raised their concerns towards more pedagogical contexts. A study conducted by Sharma & Kitchens in 2004 illustrated that e-learning focuses on more text and graphics based instructions, while m-learning emphasizes on more voice, graphics and animation based instruction. He further pointed out that e-learning usually occurs in classroom, home or labs by sitting in front of a computer, however, m-learning allows learning to occur in travelling with mobile devices. Till now, the concept of m-learning is still developing. As Winter (2007) described, mobile learning seems to be all things to all people, which European and Government agencies has connected it with e-learning in a close relationship; on the other hand, researchers focus on its mobility; technologists emphasize on the functionality of mobile devices themselves such as phones and PDAs; yet some others focus on new learning experience in an informal environment. Moreover, the application of mobile learning is supported by various theories.

3 Mobile Learning Development 3.1 Mobile Technologies With the advent of mobile devices such as iPod, iPhone and PDAs and wireless network technology, mobile learning has been widely used in many educational institutions as instructional strategies. Mobile technology is a type of technology that is portable and enables users to communicate with each other, create and manage business and learning process that are not limited to a particular location. It offers some unique characteristics that are not available from other communication technologies in terms of mobility of time and location (Greenfield, 2006). According to Businesslink (2009), mobile technology consists of mobile IT devices and a variety of communication technologies. The mobile devices include laptop computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs) or palmtop computers, mobile phone and

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smart phones, global positioning system (GPS) devices and wireless credit/debit card payment terminals. All these mobile devices should be supported by an array of communication technologies, for instances, bluetooth which can connect mobile devices wirelessly; wireless fidelity (WiFi) and dial-up services which allow to use modems or telephone lines to connect network and access data; virtual private networks (VPN) which enables security access, and other data networking services for mobile phone including ‘third generation’ (3G) which connection rate is comparable to broadband, general packet radio service (GPRS) which connects data at a slower transfer rate and global system for mobile communications (GSM) which enables mobile phones to send and receive data via internet at a rate as dial-up modem. From the above examples, mobile technologies can be categorized into three types. They are laptops and PDAs, mobile telephony devices and mobile networking devices. They have been widely used in education as strategic solutions for organizational developments. Mobile technologies have benefitted m-learning, as Ferscha (2002) concluded that unique characteristics of mobile technologies in terms of personalized services, wireless, wearable, context awareness, ubiquitous and durable which lead our mode of learning into a new manner namely, learner-centred, collaborative, situated, contextual, ubiquitous and life long learning. The mobile technologies and its features in related to mobile learning are summarized as below:

y y

y

y

iPod – iPod is a portable device that enables users to download music, video, podcast and audio books. Students can use it to download materials, audio and video lectures as well as share information files. Laptop or Tablet PC - Laptop or Tablet PC has the full features of workstation PC and enables network support such as Wi-fi, Ethernet and Bluetooth. It also supports word processing, instant messaging, web surfing and other application programs. It can enhance students’ interactivity and collaboration in research study. Mobile telephony devices - This category includes mobile phones and smart phones. Mobile phones not only provide basic features such as making and receiving calls, but offer data transmission services such as 3G, GSM and GPRS. On the other hand, smart phones, provide more advanced functions like simplified office applications and email and web access, for example, Blackberry phone and iPhone. Users are able to edit text document, download audio or video lectures, send instant messaging and store data. These devices can facilitate the interactive and collaborative learning among students. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) - PDA is a device that stores digital information and supports internet access, wireless network access and handwriting input. It allows students to gain access to email, web content and play video and audio files.

3.2 Readiness of Mobile Learning Mobile technologies have been widely applied in different fields including business, education as well as communities. According to a survey carried out by the Pew Internet and American Life Project (2009):

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“ The mobile device will be the primary connection tool to the internet for most people in the world in 2020”. Similarly, a report of The ECAR Study of Undergraduate Students and Information Technology conducted by Smith, Salaway & Caruso (2009) found that students tend to use laptops rather than desktop PCs in their learning in 39 institutions. According to the statistics shown in that report, there were 71% of students using desktop PCs in 2006 and it has drop to 44% in 2009. On the other hand, the use of laptops has increased from 65.4% in 2006 to 88.3% in 2009. Moreover, one-third of students owned handheld devices for surfing the Internet while the remaining two-third of students are planning to own or buy a handheld Internet-capable device in next 12 months. Besides, students were asked the preferred type of institutional services that is installed with an Internet-capable handheld device, the three most popular services were email systems (63.4%), student administrative services (46.8%) and learning or course management system (45.7%). Nevertheless, mobile phones and smartphones become ubiquitous and a growing number of people own them all over the world. According to Gartner, Inc (2009), the worldwide mobile phone sales has reached 269.1 millions in the 1st quarter of 2009 and the smartphone sales exceeded 6.4 million units with 12.7 % increase from 1st quarter of 2008. In summer 2008, International Study on Children's Use of Mobile Phones 2009 has interviewed 6000 pairs of respondents (each consisting of a child and his/her parent or guardian) from five countries: Japan, Korea, China, India and Mexico. Results have shown the mobile penetration as in table 2 that Korea and Japan have a higher diffusion rate of mobile phones. Among the 5 countries, China and India are countries with larger population and there are much room mobile phones markets to grow. Mexico (as representative of Latin America) has a certain level of mobile phone (67%) penetration (GSM Association & NTT DOCOMO, 2009). Table 2. GPD, Penetration rate, and ARPU

Source: GSM Association & NTT DOCOMO (2009). Report of International Study on Children's Use of Mobile Phones 2009, p4. With reference of IMF and “Country Reports” GSMA and Mobile society Research Institute, 2008. Significantly, the report further pointed out that the uses of mobile phone by children and youth are increasing and tend to start at an earlier age, more than 80% of children in Korea have already owned mobile phones at the age of 12, while Mexico children generally own phones at the age of 13-14. In Japan and China, children begin to own mobile phones at age of 15-16 which elder than children in other 3 countries. India shows a slightly different from other countries - children begin to use mobile

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phones at age of 9 or before, but phones are shared with parents (GSM Association & NTT DOCOMO, 2009). For the use of mobile phones, the report found out that children tend to use mobile phones to send/receive mobile message (SMS or mobile email) for network communication and they show higher levels of trust in new media such as Internet rather than traditional media such as TV and newspaper. The findings have shown that youth starts to own a mobile phone and access information at an earlier age along with the widespread of mobile technologies and wireless network. Therefore, how educators make use of these technologies in education has become a critical issue. Can mobile devices provide their owners with the skills, knowledge and the right attitude that help them achieve in schools and jobs? As Prensky (2005) said, it surely can if we design it right, they can learn what they want to learn.

Fig. 1. Starting age for using a mobile phone (Source: GSM Association & NTT DOCOMO (2009), p10 )

The bold experiment of Abilene Christian University (ACU) in America in 2008 & 2009 to issue iPhone and iPod Touches to their first year students has been successful. (Abilene Connected, 2009) Several positive impacts to ACU were achieved on the improvements of teaching and learning efficiency, for example, integrate mobility into learning process; increase the flexibility of learning spaces; increase the connectivity between students and their courses; provide students with opportunities on how to programme iPhone application; share, receive and distribute files from a class web wirelessly; and enhance students’ learning experiences in terms of student interest and engagement. Moreover, Harvard Medical School (HMS) in years ago has issued PDAs to their medical students in order to facilitate learning and improve communication among mobile groups of students and faculty. Besides, blended learning is implemented that combined with the use of the PDAs in face-to-face lessons. (Sybase, 2010). In fact, the implementation of mobile technologies depends on organization’s objectives. A study conducted by Younessi (2009) pointed out that the objective of

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organizations introducing mobile technologies is not the mobile technologies themselves, but its ability to create value and new potential available in terms of time and space independence, process capability and efficiency, sustainability and longevity of organizations and future risk control.

4 Conclusion Mobile technologies have already widespread in the communities. In order to fulfill learning needs, educators strive to explore the potentials of making the best use of these technologies. Indeed, the evolution of m-learning has provided learners with several advantages and opportunities along with the rises of mobile and network technologies. In the above review, we have the following observations. First, the mobile technologies after years of development are mature to support m-learning. The advent of mobile devices, such as iPod, mobile phones and PDAs and wireless network technology, makes m-learning become feasible in teaching and learning. There is also a trend that many educational institutions adopt m-learning as instructional strategies. With the increasing prevalence of small and portable mobile devices such has iPods, PDAs and laptops among teenagers, alongside with the previous successful trials in education institutions, it is foreseeable that m-learning could be an alternative mode of learning for students as it allows a higher flexibility of learning. Second, there have been many successful implementation examples of teaching and learning with mobile technologies in educational institutions showing that increasing number of teachers and learners have perceived and taken advantages of m-learning. It is believed that the implication of m-learning will become popular in education in associate with mature development in m-learning concept. Successful implementation examples in various tertiary education institutions have proven its capabilities to catch up with the ever changing world and to boost interaction and collaboration among students and teachers. Third, the figures of starting age of using mobile phone indicated that new generation already adapted to use mobile technologies in support of classroom learning. Actually, these new generations are living in the environment filling with mobile technologies. With the frequent of use of high technologies in their daily life, the use of mobile technologies is expected to be boosted up in near future. m-learning will be the future of learning which logically extend e-learning and has the potential to further expand and make learning available anywhere and anytime. While developing m-learning, the following issues need to be considered. The new mode of learning should be considered carefully when implementing as new education options for students. It needs to be balanced with the organizational or student needs and the rapid technological development. Besides, there may involve a set up costs for equipment acquirement and training costs in an organization. Furthermore, security and copyright issues has become the one that most organizations concern as it may expose valuable data to unauthorized people if the mobile devices are kept unsafely. M-learning is a means to enhance learning experience and a powerful approach to engage learners in different learning contexts. Given careful considerations, it is believed that m-learning can be applied in learning powerfully and learners can

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benefit from the m-learning practice. It will be a trend in future learning and broadly applied in different fields.

References 1. ACU Connected. Abilene Christian University 2008-2009 Mobile-Learning Report (2009), ACU website, http://www.acu.edu/technology/mobilelearning/index.html (retrieved November 18, 2009) 2. Businesslink Mobile Technology (2009), Business Link website, http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/ layer?r.s=m&r.l1=1073861197&r.lc=en&r.l3=1074298168& r.l2=1075422789&topicId=1074298168&r.i=1074298219&r.t=RESOURCES (retrieved November 18, 2009) 3. Ferscha, A.: Wireless learning networks. Grundlagenkonferenz e-Learning, OCG, Vienna, Austria (2002) 4. Gartner, Inc. Inventory destocking adds 25 Million units to sell-In (2009), http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=985912 (retrieved February 18, 2010) 5. Graham, C.R., Allen, S., Ure, D.: Blended learning environments: A review of the research literature, Provo, UT (2003) (unpublished manuscript) 6. Greenfield, A.: Everyware: The dawning age of ubiquitous computing. New Riders, Indianapolis (2006) 7. GSM Association and NTT DOCOMO.: Report of International Study on Children’s Use of Mobile Phones 2009 (2009), http://www.moba-ken.jp/wp-content/pdf/ gsma_docomo_report0902.pdf (retrieved February 18, 2010) 8. Heinze, A., Procter, C.: Reflections on the Use of Blended Learning. Education in a Changing Environment. University of Salford, Salford, Education Development Unit (2004), http://www.ece.salford.ac.uk/proceedings/papers/ah_04.rtf. (retrieved February 18, 2010) 9. Laouris, Y., Eteokleous, N.: We need an educationally relevant definition of mobile learning. In: Proceedings of mLearn 2005 (2005), http://www.mlearn.org.za/CD/papers/ Laouris%20&%20Eteokleous.pdf (retrieved February 18, 2010) 10. Lonsdale, P., Baber, C., Sharples, M., Byrne, W., Arvanitis, T.N., Beales, R.: Context awareness for MOBIlearn: creating an engaging learning experience in an art museum. In: Attewell, J., Savill-Smith, C. (eds.) Mobile learning anytime everywhere: a book of papers from MLEARN 2004, pp. 115–118. Learning and Skills Development Agency, London (2004) 11. Winters, N.: What is mobile learning? In: Sharples, M. (ed.) Big issues in mobile learning: report of a workshop by the Kaleidoscope network of excellence mobile learning initiative, pp. 7–11. The University of Nottingham (2007) 12. Keegan, D.: The future of learning: from eLearning to mLearning (2002), http://learning.ericsson.net/mlearning2/project_one/book.html (retrieved February 18, 2010)

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13. Naismith, L., Lonsdale, P., Vavoula, G., Sharples, M.: NESTA Futurelab Report 11: Literature review in mobile technologies and learning. NESTA Futurelab, Bristol (2004), http://elearning.typepad.com/thelearnedman/mobile_learning/ reports/futurelab_review_11.pdf (retrieved February 18, 2010) 14. Pew Internet and American Life Project.: The Future of the Internet III (2009), Pew Internet Website, http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2008/ The-Future-of-the-Internet-III.aspx (retrieved January 18, 2010) 15. Prensky, M.: What can you learn from a cell phone? Almost anything! Innovate 1(5) (2005), http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=83 (retrieved February 18, 2010) 16. Ruberg, L.F., Moore, D.M., Taylor, C.D.: Student participation, interaction, and regulation in a computer-mediated communication environment: A qualitative study. Journal of Educational Computing Research 14(3), 243–268 (1996) 17. Seong, D.S.K.: Usability guidelines for designing mobile learning portals. In: Ozsu, T. (ed.) Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Mobile Technology, Applications & Systems (2006) 18. Sharma, S.K., Kitchens, F.L.: Web Services Architecture for M-Learning. Electronic Journal on e-Learning 2(1), 203–216 (2004); Sharples, M.: The design of persona mobile technologies for lifelong learning. Computer and education 34, 177–193 (2000) 19. Smith, S.D., Salaway, G., Caruso, J.B.: EDUCAUSE Report on Undergraduate Student use of Technology (2009), http://www.educause.edu/Resources/ TheECARStudyofUndergraduateStu/187215 (retrieved November 18, 2009) 20. Smith, S.D., Salaway, G., Caruso, J.B.: EDUCAUSE Report on Undergraduate Student use of Technology (2009), http://www.educause.edu/Resources/ TheECARStudyofUndergraduateStu/187215 (retrieved January 18, 2010) 21. Sybase Harvard Medical School (2010), http://www.sybase.com/detail?id=1027222 (retrieved February 18, 2010) 22. Walker, K.: Mapping the landscape of mobile learning. In: Sharples, M. (ed.) Big issues in mobile learning: report of a workshop by the Kaleidoscope network of excellence mobile learning initiative, pp. 5–6. The University of Nottingham (2007) 23. Warschauer, M.: Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. Modern Language Journal 81, 470–481 (1997) 24. Younessi, H.: Strategic view on creating business value through mobile technologies. In: Unhelkar, B. (ed.) Handbook of research in mobile business: technical, methodological, and social perspectives. Information Science Reference, Hershey (2009) 25. Traxler, J., Kukulska-Hulme, A.: Evaluating mobile learning: reflections on current practice. In: Proceedings of mLearn 2005 (2005), http://www.mlearn.org.za/CD/papers/Traxler.pdf (retrieved February 18, 2010)

Hybrid Learning Mode for Industrial Engineering Specialized Courses in China Shubin Si, Zhiqiang Cai, Shuai Zhang, Shudong Sun, and Junqiang Wang Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Design and Integrated Manufacturing Technology, School of Mechatronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, Shaanxi, China {sisb,zhiqiangcai,zhangshuai5000,sdsun,wangjq}@nwpu.edu.cn

Abstract. Hybrid learning, which combines traditional face to face instruction and pure online learning, has become an important learning mode in recent years. This paper put forward a practical hybrid learning mode, which integrates the face to face course instruction and the distance online experiment learning, for industrial engineering specialized courses in China. The face to face instruction focuses on the teacher’s education on students in classroom while the distance online experiment learning is implemented on the developed distance online experiment platform. This platform has five important parts, including the system management subsystem, the integrated course experiments subsystem, the innovative experiments subsystem, the interaction subsystem, the experiment reports evaluation subsystem. Finally, the case study is given to analyze the advantages of the proposed hybrid learning mode for industrial engineering specialized courses in China. Keywords: Hybrid learning mode; industrial engineering; specialized courses; distance online experiment.

1 Introduction With the development of modern information technology, the traditional face to face instruction has been transformed to the distance online learning which could benefit both educational institutions and students [1]. For the educational institution, the distance online learning can save education resources, such as classrooms, teachers and so on. For the students, the distance online learning could help the students study courses alone, and provide more learning resources for students with low spending on educations. However, the pure distance online learning still has some limitations as Rovai and Jordan [2] indicated. The experiences in universities of developed and developing countries have proven that the pure distance online learning can not replace the tradition face to face instruction completely. To deal with the disadvantages of traditional face to face instruction and pure distance online learning, hybrid learning or blended learning becomes the most prominent delivery mechanism in higher education. Dodero et al [3] proposed the hybrid learning where the traditional face to face courses are using the internet increasingly to support course activities. Hinterberger et al [4] defined the hybrid learning as the P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 316–325, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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method of educating at a distance that uses technology, combined with traditional education. Olapiriyakul and Scher [5] considered the concept of hybrid learning as the mixed mode of instruction which combines face to face learning and distance learning by incorporating technology to facilitate the learning process. Based on the conception of hybrid learning, many universities have designed the hybrid learning courses and studied the integration results of face to face learning with distance online learning. The designing hybrid learning courses at University of Central Florida also showed that students were likely to favor large class discussion in the face to face, and preferred to view online the lectures and visualizations [6]. Ginns and Ellis [7] carried out a seminal research showing that the approaches students take to learning, and the subsequent quality of their learning, is closely related to their perceptions of their learning experience. Galvez et al [8] presented a blended e-learning experience in a course of object oriented programming fundamentals. Méndez and Gonzalez [9] designed a reactive controller in an introductory control engineering course to regulate the workload for each student. Wu et al [10] examined the student learning satisfaction in a blended e-learning system environment. Owston et al [11] analyzed the results of blended programs from the aspects of design, implementation, community development, teacher practice, and student impact. Akyol et al [12] discussed the results of a mixed method research project in online and blended learning environments. EL-Deghaidy and Nouby [13] described the effectiveness of a blended e-learning cooperative approach on Pre-Service Teacher’s achievement, attitudes towards e-learning and cooperativeness. Since the industrial engineering specialty learning focuses on the combination of technology and practice, the experiment learning of the models and algorithms plays a very important role in the education. However, the hybrid learning methods above pay few attentions on the online experiment which could improve the face to face experiment education. In this paper, we will propose an effective hybrid learning mode, which integrates the face to face course instruction and the distance online experiment learning, for industrial engineering specialized courses in China. The structure of this paper is as follows: section 2 analyzes the characteristics of industrial engineering specialized courses in China. Section 3 introduces a hybrid learning mode for industrial engineering specialized courses. Section 4 gives a case study and discussed the advantages of the proposed hybrid learning mode for industrial engineering specialized courses. Section 5 draws some conclusions.

2 Analysis of Chinese Industrial Engineering Specialized Courses 2.1 Specialized Courses of Chinese Industrial Engineering The courses of industrial engineering specialty in China usually consist of general education courses, basic technical courses, specialized courses and practice courses. This paper will just discuss specialized courses of industrial engineering specialty. The current specialized courses of industrial engineering in China for undergraduate students are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Specialized courses of Chinese industrial engineering for undergraduate students No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Name of Courses Introduction to Industrial Engineering Facilities Planning Logistics and Inventory Quality Control Advanced Manufacturing System Production and Operations Management Human Factors Introduction to Machine Tools

No. 9 10 11 12 13 14

Name of Courses Safety Engineering Design Innovation Management Equipment Management Management Information Systems Project Management Product Design and Management

15 16

Industrial Automation Supply Chain Management

2.2 Characteristics of Specialized Courses Learning of Industrial Engineering Specialty in Chinese Universities Now, there are two parts in industrial engineering specialized courses learning of China, including teaching in classroom and course experiments in lab. Both of them belong to the face to face instruction. This kind of instruction of industrial engineering specialized courses is still dominating in China. The classroom teaching will help teachers to teach contents of the specialized courses and to discuss questions with students. With the development of information technology, teachers in China also present digital resources in classroom for students to learn the backgrounds, the developments and the hotspots of the specialized courses. The course experiments in lab are very important for students to understand the key contents of specialized course of industrial engineering deeply. Many experiments of the course have been set up for the key contents of the specialized course. For example, the integrated course experiments for the workshop management and the inventory management are established for the specialized course of Introduction to Industrial Engineering. Since most of Chinese universities have built related industrial engineering labs, most students could finish their experiments in the industrial engineering specialized labs. However, because of some limitations, the specialized labs of industrial engineering could not meet the requirements of interested students and hobbyists. These limitations include the capability of labs, the working time of labs, the experimental equipments, the interaction among students, the evaluation for experiment results and so on.

3 Hybrid Learning Mode for Industrial Engineering Specialty In this paper, the hybrid learning mode for industrial engineering specialized course consists of the face to face instruction and the distance online experiment learning. The face to face instruction is executed in the classroom, while students do their experiments by the distance online experiment platform in spare time.

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3.1 Face to Face Instruction The proposed face to face instruction of industrial engineering specialized course in China will include four parts: (1) instructors teach the main contents and cases from the course textbook; (2) instructors and students discuss the problems about the course in the classroom; (3) students learn some non-important contents of the course and do the homework by themselves; (4) students complete the teamwork projects with a group of classmates. 3.2 Distance Online Experiment Learning The course experiments and innovative experiments are effective methods to increase creative capacity of the students. To overcome the limitations of the actual labs, this paper develops the distance online experiment platform as an important part of the hybrid learning mode. 3.2.1 The Structure of the Distance Online Experiment Platform for Industrial Engineering Specialty The structure of the distance online experiment platform is as shown in Fig.1.

Human-computer interacttion Internet

Integrated System course management experiment subsystem subsystem

Innovative experiment subsystem

Interaction subsystem

Experiment reports evaluation subsystem

Java Database

Fig. 1. The structure of the distance online experiment platform

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The distance online experiment platform uses the Browser/Server mode as the system framework. Students can perform different functions through human-computer interaction tools and internet. It consists of the system management subsystem, the integrated course experiment subsystem, the innovative experiment subsystem, the interaction subsystem and the experiment reports evaluation subsystem. Java is used to develop these subsystems. The platform can be fit for multiple databases, such as Oracle, SQLServer and so on. 3.2.2 The Function of the Distance Online Experiment System Platform (1) System management subsystem The objects of the system management subsystem are to assign roles and manage passwords of users. The system management subsystem involves the system password management, the system user management, the system role management, and the system log management modules. The function tree is shown in Fig. 2.

System password management module

System user management module System management subsystem System role management module

System log management module

Fig. 2. The function tree of the system management subsystem

(2) Integrated course experiment subsystem The integrated course experiments should contain the main contents of industrial engineering specialized courses in Table 1. The integrated specialized course experiment subsystem includes the production and scheduling management, the inventory optimizing and management, the quality management and analysis, the workshop layout optimization, the workshop logistics optimization and management, the tool management, the workshop decision support, the integrated course experiment reports management, and the experiment instructions management modules. The function tree of the integrated course experiment subsystem is shown in Fig.3. Since these experiments come from the actual enterprise operations, students not only learn the course contents of industrial engineering specialty, but also understand the business processes of the companies through the integrated course experiment subsystem.

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Production and scheduling management module

Inventory optimizing and management module

Quality management and analysis module

Workshop layout optimization module Integrated course experiment subsystem Workshop logistics optimization and management module

Tool management module

Workshop decision support module

Integrated course experiment reports management module

Integrated course experiment instructions management module

Fig. 3. The function tree of the integrated course experiment subsystem.

(3) Innovative experiment subsystem Besides the integrated course experiments, the innovative experiments are good tools to increase the creative capacities of students. The innovative experiment subsystem consists of the EM-Plant simulation software, the ILOG simulation software, the integrated evaluation simulation software and the Bayesian networks simulation software. Teachers and technical experts will provide some typical issues of the innovative experiment. Some issues come from practical manufacturing companies, others come from textbook and papers. Student can select some issues as their innovative experiment depending on learning needs. The function tree of innovative experiment subsystem is shown in Fig. 4.

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EM-Plant simulation software

ILOG simulation software

Integrated evaluation simulation software Innovative experiment subsystem

Bayesian networks simulation software

Issue management module

Innovative experiment reports management module

Innovative experiment instructions management module

Fig. 4. The function tree of the innovative experiment subsystem.

(4) Interaction subsystem The interaction subsystem provides the discuss regions for teachers, students and technical experts. Students can put forward questions on operating simulation software, building mathematical models. Then teachers and technical experts will answer these questions in experiment progresses. (5) Experiment reports evaluation subsystem The function of experiment reports evaluation subsystem is to estimate the value of the experimental reports. Teachers and technical experts could score students’ experimental reports using this subsystem.

4 Case Study 4.1 The Hybrid Learning Based Teaching Reform Before 2007, the industrial engineering specialized course of Northwestern Polytechnical University (NPU) still applied the traditional face to face instruction mode. The schedules include only teaching in classroom and course experiments in lab and their time distributions are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. The time distributions of industrial engineering specialized course in NPU in 2007

No.

Name of Courses

1 2 3 4

Introduction to Industrial Engineering Facilities Planning Logistics and Inventory Quality Control Production and Operations Management Safety Engineering Human Factors Equipment Management Project Management

5 6 7 8 9

Total time (hour) 42 32 32 40

Teaching in classroom (hour) 36 30 26 34

Experiment in lab (hour) 6 2 6 6

40

36

4

32 40 32 24

28 36 30 20

4 4 2 4

To enhance the teaching efficiency, the department of industrial engineering of NPU reformed the specialized course schedules based on the proposed hybrid learning mode. The specialized course is divided into three parts: teaching in classroom, discussion in classroom, and the distance online experiment learning. Since the former face to face experiments teaching in lab are replaced by the distance online experiment learning, students will spend their spare time on the experiments education through the developed distance online experiment learning platform. Therefore, the time spent in lab before will be used on discussion in classroom. The reformed learning time distributions of the industrial engineering specialized courses in NPU are shown in Table 3. Table 3. The reformed time distributions of industrial engineering specialized course in NPU

No

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Name of Courses

Introduction to Industrial Engineering Facilities Planning Logistics and Inventory Quality Control Production and Operations Management Safety Engineering Human Factors Equipment Management Project Management

Distance online experiment learning Teaching DiscusTotal Integrated in classsion in Innovative time course room classroom experiment (hour) experiment (hour) (hour) (number, (number, time) time) 42

36

6

(1,6)

(2,4)

32 32 40

30 26 34

2 6 6

(1,3) (1,4) (1,3)

(1,2) (3,3) (1,2)

40

36

4

(0,0)

(3,6)

32 40 32 24

28 36 30 20

4 4 2 4

(0,0) (0,0) (1,3) (1,4)

(2,4) (2,4) (0,0) (1,2)

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4.2 Discussions Comparing the traditional teaching time distributions of industrial engineering specialized course in Table 2 with the hybrid learning reformed teaching time distributions in Table 3, there are two major improvements. Firstly, the hybrid learning reformed schedules provide the time of discussion in classroom. Traditional face to face teaching method in China only pays attention to deliver the information in the textbooks, seldom cares about what the students think about. The pure distance online learning also lacks the interactions between the video and students. Through the discussion in hybrid learning mode, students can understand knowledge deeply by putting forward their questions. Moreover, the discussion will not only facilitate the interaction between teachers and students, but also promote the relationships among students. Secondly, the hybrid learning reformed schedules provide a lot of distance online experiments to attract the interest of students in spare time. Traditional experiments are performed in special lab with fixed tasks. It is not convenient for students to use the equipments in lab freely. With the help of the developed distance online experiment platform, the limitations of traditional experiments is broken through. Students can carry out the online experiments at anytime and anywhere. Moreover, the new innovative experiments embedded in the platform provide a more flexible environment for students to explore the significance of industrial engineering. The teacher will also benefit from this platform for enhancement of teaching efficiency.

5 Conclusions Hybrid learning has been proven to be an effective learning method. This paper presents a new hybrid learning mode for industrial engineering specialized courses in China, which consists of traditional face to face instruction and distance online experiment learning. The distance online experiment platform is developed specially to support the distance online experiment learning. According to the proposed hybrid learning mode, the reformation of the specialized course schedules of industrial engineering specialty in NPU is carried out. The advantages of the proposed hybrid learning mode are discussed through the case study. The future research will focus on the application and improvement of the distance online experiment platform for industrial engineering course in China. Acknowledgments. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this research from the key teaching reform project of Shaanxi provincial (Grant No.09BZ06), and 2009 key teaching reform research project of Northwestern Polytechnical University, China.

References 1. Garrison, D.R., Kanuka, H.: Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education 7(2), 95–105 (2004) 2. Rovai, A.P., Jordan, H.M.: Blended learning and sense of community: A comparative analysis with traditional and fully online graduate courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 2, 1–13 (2004)

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3. Dodero, J.M., Fernandez, C., Sanz, D.: An experience on students’ participation in blended vs. online styles of learning. ACM The SIGCSE Bulletin 4, 39–42 (2003) 4. Hinterberger, H., Fässler, L., Bauer-Messer, B.: From hybrid courses to blended learning: A case study. In: The Proceedings of the International Conference on New Educational Environments, pp. 27–30. University of Neuchatel, Switzerland (2004) 5. Olapiriyakul, K., Sher, M.J.: A guide to establishing hybrid learning courses: Employing information technology to create a new learning experience and a case study. The Internet and High Education 9, 287–301 (2006) 6. Brown, D.G.: Hybrid course are best. Wake Forrest University in Syllabus: New Dimensions in Education Technology 1 (2001) 7. Ginns, P., Ellis, R.: Quality in blended learning: Exploring the relationships between online and face-to-face teaching and learning. Internet and Higher Education 10, 53–64 (2007) 8. Gálvez, J., Guzmán, E., Conejo, R.: A blended E-learning experience in a course of object oriented programming fundamentals. Knowledge-Based Systems 22, 279–286 (2009) 9. Méndez, J.A., González, E.J.: A reactive blended learning proposal for an introductory control engineering course. Computers & Education 54, 856–865 (2010) 10. Wu, J.H., Tennyson, R.D., Hsia, T.L.: A study of student satisfaction in a blended elearning system environment. Computers & Education 55, 155–164 (2010) 11. Owston, R., Wideman, H., Murphy, J., Lupshenyuk, D.: Blended teacher professional development: A synthesis of three program evaluations. Internet and Higher Education 11, 201–210 (2008) 12. Akyol, Z., Garrison, D.R., Ozden, M.Y.: Development of a community of inquiry in online and blended learning contexts. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1, 1834–1838 (2009) 13. EL-Deghaidy, H., Nouby, A.: Effectiveness of a blended e-learning cooperative approach in an Egyptian teacher education programme. Computers & Education 51, 988–1006 (2008)

A Practical Approach to the Teaching of Internet Programming and Multimedia Technologies Philip Tsang1,∗, Reggie Kwan1, Vincent Tam2, Paul Kwok3, Steven Choy3, John Wu3, Kai Koong4, Bob Fox2, and Jonathan Tsang5 1

Caritas Institute of Higher Education 2 The University of Hong Kong 3 The Open University of Hong Kong 4 The University of Texas, USA 5 University of California, Berkeley, USA [email protected]

Abstract. This paper describes a case study analysis of an implementation model that has been employed to enhance the currency and reputation of a key course in the ICT suite of subjects offered by a Hong Kong University. The model described is referred to as the Tripod Approach. The model is an enhancement of the iteration model of innovation and incorporates three critical components namely: A virtual laboratory environment, a self-paced guide book, and a portal for information dissemination and collegiality building. Implementation of the model was shown to be successful as demonstrated by statistical analysis and semi structured interviews. The Tripod Approach has resulted in a changed student mindset towards a traditionally difficult and unappealing ICT course. It is suggested that the model ought to be applied to other disciplines that are besieged by the problems of rapid change in content and technology.

1 Introduction By the mid 1990’s the Internet had emerged into mainstream use. Since then, it has not only led to a tremendous explosion of created and accessible information, but it has also caused the pace of the world to increase to an unprecedented rate. The rapid advancement of Internet technologies itself is the hallmark of this new era. The first Internet generation, known as Web 1.0, approaches the endgame following a decade of proliferation, whilst the second generation, which came into existence in the mid 2000’s, known as Web 2.0, will reach its mature stage in the near future. Situated within such a fast moving world, how can students learning Internet technologies stand up to the challenges arising out of the new and ever changing ideas, developments, paradigms, and frameworks? There is no simple answer to this question! Worldwide research efforts have been identified that have tried to make use of the online environment to improve students’ learning experiences for different academic disciplines [1- 5]. The use of Web 2.0 appears to be promising of these. In particular Web 2.0 has been applied in web lectures to enhance learning among a ∗

Corresponding author.

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community [6][7] however the research has yet to identify an effective Web 2.0 approach that enhances learning in network programming subjects. In response to this the researchers endeavoured to devise a practical approach to help students overcome the challenges facing them along their studies of Internet technologies such as Internet and programming and multimedia technologies. This paper reports on a succession of research efforts by Tsang [6]. The approach adopted is a multi-prong one, which includes a combination of means and measures that combine to bring about a constructive and flexible environment so that students study a wide range of technological topics, on their own pace, at any time they prefer, and within any location. Learning is no longer confined to a physical classroom or dependent upon instructor control. Practical labs are no longer restricted to the physical laboratory. [9][10] A key strategy was the progressive implementation of the innovation. The researchers commenced with a small implementation. Once the first implementation demonstrated success the researchers iterated another round of implementation to achieve expansion upon the existing foundation. After a few rounds of iteration, a constructive environment, comprised of the following constituent components, emerged: A virtual laboratory environment A self-paced guide book A portal for information dissemination and collegiality building These three components form a ‘tripod’ to support students to learn the fast moving ICT topics. This paper will introduce this “Tripod Approach” and elaborate on ways to combine it with the iteration model to create an effective learning environment that is able to address the ebb and flow of technologies.

2 Iteration Model It is counterproductive to spend too much time on planning, designing and developing technical projects because technologies are advancing so fast that the delivered systems will possibly become outdated if the implementation takes too long. The contemporary approach is to break down a large project into smaller ones and carry out each of those phase by phase. If a technological enhancement emerges, this can be incorporated within the next phase. Each phase will go through the same life cycle, which includes the key stages: inception, design, implementation, control and closure. Completing one phase will make a certain degree of progress toward the overall mission. Through iterating, phase after phase, the destination can eventually be achieved. The researchers adopted this implementation approach in the project to develop a constructive environment for the course CT212 - Network Programming and Design a course offered by the OUHK. CT212 is a mid-level university undergraduate course that, in conjunction with a number of other core courses, comprises a bachelor degree. It introduces students to the fundamental principles and techniques of network design and programming. It also covers a range of contemporary topics including wireless/mobile technologies, network game programming and network security.

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Fig. 1. A diagram to illustrate the progressive implementation by iteration

In each phase, the researchers implemented one of the constituents of the Tripod Approach. These components will be described in detail in the sections that follow.

3 Tripod Approach Effective learning cannot be achieved through a monolithic approach. For instance, reliance upon learning through classroom-based training in which instructors deliver content unilaterally with little participation from students and hand-on practice is considered ineffective. As Richard [11] pointed out opportunities for students to be active are essential whereas the mere transcribing of notes is unlikely to lead to deep learning. Likewise the inclusion of drill exercises to provide practice in the basic methods being taught will enhance learning. Open-ended problems and exercises that call for analysis and synthesis will extend low level learning to deeper learning. If students are given only some books or textual materials, their learning will be obstructed since they get no support when they meet problems or topics they can’t understand. The researchers set out at the beginning to take a multi-prong approach in which different means and measures were adopted to stimulate learning interest and to expedite the learning process. Reflection demonstrated that effective practice comprised the following three constituent components (or legs): (i) A virtual laboratory environment A self-paced guide book A portal for information dissemination and collegiality building The virtual laboratory environment is the cornerstone of the approach. It provides a 24 x 7 operation to enable students to carry on a series of lab exercises covering

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topics including basic programming, Web 2.0, multi-media, and security. Since the lab is hosted on the Internet, students can reach out to it from anywhere as long as they have access to the Internet. However, the virtual laboratory cannot work by itself. The research shows that the mere infusion of ICT into higher education will drive away satisfaction among students as well as among teaching staff [12] unless it is carefully integrated into the curriculum accompanied by appropriate services, measures and professional support. Therefore, the researchers developed a self-paced guide to provide the guidance to students about what to do with the virtual laboratory. The guide begins with information about basic and general technological trends. It progresses onto Internet programming topics and then to Web 2.0. It ends with a series of labs on multimedia. The guide is not a stagnant deliverable, but something that will evolve over time from one edition to another. Currently, the guide has reached its second edition which was released in mid 2009. Finally, but most importantly, a portal is provided to support student collaboration and to enable the dissemination of the latest information about the course. These three legs form a ‘tripod’ to support learning of the ICT topics within a fast moving world. Each leg will be explained in the sections that follow.

4 First Leg: A Virtual Laboratory Environment The idea to construct a virtual laboratory environment was first conceived in early 2000’s. The first generation laboratory was plbc011.ouhk.edu.hk server. It was a Pentium-grade PC desktop. Given its hardware limitation, the server was fairly unstable, especially when the number of the students it supported had grown progressively. Having said that, the plbc011 server laid a strong foundation, to which the iteration model had been applied to facilitate a progressive construction of the second generation laboratory. The second generation laboratory is labsupport.no-ip.org, which has been enhanced in terms of reliability and scalability. It runs on server-grade hardware, a Dell PowerEdge 2950 PC server with the following configuration: As shown in Figure 2, the server uses Redhat Linux Fedora 10, which is a free to use distribution of Linux. The server has one CPU, 1G memory and a 130 GB hard disk. Currently, it supports more than 300 students within CT212, including both full time and part time. The server is operating 24 x 7 and is reachable from anywhere. Students can, based on their own need, login in to it anytime and anywhere. Feedback suggests that the service is very well received by the students. Since the laboratory has used Open Source Software (OSS), which is free to use, its cost has been kept to a practical minimal, comprising mainly the hardware cost. The OSS has reached a stage that they are reliable to use and new products or updated versions have kept coming with new and enhanced features. This allows the inexpensive establishment of a range of labs covering different technological topics.

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Fig. 2. The lab support server

5 Second Leg: A Self-paced Guide Book Hands-on experiences should be an integral part of most science and technological courses, especially those that are ICT-related, and are of particular importance as part of the learning process for beginning learners. With this in mind the researchers developed a self-paced guide book such that students are able to carry out experiments without bearing the high costs of equipment. The guide also enables the students to work interdependently and without close supervision from instructors. Whilst hands-on experiments cannot replace academic theory and creativity, they do significantly expand the landscape of applications for information systems. In the early days, the researchers developed a number of labs. The following serves as an example: While these labs were well received by students and their educational values were well recognized, they appeared to be loosely organized, lacked a consistent structure and layout, and only covered a few topics. Under such circumstances, the researchers applied the iteration model to those primitive labs and used them as the foundation to develop the first generation of the guide book, published in mid 2007, and titled as “The Information and Communications Technology Lab Book”. The guide book received overwhelming positive responses from OUHK students and from learners from other institutions. The researchers further applied the iteration model to develop the next generation of the guide book, namely ‘A Practical Approach to Internet Programming and Multimedia Technologies’, which provides a solid framework through practical labs that can be carried out from a PC and which requires only low level Internet access. The guide covers the following major topics:

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Fig. 3. An example of a first generation lab

A.

Network Fundamentals

Students will learn some fundamentals on computer networking. How to connect to a Unix host securely using Public Key Authentication for example.

Fig. 4. Using Public Key technology to securely access servers

Students also learn how to conduct network traffic analysis.

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Fig. 5. Network traffic analysis using Wireshark

B.

Network Programming and Internet Application Development

In this block, students learn how to work with a number of programming languages including C, Perl, PHP and CGI. The students are able to us these languages to complete network programming, and to practice Internet applications development.

Fig. 6. A PHP program that displays both the current weather information and Fibonacci numbers

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Fig. 7. Setup of a phpBB discussion forum on a desktop

C.

Web 2.0 and E-commerce

Web 2.0 has infiltrated all areas of the workplace and of social life. The guide enables students to learn how to make use of Web 2.0 tools to develop ‘mashups’ that aggregate contents from different sources, and transform them into a format for display according to need. Students will also learn how build in 3D using a Google 3D Map.

Fig. 8. A mashup that displays both real time stock information and the latest weather information

D.

Multimedia Technologies

Multimedia enables the students to present in a range of ways and they are therefore able to mimic real world application. This block enables students to prepare multimedia content to suit their own need for distributing to an audience or for incorporation into some other system. Students learn how to make a number of applications, including: designing a voice-over presentation, and building a YouTube style application server to share videos.

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Fig. 9. Building a YouTube application server for your own use

6 A Portal for Information Dissemination and Interactions The last leg is a portal to support student collegiality and to enable dissemination of the latest information about the CT212 course.

Fig. 10. The CT212 course portal for information dissemination and student collegiality

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The portal is being enhanced so that it will serve as the companion web site to the guide book. Relevant soft-copy files, supplementary materials and updates will be available there. In addition, answers or hints are provided for ‘questions and exercises’ and ‘Mini-projects’. The new version will be ready by August 2010.

7 How the Tripod Approach Assists Students The latest version of the self-paced guide book was made ready for use by the course CT212 in April 2009. The researchers obtained the following statistics of the first 3 assignments which were completed by the April 2009 student cohort: Table 1. 2009 Submission rate of assignments

APR 2009 TMA1 TMA2 TMA3

Submission rate 95% 97% 84%

The mean (full marks = 100) 88.3 87 74

One can note the improvement in scores from the previous cohort: Table 2. 2008 Submission rate of assignments

APR 2008 TMA1 TMA2 TMA3

Submission rate 80% 86% 46%

The mean (full marks = 100) 85 83 80

It was observed that the submission rate has improved significantly. The most drastic improvement is demonstrated by TMA3 (38% rise). The major scope of TMA3 is network programming, where students have to complete a number of programming tasks. According to informal discussions it was revealed that students often find such kinds of programming tasks intimidating, partly because the learning curve of such works is relatively steep, especially for those students who do not have a technical background, and partly because students often think setting up the environment to write programs is arduous. As a result, students may simply choose the easy way out, which is to withdraw from TMA3. This might help explain the sharp fall in the submission rate (>40%) for the TMA3 of April 2008 as compared with TMA2 and TMA1 of the same semester. In April 2009 the fall in submissions was much reduced (only 13% as compared with TMA2 and only 11 % with TMA1). This change in behavior provides strong evidence that the Tripod approach has succeeded in changing attitudes towards programming. Indeed discussion with students revealed new positive and even enthusiastic attitudes.

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The average student mark for TMA3 in April 2009 was 74 whereas in April 2009 it was 80. On the surface there appears to show a deterioration in performance. However, further analysis shows something different.

Fig. 11. The CT212 course statistics Table 3. Comparison of assignment scores 2008-2009

Apr 2009 Apr 2008

Average marks μ 74 80

First standard deviation σ 22 15

Top 15% students’ average mark ( i.e. μ + σ ) 96 95

After taking into consideration the first standard deviation the researchers found that the average mark for the top 15% of students in the April 2009 semester was 96 marks which is slightly higher than the 95 marks achieved in April 2008. This is a very encouraging outcome because it means despite the lowering of the average score which is a direct result of the significant increase in submissions of the TMA 3 assignment, the performance of the top students has also improved. The Tripod Approach has worked to the advantage of students. As a supplement to the statistical analysis, discussions were held among the CT212 tutors to evaluate student performance and reaction to the Tripod Approach. All interviewees agreed that the Tripod Approach supports student learning. In addition they reported that student attitude toward teaching staff had become more positive and respectful. This was shown both in the text messages they made in the discussion forum and when they met the teaching staff face-to-face during tutorials and surgeries. The Tripod Approach has succeeded in fostering an enthusiastic learning atmosphere and has fostered a constructive and supportive relationship among students and teaching staff.

8 Other Approach Taken to Ensure Future Updating of Content An increasing number of authors and contributors will develop and contribute to the ‘Tripod Approach’ and this will deliver a constant improvement in the currency of

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content. Assignment feedback from the student evaluations are incorporated into course and for Tripod enhancement.

9 Conclusion This paper has given a brief account on the creation of an effective learning environment for the course CT212. This is important because this course deals with a number of challenging topics within the ICT field, including, network programming and network design. The paper described the Tripod Approach which is comprised of three legs, namely a virtual laboratory environment, a self-paced guide book and a portal for information dissemination and collegiality. The paper shows that through application of the iteration model, developments and improvements to course design are made progressively. Each iteration builds upon past experiences and incorporates emerging technologies. By combining the iteration model with the Tripod Approach, it was possible to prove that albeit is possible to create an ever improving and effective learning environment. Evidence provided shows that students are increasingly willing to attempt the programming tasks, which previously were considered to be intimidating. Furthermore, the model has enabled a more supportive relationship among students and teaching staff. And such a supportive and collegial environment has been shown to lead to more effective student learning. The researchers believe that this model should be tested and applied to other subjects and disciplines that bear similar hallmarks (fast pace, high diversification, and broad span) that characterize the ICT discipline.

References 1. Imbrie, P.K., Raghavan, S.: Work in progress—A remote e-laboratory for student investigation, manipulation and learning. In: Proceedings of the ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, Indianapolis, IN, October 19-22 (2005) 2. Nguyen, A.V., Gillet, D., Rekik, Y., Sire, S.: Sustaining the continuity of interaction in Web-based experimentation for engineering education. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Aided Learning in Engineering Education, Grenoble, France, February 16-28 (2004) 3. Yeung, K., Huang, J.: Development of a remoteaccess laboratory: A DC motor control experiment. J. Comput. Ind. 52, 305–311 (2003) 4. Ko, C.C., Chen, B.M., Chen, J., Zhuang, Y., Tan, K.C.: Development of a Web-based laboratory for control experiments on a coupled tank apparatus. IEEE Trans. Educ. 44, 76– 86 (2001) 5. Aziz, E.-S.S., Esche, S.K., Chassapis, C.: Content-Rich Interactive Online Laboratory Systems. Computer Applications in Engineering Education 17, 61–79 (2008) 6. Ketterl, M., Meruens, R., Vornberger, O.: Web lectures and Web 2.0. In: Tenth IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia, pp. 710–725 (2008) 7. Murugesan, S.: Understanding Web 2.0. IT Processional 9(4), 34–41 (2007) 8. Tsang, P.: Harnessing the intenet as a virtual lab. International Journal of Innovation and Learning 6, 575–592 (2006)

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9. Gillet, D., Latchman, H.A., Salzmann, C.: Hands-on laboratory experiments in flexible and distance learning. J. Eng. Educ. 90, 187–191 (2001) 10. Gillet, D., Geoffroy, F., Zeramdini, K., Nguyen, A.V., Rekik, Y., Piguet, Y.: The cockpit: An effective metaphor for Web-based experimentation in engineering education. Int. J. Eng. Educ. 19, 389–397 (2003) 11. Felder, R.M., Silverman, L.K.: Learning and Teaching Styles in Engineering Education. Engr. Education 78(7), 674–681 (1988) 12. Fox, R., Yuen, A., Evers, C., Lau, H.F., Deng, L.: Enhancing Learning Through Technology. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapore (2008)

Use of Open Educational Resources: Challenges and Strategies Qing Chen Beijing Normal University [email protected]

Abstract. Since MIT announced its OpenCourseWare Program in 2001, Open educational resources has gradually developed into a practical hotspot and got rapidly development in the higher education field of the world. In a sense, the essence and ultimate purpose of the existing and development of OER is effective sharing and utilization of it. How to facilitate the sharing and utilization of OER among the society is one of the key issues in the OER research and development area at present. This paper, based on the literature research and web search methods, has studied the present status of utilization of OER and related researches, analyzed the challenges or problems in OER’s sharing and using, and put forward a series of strategies which are expected to facilitate the effective utilization of OER from the three perspectives of technology, mechanism, and pedagogy. Keywords: Open Educational Resources , utilization, challenges, strategies.

1 Introduction The Open Educational Resources movement began in 2001 when MIT first committed to making all of its course materials freely available for the students, teachers and researchers from the entire world. Since then, hundreds of additional institutions have launched their OpenCourseWare Web sites. Till the end of 2007, as many as 1800 (http://www.ocw.mit.edu) courses covering various disciplines have been published openly on the MIT OpenCourseWare website. Up to 2008, Chinese Quality Open Courseware (CQOCW) project have got rapid development and yield plentiful and substantial products, About 2,500 national Quality OCW and over 10,000 provincial and institutionary Quality OCW have been published in all (Wang Long, 2009). With supporting of universities and colleges, foundations, international organizations and education management sections, OER and related projects have developed dramatically across all of the world, more and more institutions participated, resources enriched, visitors continually increased, awareness degree and influence of the projects increasingly expanded. Statistics shows that the members of the OpenCourseWare Consortium are distributed in the whole world, over 250 universities or institutions run 100 project websites, and share more than 6200 courses (including some Chinese quality OpenCourseWare) and learning materials, among which 400 courses are translated in over 10 different languages, drawing averagely 2.5 million visits per month (Wang Long, 2008). P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 339–351, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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In addition to OpenCourseWare, Open educational resources also “include full courses, course materials, modules, textbooks, streaming videos, tests, software, and any other tools, materials or techniques used to support access to knowledge” (The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation). Empowered by the internet, up to date, there is a variety of and tremendous amount of open educational resources across the world. OER represent the efforts of a worldwide community, to help equalize the access to knowledge and educational opportunities. According to the Current Open Educational Resources Logic Model demonstrated in figure 1, there are three goal components in service of equity of access: providing high-quality open content, removing barriers, and understanding and stimulating use (Daniel E. Atkins et al. 2007). In this model the utilization of OER is one of the core components to achieve the ultimate goal. In the opinion of Chinese scholar Wang Long the emphasis of OER practice for the next step will be the innovative utilization of OER, promoting the transformation of teaching and learning model based on resources, advocating of participated learning based on OER etc. (Wang Long, 2009). But there is a troublesome imbalance between the provision of OER and its utilization. (OECD, 2007)

Fig. 1. Current Open Educational Resources Logic Model Source: A Review of the Open Educational Resources (OER) Movement: Achievements, Challenges, and New Opportunities, February 2007, Daniel E. Atkins et al.

“Information is everywhere; the challenge is to make effective use of it” (Horizon 2010). How to fully integrate OER into educational institutions (schools, universities) and to ensure its utilization within educational practices? How to facilitate the process? These are the key issues needed to be paid attention to in the OER research and development. In order to explore these issues, This paper, based on the literature research and web search methods, has studied the present status of utilization of OER and related researches, analyzed the problems and barriers in OER’s sharing and utilizations, and put forward a series of strategies which are expected to facilitate the

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effective utilization of OER from the three perspectives of technology, mechanism, and pedagogy.

2 Researches on the Utilization of OER The related overseas researches on OER’s utilization fall into two classes (categories). One is the related surveys on use and users of OER in some research reports and literatures. Among which, the survey on users, producers and using of open educational resources in the OECD CERI’s report (OECD, 2007), MIT’s survey on users, the using modes and its influences in its evaluation reports, Carnegie Melon’s investigation into the application impacts for users and using of its OCW with a view to better construction are all in such class. The other is the case studies of OER’s utilization, including the case studies launched by OER Commons (ISKME, 2008), the use of Open Educational Resources by Mexican Tecnologico de Monterrey faculty with the knowledge Hub search engine initiative, etc. In China researches on the quality OCW can be divided into three categories. The first is the survey on the use of its website resources. Among which the special study on the utility of website resources of Beijing’s quality OCW is quite a systematic research program. The program, using the experience of MIT OCW’s project evaluation report, designed the AAIU model to research on the functioning and using of website resources of 98 Beijing quality courses from the year of 2003. Qiu Lin (2009) surveyed the students and faculties from different areas and levels of universities in Hunan province and analyzed the construction, utilization and utility feedback information of the website resources of the national medical quality OCW. Zhang Kai and Chen Yanhua (2009) did a questionnaire survey of faculties and undergraduate students from Sichuan’s 28 universities, investigated their knowledge and use of quality OCW, analyzed the problems, and brought forward some corresponding suggestions. The second is the evaluation reports on access of the quality OCW website resources. With the help of Bobby Online’s evaluation tools, Wang Youmei (2007) studied on the access and functions of the website resources of national quality OCW. The course samples used in the study were from 2003-2005 online national quality OCW. Zhao Yang et al. (2009) carried a comparative non-barrier evaluation of OCW between China and the US. The third is the other literatures concerned the use of OCW, which related to the following issues: reflections on the problems of quality OCW and its utilization, case studies of certain courses’ use in teaching and learning in certain subjects, strategic suggestions for the using mechanism of quality OCW from the management perspective, etc. Chen Yihai (2008) made an analysis of problems in the sharing of website resources of the national quality OCW and put forward some improvement suggestions. His analysis focused on the availability, usability, promoting and sharing of OCW. In summary, the related research of OER’s utilization at home and abroad focused on the content and scope as following: the users and their distribution, the using models, drivers or motivations, the problems, obstacles and influences existed in the using, etc. The case study related more to the further understanding the mechanism and

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procedure on how to attract and keep the users, and facilitate the using, reusing and contribution of the OER by the users.

3 Main Conclusions of Related Researches Main conclusions from the above researches are as follows: • The users and its distribution of OER: The research shows that the most users are self-learners, students and teachers. MIT evaluation report indicates that 46.5% of visitors are self learners, 32% students, 16% educators, and 61% of OCW visitors are non-US distributed over different parts of the world. The following table 1 shows MIT OCW visitor regional distribution (MIT, 2006). Table 1. Visitor regional distribution Region North America Western Europe East Asia South Asia Latin America Eastern Europe

Est.visit % 42.9% 21.2% 15.1% 6.1% 5.0% 3.9%

Region MENA Pacific Sub-Sah. Africa Central Asia Caribbean Total

Est.visit % 2.9% 1.3% 0.8% 0.6% 0.2% 100.0%

Source: 2005 Program Evaluation Findings Report (MIT, 2006). • The use of OER: Results from the survey conducted by the OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovation suggest that instructors view OER as a high-quality complement to other learning resources. Two-thirds of respondents to the OECD questionnaire said they used contents from OER in their teaching in some degrees. Smaller chunks of learning materials seem to be more welcome than larger ones. Almost eight out of ten said they used learning objects or parts of courses rather than full courses in their teaching (OECD, 2007). • The incentives of using OER: OECD presented four main groups of reasons for individuals engaged in OER. They are “altruistic or community support reasons”, “personal non-monetary gain”, “commercial reasons”, and “it is not worth the effort to keep the resource closed”. But findings from the OECD questionnaire suggested that practical considerations were more important for teachers than altruistic concerns. Teacher’s motivation of using OER include “gaining access to the best possible resources”, “creating more flexible materials”, “promoting research and education as publicly open activities”, “outreaching to disadvantaged communities, bringing down costs for students”, “conducting research and development”, etc.(OECD, 2007). The survey on the use of Beijing Quality OCW conducted by Wang Long showed that 25.9% of teachers using open content for “teaching preparation”, 21.9% of teachers for “providing learning materials and guidance for students in a certain course”, 16.9% of teachers for “planning or developing courses for their departments or institutions”, 39.8% of the students for

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“learning content that are related to the current courses and learning”, 24.3% of the students for “learning some courses in order to enhance individual capacity”, 19.7% of the students for “planning for course learning” (Wang Long, 2006). • Barriers and factors inhibiting the use of OER and Chinese Quality OCW: Hatakka identifies 11 inhibiting factors including educational rules and restrictions, language, relevance, access, technical resources, quality, intellectual property, awareness, computer literacy, teaching capacity, and teaching practices and traditions (Tony Bates, 2009). OECD pointed out that barriers for using or producing OER can be characterized as technical, economic, social, policy-oriented and legal (OECD, 2007). Wang Youmei’s study shows that only 10% of the online quality OCW in China during 2003~2005 is good in the assessment and checking for accessibility of the websites. Many errors occurred in access for most of the website resources (Wang Youmei, 2007). American OER’s non-obstacle level is higher than China’s (Zhao Yang, etc. 2009). The problems in the availability and usability of China quality OCW influenced acquirement and usage of the resources. Further efforts to promote the use and share of quality OCW are needed urgently (Chen Yihai, 2008). • Measurements, Strategies and Suggestions for promotion and use of OER from the management perspective: For example, to set up the basic standards for the content presentation and construction of the quality OCW website, to improve the training and interaction for OCW creation and using, to carry out the course development cooperation among the institutions, to build up the circulation mechanism of construction-utilizationfeedback-construction to ensure the sustainability of quality OCW construction by learning the MIT experience (Chen Yihai, 2008).

4 Analysis of Problems and Barriers in the Use of OER Research found that although lots of literatures paid attention to the problems and barriers in the development of OER, rarely analysis focused on those in the utilization, which is the precondition of putting forward rational strategies for facilitating the effective using of OER. Based on the above research, the dominating problems and barriers in the utilization of OER are analyzed as follows. 4.1 Availability First, problems and barriers come from the aspect of availability. The availability of OER issues concern with the technical resources, resources searching and interoperability. • technical resources: Technical resources relate to infrastructural problems as well as hardware and software problems (Larson and Murray 2008, Unwin 2005, Albright 2005) (Mathias Hatakka, 2009). For example the lack of broadband availability is one of the hardware problems. People at institutions in developing countries report facing a number of issues in using OER. First is getting access to a high-speed Internet connection. Once that problem is solved, the various types of resources can be quite useful (Sally M. Johnstone, 2005).

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• Resources searching: Problems with OER are not the lack of available resources on Internet the problem is in finding suitable resources (Albright 2005, Unwin 2005, Larson and Murray 2008). There are a vast number of OER projects and materials on the web, but it is hard to find them all, especially find the right suitable and needed resources. Too much material to choose from was expressed as an inhibiting factor in using OER by one informant (Mathias Hatakka, 2009). • Interoperability: Standards for interoperability between various learning management systems are needed. An OECD case study of Australia said the lack of a real standard for learning management systems means that many resources produced by one educational institution will not be able to be exported or imported easily into other systems. This means that much content in Australia, and elsewhere, is locked up not only because of a reluctance to share, but also because it is very difficult and costly to get material out of existing systems (Suzor, 2006b) (OECD,2007). 4.2 Mechanism Second, problems and barriers come from the aspect of promotion mechanism. The mechanism is expected to respond to awareness, language, policies, copyright and intellectual properties issues etc. • Awareness: Lack of promotion measurement. Right now the national and provisional quality OCW are only published on internet, which makes a great challenge for the use and share of the quality OCW. (Wang Long 2006) • Language: Language is seen as one of the greatest barriers to open content use in developing countries. Most of the open content is only available in English (Larson and Murray 2008) (Mathias Hatakka, 2009). • Policy: Research shows that the use of OER is usually from the bottom level, it lacks policy support from the institutional level. • Copyright: Many people don’t use OER because of lack of the related copyright knowledge. So, there is a need to clarify intellectual property rights issues related to open content initiatives. 4.3 Pedagogy Third, barriers and problems come from the aspect of pedagogy. Material size, quality and relevance etc. are related here. • Material size: The biggest difficulties reported come when professors try to use open courses in their own classes. Unless the OCW product is organized in modules that the professor can mix in different combinations, matching the full set of course materials to the institution’s differing curriculum rarely works (Sally M. Johnstone, 2005). Making clear what the optimal material size is will be one challenge for the creation and using of OER, which calls for educators to further the research. • Quality: Problems of quality are often mentioned in the creation and using of China OCW. Quality can mean different things. The most obvious quality issue has to do with the quality of the information and knowledge distributed in the content. But just “correct” content does not mean that it is appropriate to use in every context (Attwell and Pumilia 2007, Albright 2005). Quality is also a matter of

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trust; the users have to trust the information provided if they are to use it (D’Antoni 2006, Hylén 2006). The timely content updating is also seen as an aspect of quality. UNESCO OTP users, as an example, expressed a concern that some of the material provided on the platform was outdated which is seen as problematic (Hatakka, M. 2009). • Relevance: This means content flexibility, local adaptation and reusability. Many users express content relevance problems when they try to use open content online. Indeed, open content created for a specific context might be inappropriate or useless in another context. The relevance of the content concerns several layers, e.g. examples from developed countries may not be relevant for students originating from other cultures, the pedagogy used may not be appropriate, the level of the content may not be appropriate etc. (Mason 1999, Albright 2005, Unwin 2005, Selinger 2004). The level of difficulty of open content is seen as problematic. Another issue is that open content do not fit the scope of the course. Not only the actual information of the content but also the sequence of lectures, technical platform used, graphical layout of the material etc are seen as problematic when teachers try to use a full open lecture in their course. Part of the lecture may fit within the scope of the course but it does not fit as a whole (Hatakka, M. 2009).

5 Strategies on Facilitating the OER Use The effective use of OER is quite complicated; it concerns almost every aspect of a whole system. The platform, technology, service, mechanism, policy, culture tradition, content structure and teaching/learning model etc. are all involved. This paper puts forward the suggestions from three perspectives of technology mechanism and pedagogy as follows. 5.1 Technology First, from the perspective of technical issues, strategies put forward here are expected to improve the availability of OER. Strategy 1: Develop and implement Open standards to improve interoperability: • Since the concept of OER builds on the idea of reusing and repurposing materials, interoperability is a key issue. With respect to software, the term “interoperability” is used to describe the capability of different programmes to exchange data via a common set of procedures, and to read and write the same file formats and use the same protocols. Learning resources need to be searchable across different repositories, and it must be possible to download, integrate and adapt them across various platforms. (OECD, 2007). • Set up open standards to create interoperability. As the US Committee for Economic Development (CED, 2006) states “A key benefit of open standards is that they foster interoperability, allowing disparate devices, applications and networks to communicate. Such interoperability is critical to the development of network effects and the operation of Metcalfe’s law. Metcalfe’s law demonstrates that the value of a network increases as users are added to it; interoperability allows the full benefits of each addition to be realized. ” (OECD, 2007)

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• The Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) can be used to enable interoperability, accessibility and reusability of web-based learning content, utilizing a collection of standards and specifications for web-based e-learning. The SCORM model consists both of general information about the resource – such as its title, language and keywords – as well as lifecycle information, data about its metadata, technical information, educational information and pedagogical characterization of the resource, information regarding copyright, and more. But it will require skill, time and resources to attach SCORM metadata to learning resources. (OECD, 2007) Strategy 2: Take full advantages to both new emerging and traditional simple technologies to improve accessibilities. • Make use of technological advances to help to produce, store, manage, distribute, aggregate and retrieve the resources. As pointed out by Wiley (2006), it is increasingly easy to participate in the OER movement. According to CERI Report, some of the technological advances include (OECD 2007): − Easier infrastructure or software for managing open resources and for linking and federating OER repositories (such as eduCommons and the European Schoolnet LIMBS open source brokerage system). − Easier-to-mirror repositories which make it possible to use resources without broadband connections (eGranary with approximately 40 partner sites in developing countries). − Tools for easier production and storage of resources (such as podcasting, screencasting, videocasting, blogs, wikis, and Video iPod etc.) − Easier techniques and software for distribution, reuse, assembly, contextualization and aggregation of resources (such as RSS and ATOM). • Increase the use of Web 2.0 tools and social software, such as blogs and wikis, social bookmarking, social tagging, collaborative authoring platforms with realtime interaction, etc. These tools can lower the bar to entry for average users to access and contribute small content. So it is easier for OER producers and users to create, reuse and distribute content in a much more open and collaborative way. • Adopt flexible and extendable technical scheme, and attach importance to simple and traditional media use. In many cases, using new techniques that have high requirement for browser and computer operating system may result in access problems. Setting up mirror sites, providing appropriate content formats suited to different bandwidth and offering downloadable course package allowing offline browsing may improve the performance of website. E.g. MIT OCW website has uniform interface design and color scheme so that visitors could look through all of the website content with the most commonly-used browsers. Strategy 3: Develop appropriate search engine or software tools; establish dedicated open educational resources repositories so that users could effectively find the needed OER. • Using a regular search engine like Google to find content is not always a viable option as it will generate too many answers. There is, hence, a need to easily find relevant content. One popular solution to this problem is the use of metadata to define the content and make it more searchable. Another solution is to build index system or collections or repositories of OER. For example, UNESCO suggested building a Global Index System to help users to find OER. Other

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projects of this kind include the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill’s project Ibiblio (http://www.ibiblio.org/about.html), the Internet Archive (http:// www.internetarchive.org), the Open Library Collections at Harvard University, the National Repository of On-line Courses at the Monterey Institute for Technology and Education, the American West Collection at the University of California, and EduTools etc. (Sally M. Johnstone, 2005) 5.2 Mechanism Second, from the perspective of mechanism, strategies here are expected to deal with the policy, management and promotion issues for OER application and sharing, including establishing regional co-construction and sharing mechanism, seeking policy support, winning users’ recognition, overcoming language barriers and solving copyright issues. Strategy 1: Construct and enhance regional sharing and inter-school coconstruction mechanism. • In light of Taihu Proclamation for China’s Yangtze River Delta and the system of sharing advanced educational resources amongst China’s universities and colleges in western regions, this strategy is to enhance the collaboration for and sharing of regional and inter-school elite courses. In so doing, the awareness and recognition of co-constructing and sharing internal resources amongst these regions and schools shall be improved; moreover, this will make it easier for OER to be shared and used in such places. Strategy 2: Promote OER at school level and provide follow-up support and services. Teaching and researching departments may offer trainings on OER for teacher and student users and provide circumstances for more communication. • Since teachers and students are the major users of OER and the kinds of activities promoted by their schools or the contents launched in the school websites are the primary channels for them to know about OER, the promotion of OER at school level shall be enhanced in ways of providing links to good OER websites, offering user trainings, and setting up application seminars for teachers and students to share their ideas. • Provide interactive learning platforms and offer follow-up OER support and services within school to ensure the timely updating of open courses. • Adopt incentive measures at school level to attract teachers’ and students’ engagement in translating and localizing OER and in doing comparative studies of OER and corresponding domestic courses. Strategy 3: Reinforce the promotion and training of intellectual properties and copyright issues to ensure that users know clearly about such things as the standardized CClicenses in Creative Commons (CC) and eliminate their worries. Strategy 4: Establish policies that are helpful to set up linkage between the informal learning and formal for-degree education. E.g. Open educational resources program of Netherlands Open University clarifies the details on how to link OER with formal degree programs, adopting dual-track system. Learners can get the same learning resources by informal education (self-directed learning) with learners by formal degree education, and can also get diploma if they get through the formal examinations. (Wang Long, 2009)

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5.3 Teaching and Learning Third, from the perspective of teaching and learning, bring forward strategies in design, utilization and training in order to make the best use of OER. Strategy 1: The design and development of OER can learn from such theories as learning object and situated learning; meanwhile pay attention to the backwash and promotion effect of evaluation to the design and development of OER to improve OER quality and re-usability. • Learning experiences from MIT and projects like Connexions, learning objects and modularized learning technology can be used in the design and development of OER. When OCW is organized in modules, teachers can mix in different combinations, and easily match to their institution’s differing curriculum. In general, the smaller or more granular a resource, the greater the possibility of it being reused in another educational context: for example, an individual image is likely to be more readily reused than an entire course (Downes, 2000). However, larger resources usually have greater educational value: it may be less time-consuming for a teacher to reuse a learning activity rather than many small, basic components. So, in terms of resource size, there is often a tension between increasing educational value and maximizing reusability (Littlejohn, A. 2003). • OER material should provide context information. Because users want to know whether the OER they searched is suitable for their current situation, OER has to emphasize the context, be “culturally portable” or at least give insight in which this information fits. The ID-concept of authentic learning tasks and situated learning can be helpful. This partly responds to the localization and relevance problem of OER (Markus Deimann et al, 2007). • Recognize the importance of collecting feedback information about OER uses and make use of those experience and lessons learned in construction. In light of MIT’s and Carnegie Mellon’s experience, the effectiveness of teaching may be evaluated by collecting users’ feedback; and the results of evaluation be used to improve OER quality. Strategy 2: In application of OER, instructional design can play an important role when teacher try to integrate OER into teaching process and make effective use of OER. • Give emphasis to instructional design. One of the big challenges in the use of OER is how to fully integrate OER into instruction in order to make the best use of OER. Instructional design can provide a systemic view to cope with this challenge and set up a conceptual base for the OER designer and user, “searching for explanations and developing strategies with what (material) and how (what has to be done) to reach predefined learning goals.” (Markus Deimann, Theo Bastiaens, 2007). • Explore how OER facilitate new ways of learning such as self-directed learning, cooperative learning, and inquiry learning etc. For example, how to use OER to facilitate self-directed learning? Self-directed learners also need help from the system when they use OER. Gagne’s “Nine Events of Instruction” indicate that mere display of teaching information is not enough for effective learning, more instructions and support are needed, such as how to maintain learning motivation to accomplish learning tasks. Just giving learners OER makes no sense because learners will need

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such guidance and support to forge their learning persistence (Markus Deimann, Theo Bastiaens, 2007). These are important issues to be studied as to how to embed those instructions and help into OER design and use. Strategy 3: Invest more effort in teacher training. • If teachers are expected to make greater use of OER and create and share open content, much more effort needs to be invested in teacher training and support. This is very often neglected. “Capacity development is central to supporting and increasing the development and use of OER”. (Susan D'Antoni, 2009) • In line with Littlejohn’s three stage model, OER trainings can be more effective. Littlejohn (2003) has an exciting and empowering assertion: “the key to effective reuse of resources lies not in the technology, but in the creativity and imagination of teachers”. Teacher plays a crucial role in the reusing of learning material. Littlejohn proposes a three-stage model, beginning at a basic level (discovering, searching and evaluating), moving to intermediate (supporting resource authoring) and moving to an advanced level (integration and contextualization resources) (Oliver, M. 2003). Using this model to improve teachers’ capacity, OER training can be more effective.

6 Conclusion In a sense, the effective use of OER is the ultimate reason why OER exist and develop. However, up till now, OER, despite its considerable accumulation, has not yet been used quite effectively. For its better use, this paper has managed to do a literature review of OER application and related researches. Based on the research results, it analyzes the major problems and barriers in utilization of OER and proposes a series of strategic suggestions that may help the effective use of OER from the perspectives of technology, mechanism, and teaching and learning. This paper expects to be helpful to the development of OER and related researches.

References 1. Johnstone, S.M.: Open Educational Resources serve the world. Educause Quaterly (3) (2005) 2. Atkins, D.E., et al.: A Review of the Open Educational Resources (OER) Movement: Achievements, Challenges, and New Opportunities (February 2007); Report to The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation 3. MIT: 2005 Program Evaluation Findings Report, MIT OpenCourseWare (June 5, 2006) 4. ISKME, Creating, Doing, and Sustaining OER: Lessons from Six Open Educational, Resource Projects, by The Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME) (September 2008) 5. Bates, T.: Barriers to effective use of open educational resources in developing countries (2009), http://www.tonybates.ca/2009/11/03/barriers-to-effectiveuse-of-open-educational-resources-in-developing-countries/

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6. Hatakka, M.: Build it and they will come? Inhibiting factors for re-use of open content in developing countries. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries 37(5), 1–16 (2009), http://www.ejisdc.org/ojs2/index.php/ejisdc/article/ viewFile/545/279 7. Geser, G.: Open Educational Practices and Resources, OLCOS Roadmap (2012) 8. The use of Open Educational Resources by Tecnologico de Monterrey faculty, http://ttix.org/archives/2009-sessions/the-use-of-openeducational-resources-oers-by-tecnologico-de-monterreyfaculty-through-its-knowledge-hub-search-engine-initiativein-mexico-and-world-wide-best-practices/ 9. Introduction: PLAN of the use of Open Educational Resources (OER), http://www.olcos.org/cms/upload/docs/Introduction_en.pdf 10. OECD, Giving Knowledge for Free: The Emergence of Open Educational Resources (2007) 11. D’Antoni, S.: Open Educational Resources: reviewing initiatives and issues. Open Learning: The Journal of Open and Distance Learning 24(1), 3–10 (2009), http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/section~db=all~ content=a909093141~fulltext=713240928~dontcount=true#s909093160 (retrieved from February 15, 2010) 12. Littlejohn, A., Buckingham Shum, S. (eds.): Reusing Online Resources (Special Issue). Journal of Interactive Media in Education (1) (2003), http://www-jime.open.ac.uk/2003/1/ 13. Littlejohn, A.: Issues in Reusing Online Resources. Journal of Interactive Media in Education 2003(1) (2003), http://www-jime.open.ac.uk/2003/1/; Reprinted with permission from: Reusing Online Resources, Littlejohn (ed.). Kogan Page, London, ISBN 0749439491 14. Oliver, M.: Rethinking the Reuse of Electronic Resources: Contexts, Power and Information Literacy. Joint commentary on McNaught, Identifying the Complexity of Factors in the Sharing and Reuse of Resources (Chap. 16) and Littlejohn, An Incremental Approach to Staff Development in the Reuse of Learning Resources (Chap 18) of: Reusing Online Resources, (Ed.) Littlejohn. Journal of Interactive Media in Education 2003(1), http://www-jime.open.ac.uk/2003/1/ 15. Deimann, M., Bastiaens, T.: Special Session OER: Integrating OER and Instructional Design – Towards a more holistic view. In: Conference ICL 2007, Villach, Austria, September 26-28 (2007) 16. Yihai, C.: Analysis of and Countermeasures on Sharing of Quality OCW online resources. China Education Information (July 2008) ( 2008.7( )) 17. Kai, Z., Yanhua, C.: An Analysis of the Application of College Excellent Courses and Countermeasures. Distance Education Research (May 2009) ( 2009 5 / 101 ) 18. Lin, Q.: Investigation and research on the actuality of online resources construction and application of national medical elaborate courses. Dissertation of MA from Central South University (2009) 2009

陈以海，精品课程网络资源共享现状分析与高教职教张凯，陈艳华，高校精品课程应用现状分析与对策，现代远程教育研究，年期总期对策研究，中国教育信息化，

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（邱林，，医学类国家精品课程网上资源建设及应用状况调查研究，中南大学硕士学位论文） Qinfeng, D., et al.: Analysis on Quality Course Network application by teachers and students in a medical institute. China Higher Medical Education (July 2007) (杜庆锋，谭剑，张篙等.精品课程网在某医学院师生中的应用分析.中国高等医学教育，2007.7)

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20. Youmei, W.: Assessment on Accessibility of E-learning Resources of Greatcourses in China. Higher Engineering Education Research (March 2007) ( . . 2007.3 ) 21. Long, W.: Open and sharing of online resources from china National elaborate courses in high education: actuality, challenges, countermeasures and correlative analysis. Dissertation of MA from Capital Normal University (2006) (in Chinese) 2006 _ _ 2006 4 25 22. Long, W.: Review and Prospect: Seven-year Itch of Open Educational Resources. Open Education Research 15(2) (April 2009) ( , : 15 2 , 2009 4 ) 23. Long, W.: National program of web-delivery for elaborate courses: practice from China within international Open Educational Resources prospects. In: 2008 International Conference of Open Education Resources, Da Lian, China (2008) (in Chinese) ( , 2008, . 2008 , ) 24. Yang, Z., et al.: Comparative evaluation on accessibility of online resources between U.S. Open Courseware and China’s National Quality Course. Modern distance Education (March 2009) ( , , , , , 2009 3 )

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The Use of Virtual Classroom in Library and Information Management Courses Jeanne Lam1,∗, Simon K.S. Cheung2, Norris Lau1, and Jane Yau1 1

HKU SPACE, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 2 Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong [email protected]

Abstract. As an effective tool to support blended learning, virtual classroom provides a virtual learning environment that allows instructors and learners to interact with each other anywhere. In this paper, we review the use of virtual classroom in library and information management courses, which are typically informative courses, in our institution. A survey is conducted to investigate the students' general views on virtual classroom and their perception of blended learning. The results show that most of the students supported virtual classroom as it made them feel more connected to the course and helped them to study more efficiently. They generally considered virtual classroom as a crucial extension of the traditional classroom to enhance interaction and participation. The results also show the students welcome the blended mode of learning. Keywords: virtual classroom, blended learning, online learning, e-learning.

1 Introduction This paper investigates the effective use of virtual classroom from the students' perspectives for library and information management courses in our institution, the School of Professional and Continuing Education of the University of Hong Kong (HKU SPACE). HKU SPACE is committed to providing high quality continuing education programmes and learning opportunities for students (HKU SPACE, 2010). It provides all-round support to students and teachers through well-designed and advanced facilities. In 2004, HKU SPACE introduced a blended model of learning to enhance teaching and learning effectiveness. It is aimed that blended learning should be available to all award-bearing programmes. By definition, blended learning is the combination of traditional face-to-face classroom learning with certain minimum level of basic elearning features incorporated (Graham, 2005). As found in many studies (Ruberg, Moore, & Taylor, 1996; Warschauer, 1997; Graham, Allen and Ure, 2003), the benefits of blended learning are multifold. It not only improves pedagogy with the learners' focus, but also allows students to participate in their studies actively, enables them to construct knowledge collaboratively, and increases the flexibility of student and attains cost effectiveness. ∗

Contact author.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 352–361, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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In order to provide an advanced learning environment for students and teachers, HKU SPACE introduces new and innovative technology into teaching and learning, such as virtual classroom (VC, 2010). Being as an extension of the traditional classroom teaching, virtual classroom provides a virtual learning environment that allows instructors and learners to meet and interact with each other by using their personal computers and cameras at a remote location in real-time and acts as an alternative of face-to-face communication (Winegarden, 2005). Researches indicated that virtual classroom is not only an effective means of communication (Kurtenbach & Hulteen, 1990), but also plays an important role in teaching and learning in terms of learning process (Valenzeno, Alibali, & Klatzky, 2003). First, online lectures and tutorials can be conducted at any time and it enhances the flexibility and convenience of the relevant courses (Mason & Rennie, 2006). Second, visual and synchronous communication tools enhance interactions and facilitate feedbacks between instructor and learners in a two-way communication (Hobbs, 1997; Winegarden, 2005). Third, the use of videoconferencing in virtual classroom not only satisfies learners’ social needs but promotes more naturalistic and interactive learning experiences which allow them to communicate with instructors with voice tone and facial expression (Hara, Bonk & Angeli, 2000). Fourth, it supports learners to participate and involve in the learning process actively and collaboratively, through the use of various communication and presentation tools (Wilson, Ludwig-Hardman, Thornam & Dunlap, 2004). This paper focuses on the use of virtual classroom for Library and Information Management courses. A survey was conducted to collect students' general views on virtual classroom and their perception on blended learning. The survey results would be analysed and reported. The rest of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 introduces the functionality of virtual classroom. Section 3 describes the background of the course to be investigated and the survey. Section 4 reports the survey results and findings. Section 5 briefly concludes this paper.

2 Virtual Classroom in HKU SPACE HKU SPACE developed its first e-learning platform in 1999. The platform is called SOUL system (SPACE Open Universal Learning System) (SOUL, 2010). Figure 1 shows the homepage of the SOUL system. At its initial launch, the SOUL system provided basic functions of an e-learning platform or a learning management system, such as the delivery of learning materials, online communications and file exchanges. A number of enhancements were subsequently made on online discussion, system administration and data interfaces. In 2004, HKU SPACE reviewed the development strategy of e-learning and started to adopt a blended approach to learning, called blended learning – a right combination of traditional classroom learning and e-learning (Thorne, 2003; Bersin, 2004; Allan, 2007). A few years later, HKU SPACE introduced a virtual classroom system to support blended learning (Lam et al., 2009). The system was acquired from the Adobe, called Connect Pro (Adobe, 2010). The Connect Pro is a well-known virtual classroom system, used in many universities and higher education institutions.

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Fig. 1. Homepage of the SOUL System

Virtual classroom is a web-based facility for real-time lecturing and meeting. It provides School-wide solutions for 'live' and real-time online teaching and learning. It enables live delivery of tutorials and holding of meetings online. Live tutorials can be delivered and students can view them online, thus helping them to become more independent and less limited by the constraints on time and location. Virtual classroom allows teachers to reach students anytime with engaging multimedia content, and to collaborate with each other virtually. Its great flexibility particularly suits programmes offered in collaboration with oversea institutions, where teachers from these oversea institutions can conduct online sessions without travelling. In short, virtual classroom introduces capabilities for creating and deploying rich online communications to establish blended learning effectively. Figure 2 shows a sample screen of virtual classroom, where a teacher conducted an online tutorial by posting questions to students. Virtual classroom also serves as a tool to support online sharing. Different learning activities can be facilitated as a result of the adoption of virtual classroom. These activities include presentations, discussions, voting for the collection of instant feedback, and the sharing of learning materials. In addition, the recording function is incorporated for students, who miss the tutorials or lectures, to review the lessons online. This allows for a high degree of flexibility and convenience of teaching and learning. Figure 3 shows a sample screen of virtual classroom, where an online chatroom is hosted by the teacher. Table 1 list various features of Virtual Classroom for 'live' and real-time online teaching and learning.

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Fig. 2. A Sample Screen of the Virtual Classroom System

Fig. 3. Another Sample Screen of the Virtual Classroom System

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Descriptions

Attendee list

Each student’s attendance (e.g. Host, Presenter and Participation) is shown. Improved participant interaction controls e.g. Raise hand; Color emoticons

Chat and Q&A Pod

Hosts or presenters use it to chat with students and answer their questions.

Camera and Voice Pod

Hosts or presenters use the Camera and Voice Pod to broadcast his/her Webcam video and voice.

Taking Notes

Hosts or presenters use the Note Pod to take meeting notes that attendees can see.

Lecturing

Hosts or presenters can use the Share Pod to display contents to students.

Feedback

Hosts or presenters can use the Poll Pod to create questions, or polls, for participants and to view the results.

Discussion

Hosts use the Breakout rooms to split a large group into smaller groups that can talk or collaborate.

Recording meetings

Host can record the whole session of the meeting.

3 Survey on the Use of Virtual Classroom 3.1 Background of the Course The course to be investigated is called “Bibliographic Control”, which is a first year subject in the Higher Diploma in Library and Information Management programme in HKU SPACE. The course has no prerequisites, and around 40 to 50 students are enrolled in this course each academic year. A blended learning mode is adopted. Students were given traditional face-to-face teaching sessions at 6 hours per week. To complement these sessions, they were given online learning objects through a learning platform. These online learning objects include the pre-recorded audio-synched PowerPoint presentations, drill and practice simulation and exercises. Students perform their self-paced studies at home or at School. Starting from the 4th week, online tutorials were conducted through the virtual classroom. Around 2 to 3 online sessions would be held each week, where each session would last for around 1 hour. In these sessions, the teacher would pose the online teaching materials and questions, answered questions raised by students, facilitated discussions and encouraged students to participate in online activities. 3.2 Background of the Survey This survey was conducted on the “Bibliographic Control” course during class towards the end of the second semester in 2008/09. The survey was based on a 5-point

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Likert scale. There were 41 student participants, constituting a response rate of 91.1%. The survey is divided into two parts. In the first part of the survey, the students were asked to give their views on virtual classroom. The following 7 statements are used for rating: • • • • • • •

Using virtual classroom makes me feel more connected to the course. Using virtual classroom in this course meets my needs. Using virtual classroom in this course has increased my interest in learning topics. Using virtual classroom in this course helps me study more efficiently. Virtual classroom enables me to participate in the online tutorial. The virtual classroom system is easy to use. I need more training in using the virtual classroom system.

In the second part of the survey, the students were asked to compare blended learning with the traditional classroom learning. The following 11 statements are used for rating: • • • • • • • • • • •

Blended learning made my learning more interesting. Blended learning made my learning easier. Blended learning allowed me to learn at my own pace. Blended learning created more incentives for me to study. Blended learning is more personal. Blended learning fostered my personal responsibility for learning. Blended learning provided more feedback opportunities. Blended learning promoted greater participation and interaction in class. Fellow students and I were encouraged to seek additional resources and reference materials online. Blended learning helped us outside classroom. Blended learning helped me better communicate with my teachers.

4 Survey Results and Findings 4.1 Views on Virtual Classroom The students were asked their general views on virtual classroom that had been integrated in the course. Their responses to the following question are illustrated in Table 2. Question: How do you describe your experience in using virtual classroom in your learning? As shown in the results, over 70% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that using virtual classroom made them feel more connected to the course. A moderate percentage of the respondents (53.6%) agreed or strongly agreed that using virtual classroom met their expectation. A moderate percentage of the respondents (51.2%) agreed or strongly agreed that using virtual classroom in this course increased their interest in learning topics.

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J. Lam et al. Table 2. Views on Virtual Classroom Strongly No Disagree disagree opinion

Using virtual classroom makes me feel more connected to the course. Using virtual classroom in this course meets my needs. Using virtual classroom in this course has increased my interest in learning topics. Using virtual classroom in this course helps me to study more efficiently. Virtual classroom enables me to participate in the online tutorial. The virtual classroom system is easy to use. I need more training in using the virtual classroom system

Agree

Strongly agree

2.40%

4.90% 22.00% 43.90% 26.80%

0.00%

7.30% 39.00% 39.00% 14.60%

2.40%

7.30% 39.00% 34.10% 17.10%

0.00%

9.80% 22.00% 43.90% 24.40%

0.00%

4.90% 14.60% 41.50% 39.00%

4.90%

9.80% 14.60% 41.50% 29.30%

4.90%

9.80% 53.70% 17.10% 14.60%

When being asked whether the adoption of virtual classroom has helped them to study more efficiently, 68.3% expressed the views that they agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. As high as 80.5% of the respondents claimed that the availability of access to the system of virtual classroom has enabled them to participate in the online tutorials. In addition, a total figure of 70.8% of the respondents agreed or strong agreed that the virtual classroom system is easy to use. A low percentage of the respondents (14.7%) disagreed or strongly disagreed that they needed more training in using virtual classroom. 4.2 Students’ Perceptions on Blended Learning The students were asked different questions on their perceptions of blended learning that adopted in their course. Their responses to the following question are illustrated in Table 3. Question : In this course, online learning objects and virtual classroom have been integrated into the teaching and learning process. Comparing blended learning to the traditional face-to-face mode of learning, you believe that : Blended learning made my learning more interesting; Blended learning made my learning easier; Blended learning allowed me to learn at my own pace; Blended learning created more incentives for me to study; … As shown in Table 3, 60% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the adoption of blended learning made their learning more interesting. Also, 68.3% of the respondents expressed the view that blended learning made their learning easier. A moderate percentage of the respondents (58.5%) agreed or strongly agreed that blended learning allowed them to learn at their own pace. A moderate percentage of the respondents (53.7%) agreed or strongly agreed that blended learning created more incentives for them to study. A moderate percentage of the respondents (56.1%) agreed or strongly agreed that blended learning is more personal. A moderate percentage of the respondents (51.2%) agreed or strongly agreed that blended learning fostered their personal responsibility for learning. A moderate low percentage of the

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respondents (46.4%) agreed or strongly agreed that blended learning provided more feedback opportunities. Besides, a moderate percentage of the respondents (51.2%) agreed or strongly agreed that blended learning promoted greater participation and interaction in class. A moderate percentage of the respondents (58.5%) agreed or strongly agreed that fellow students and themselves were encouraged to seek additional resources and reference materials online. Moreover, 75.7% of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the adoption of the method of blended learning helped them even outside classrooms. A moderate percentage of the respondents (58.5%) agreed or strongly agreed that blended learning helped them better communicate with their teachers. Table 3. Students' Perceptions on Blended Learning

Blended learning made my learning more interesting. Blended learning made my learning easier. Blended learning allowed me to learn at my own pace. Blended learning created more incentives for me to study. Blended learning is more personal. Blended learning fostered my personal responsibility for learning. Blended learning provided more feedback opportunities. Blended learning promoted greater participation and interaction in class Fellow students and I were encouraged to seek additional resources and reference materials online. Blended learning helped us outside classroom. Blended learning helped me better communicate with my teachers.

Strongly disagree

Disagree

No opinion

Agree

Strongly agree

0.00%

10.00%

30.00% 45.00%

15.00%

0.00%

4.90%

26.80% 56.10%

12.20%

0.00%

14.60%

26.80% 43.90%

14.60%

0.00%

9.80%

36.60% 43.90%

9.80%

2.40%

4.90%

36.60% 41.50%

14.60%

2.40%

9.80%

36.60% 48.80%

2.40%

2.40%

9.80%

41.50% 36.60%

9.80%

2.40%

7.30%

39.00% 36.60%

14.60%

0.00%

9.80%

31.70% 46.30%

12.20%

0.00%

0.00%

24.40% 53.70%

22.00%

2.40%

0.00%

39.00% 39.00%

19.50%

5 Conclusion The introduction of virtual classroom to support the blended mode of learning was a major e-learning development initiative in HKU SPACE, ultimately for enhancing the teaching and learning effectiveness. Recently, we conducted a pilot study on the use of virtual classroom in library and information management courses which are typically informative courses. The study yielded many positive results and findings, as reported in this paper.

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In our pilot study, around 70% of students agreed or strongly agreed that using virtual classroom made them feel more connected to the course and 68.3% of students agreed or strongly agreed that using virtual classroom helped them to study more efficiently. When comparing blended learning with traditional face-to-face learning, high percentage of students (76.6%) agreed or strongly agreed that blended learning helped them outside classroom. Specifically, virtual classroom helped students by connecting them to the course and by enhancing learning efficiency. It is encouraging to learn from the survey that the use of virtual classroom and adoption of blended learning is enjoyed and welcomed by students. Virtual classroom can serve as an additional element to the traditional classroom teaching to benefit students by incorporating frequent interactions between students and teachers even beyond teaching hours. Most of the students shared the view that learning become come efficient and effective through this blended learning mode. They generally considered virtual classroom as a crucial extension of the traditional classroom teaching to enable more interactions and enhance participation. Given these overwhelming positive feedbacks from students, it is sensible to conclude that the appropriate use of virtual classroom to support blended learning would contribute to effective teaching and learning.

References 1. Adobe, Homepage of the Adobe Profession Connect Pro. (2010), Retrieved from the Internet at http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobatconnectpro/ 2. Allan, B.: Blended Learning: Tools for Teaching and Training, Facet (2007) 3. Bersin, J.: The Blended Learning Book: Best Practices, Proven Methodologies, and Lessons learned. Pfeiffer (2004) 4. Graham, C.R., Allen, S., Ure, D.: Blended learning environments: A review of the research literature, Provo, UT (2003) (unpublished manuscript) 5. Graham, C.R.: Blended learning systems: Definition, current trends, and future directions. In: Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R. (eds.) Handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs, pp. 3–21. Pfeiffer Publishing, San Francisco (2005) 6. Hara, N., Bonk, C., Angeli, C.: Content analysis of online discussion in an applied educational psychology course. Instructional Science 28(2), 115–152 (2000) 7. Hobbs, V.M., Christianson, J.S.: Virtual classrooms: educational opportunity through twoway interactive television. Technomic Publishing (1997) 8. HKU SPACE: Homepage of the School of Professional and Continuing Education, University of Hong Kong (HKU SPACE) (2010), Retrieved from the Internet at http://www.hkuspace.hku.hk 9. IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee: Draft standard for learning object metadata (2005), http://ltsc.ieee.org/wg12/index.html (retrieved June 20, 2009) 10. Kurtenbach, G., Hulteen, E.A.: Gestures in human-computer communication. In: Laurel, B., Mountford, S.J. (eds.) The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design, pp. 309–317. Addison-Wesley Publishing, Reading (1990) 11. Lam, J., Lau, N., Yau, J., Cheung, K.S.: A Review on the Use of Virtual Classroom in Support of Blended Learning. In: Proceedings of the Technology-Enhanced Learning Conference, Taipei (2009)

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12. Mason, R., Rennie, F.: E-learning: the key concepts. Taylor & Francis Group, Routledge (2006) 13. Ruberg, L.F., Moore, D.M., Taylor, C.D.: Student participation, interaction, and regulation in a computer-mediated communication environment: A qualitative study. Journal of Educational Computing Research 14(3), 243–268 (1996) 14. SOUL: Homepage of the SOUL e-learning platform, School of Professional and Continuing Education, University of Hong Kong (2009), Retrieved from the Internet at http://www.hkuspace.hku.hk/soul 15. Thorne, K.: Blended Learning: How to Integrate Online and Traditional Learning, Kogan Page (2003) 16. Valenzeno, L., Alibali, M.W., Klatzky, R.: Teachers’ Gestures Facilitate Students’ Learning: A Lesson in Symmetry. Contemporary Educational Psychology 28(2), 187–204 (2003) 17. VC: Homepage of the HKU SPACE Virtual Classroom System (2010), Retrieved from the Internet at http://vc.hkuspace.hku.hk/common/portal/ 18. Warschauer, M.: Computer-mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. Modern Language Journal 81, 470–481 (1997) 19. Wilson, B.G., Ludwig-Hardman, S., Thornam, C., Dunlap, J.C.: Bounded community: Designing and facilitating learning communities in formal courses. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 5(3) (2004) 20. Winegarden, C.R.: Visualizing communication structures of nonverbal information for online learning environments. UMI, Ann Arbor (2005)

3D Virtual Classroom Based on Multi-agent Minghua Li1, Xin Li1, and Liren Zeng2 1

School of Teacher Education, Zhejiang Normal University 688, Yingbin Road, Jinhua, Zhejiang, China 321004 [email protected], [email protected] 2 College of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Normal University 688, Yingbin Road , Jinhua, Zhejiang, China 321004 [email protected]

Abstract. By examining and analyzing present studies on existing 3D virtual classroom based on multi-agent, we realize that most researchers pay more attention to role-agent’s design and function rather than environmental intelligence and support for teaching interaction. In contrast, we have created a 3D virtual classroom based on multi-agent technology as a teaching platform. In this paper, we describe the system structure, intelligent control of complex behaviors of user’s avatar agent, intelligent tracking of teaching scenes and avatar’s intelligent routing, etc. Finally, we demonstrate the actual visual effect of the 3D virtual classroom. User tests demonstrate that it presents intelligence well and can effectively support instructional interaction. Keywords: Virtual classroom·Multi-agent·Intelligence·Teaching interaction.

1 Introduction Designing and using virtual classroom (VC) is a hotspot in the field of e-learning. Our interest is the VC’s intelligence. Numerous scholars have done research on how to apply multi-agent technology to the design and development of VC: Zhu Wansen simulates the real teaching process by using teacher agents, assistant agents, classmate agents and attendant agents [1]. Laure France designs an architecture of teacher agent, student agent and server agent to achieve a multi-agent system which collects information through activity traces to help the teacher visualize a virtual classroom and interaction [2]. Huhns and Stephens use the multi-agent to build an agent wall for teaching [3]. J. V. Santos-Fh applies multi-agent technologies to the development of a RECOLLVE platform that enables collaborative learning in 3D environment [4]. We have found, through examining existing research, that researchers all over the world pay more attentions to 2D virtual classroom intelligence rather than 3D VC intelligence. They also focus more on teaching activities and less on the visualization and operability of these activities. We believe that the 3D VC is more realistic and conducive to immersion than 2D VC. Therefore applying multi-agent technology in the design and development of 3D VC is a more effective methodology because it empowers the characters with more intelligence, and makes teaching activities more P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 362–369, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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diversified in presentation and richer in content. The result is a more optimized system that is easier to operate, which can recreate a more realistic classroom-teaching situation and afford a more convenient platform for instructional interaction. Nevertheless, existing 3D VC systems have their own limitations in intelligence function and teaching activity [5]. For example, user avatar behavior is monotonous with poor coordination; scene switch is not instantaneous and users cannot operate their own avatars at will. We believe that a successful learning system should not impose too many restrictions on its users, as well as its scope of application; on the contrary, it should optimize the simulation of teaching content and free interaction between teachers and students in the real teaching environment. Our attempt is to improve 3D VC's intelligence and optimize the 3D VC's integral performance to enhance teaching interaction. In the following, we will discuss the architecture of a 3D VC based on multi-agent and elaborate on the design of the user avatar agent behavior, the dynamic intelligent tracking of teaching activity scenes, and avatar's intelligent routing. We are also showing a few instructional interaction scenes and discuss our conclusions as well as future work.

2 3D VC Architecture In order to create a vivid virtual classroom, achieve a basic teaching function and ensure free interaction between the teacher and students, multi-agent technology is used to coordinate system functions, scene scheduling, teacher-student behaviors and server farms, and to create an ecological, distributed 3D VC to resolve problems brought by virtual classroom teaching in e-learning.

Fig. 1. Virtual Classroom System Architecture

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The VC in our study uses a C/S structure with the client and server communicating through the Internet. As shown in figure 1, the whole structure is divided into three layers -- the user layer, the multi-agent engine layer and the server layer. User Layer Users including learner, teacher, and administrator can enter the 3D virtual classroom by registering and logging in. The 3D browser unit supports IE as a browser and the user can achieve a variety of interactions easily through a simple and friendly interface. Multi-agent Engine Layer It is the center of the intelligent classroom, with intelligent controls and collaborative communication that include engine agent sub-modules such as environments, avatars, navigation, instructions and behaviors, as well as a multi-agent coordination management module. Each engine agent invokes relevant data from the server and passes the data to the multi-agent coordination management module according to the changes in the 3D VC. The multi-agent coordination management module responds to activities in the engine agent sub-modules and manages the retrieval of information from the server by either students or teachers. It also manages thread pools, accomplishes parallel tasks, controls virtual scenes, manages objects and system security, and resolves multi-user collaborative communicating problems. Server Layer It adopts a multi-server model for data management and updates, and supports different agreement criteria. It consists of scene servers, communication servers, database servers and file servers. For example, the scene server features a 3D scene model, a 3D avatar model, and a conversation management function with all data transmitted by SIP and Enet protocols. Communication servers send video and audio signals required by distance teaching and achieve bi-directional communication by the RTP protocol.

3 Related Work 3.1 The Design of User Avatar Agent Behaviors Intelligent classroom supports not only a variety of teaching activities owned by other VCs, but also multi-agents and adequate behavior realism. During the process of VC, we have designed a multi-agent engine system that encompasses an interactive agent, a teaching agent, an environment agent, and an avatar behavior agent. We will elaborate on the relatively complex behavior of the engine agent in the following. The behavior engine agent includes an environment agent and an avatar agent that host all behavioral scripts and behavior decisions. The environment agent primarily manages scene refresh after a scene event. The avatar agent mostly determines an avatar’s next behavior, refreshes the avatar’s internal state and decides the next goal and the avatar’s emotional change. The behavior engine agent’s behavior decisions are based upon its own knowledge, including faiths, goals, competition planning, internal state, the current state of the surrounding world and other objective existence state of the agent, etc. The behavior engine agent consists of event controllers, planning search

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engines, planning control engines, state control engines and pre-processing control engines [6]. The user avatar has a variety of behaviors in the VC, such as walking, sitting, standing, raising hands, talking, interaction, facial expressions and other forms. The behaviors of an avatar can be a single action or the simultaneous occurance of several actions. This system divides behaviors into two types -- low-level behavior and high-level behavior. Low-level behaviors only involve an avatar’s simple movements with each action represented as a thread in a client. A thread pool is used to achieve the control of basic movements of a single action. High-level behaviors are a combination of simple actions, such as walking while talking and talking with facial expressions. High-level behaviors are stored in servers and retrieved for use by behavior engine decisions. If a user avatar takes a single action after the client socket Agsocket connects with the server socket, the avatar agent will invoke a basic action thread from the thread pool and carry out the action via the Agsocket and server socket according to the script in the engine agent. High-level behaviors are invoked through decision actions of the engine agent on top of low-level behaviors. The behavior engine agent’s state change (such as adding, deleting, or changing the functions of an agent) information will be passed on to the multi-agent coordination management sub-module, who is responsible for the control and coordination of avatar and environment agents, the connection with the thread pool and carrying out behavior control.

Fig. 2. Structure of Behavior Engine Agent

3.2 Dynamic Intelligent Tracking of Teaching Activity Scenes Space scene switching aims at highlighting the main subject of instruction. As in the real classroom, the students will consciously shift their attention to the teacher, and when a student speaks, all eyes will turn to the speaker. For convenience of showing,

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three virtual fixed cameras are set up in the classroom as shown in Figure 3. On the top of the screen is Video Camera A for shooting students’ scenes; above the back part of the classroom are two cameras: Camera C is used to film the classroom panorama, which is the default scene. Camera B is used to obtain the whiteboard scene. Specific implementation of the setup is as follows [7]:

Fig. 3. Dynamic Intelligent Tracking of Teaching Activity Scene

A 3D agent entity object is defined, with the initial position set to the center of the teaching space, i.e. it is horizontally in the middle from all four sides of the classroom and vertically two units up from the ground. Attributes and parameters of the entity, such as the applications of graphic data, path searching, actions and movement speed, etc. are also defined. For easy access of online student data, seats in the VC are assigned coordinates in the order shown in Fig. 3. If there is no student speaking, the entity object loops through the student databases in the order of student coordinates. When a student speaks, the student database marks a speaking behavior; the avatar simultaneously raises its hand and the entity object moves to the node along a given path. The entity object moves along the path shown in Fig. 3. The entity object and each student seat are defined as a path node with the entity object connected to all nodes and the path in between each adjacent node. It moves from the pre-set starting point (the center position of classroom) at the onset and sets the target location of the previous move as the starting point for the next move. The entity always chooses the shortest path from the current position to the target location. If multiple students intend to speak, the entity object needs to resolve the conflict by shielding other speakers and choosing the coordinates of the selected speaker as its moving target.

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3.3 Avatar's Intelligent Tracking A user avatar can move around the VC at will or sit still in a chair. It should neither pass a scene object nor float in the air, just like a real person. Therefore a series of settings, such as ground properties, static collision groups, dynamic collision groups, path searching etc., are required [8]. Among them path searching is the key point which determines whether the user avatar can get to the specified location effectively. First, a 3D sphere object is set up over each desk in the VC. When the user clicks the 3D sphere object with a mouse, the user avatar will walk to the seat along a certain path. Second, a number of path nodes are set up on the ground, connecting all the path nodes to form undirected graphs of the user avatars’ traveling path. The A* searching algorithm is used to seek the shortest path between any two points. When the user clicks the 3D sphere object above the desk, the avatar begins walking and chooses, among several alternative paths, the shortest path to the destination as shown in Fig. 4. In the following diagram, if a teacher or students login in the 3D VC successfully, their representative avatars will appear in the diagram. For simple illustration, desks are simplified as rectangles and path nodes are denoted with " *". The green line is the default pathway for the teachers' and students' avatars. In addition to students' and teacher's common effective paths, there are also the teacher’s paths around the platform, which are represented with black lines.

Fig. 4. Paths of Avatar's Intelligent Tracking

4 Results According to the system structure, the actual effect of our VC is shown in Fig. 5. In this VC, the teacher can interact with the students by text, audio or video. Fig. 6 (a) is the switching of a PPT scene in which the teacher is making a gesture of operating the remote control. Fig. 6 (b) shows a student raising his hand. When a person speaks, his/her avatar makes simultaneous movements and synchronous audio transcripts will

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Fig. 5. Our Virtual Classroom

Fig. 6. Interaction in the VC: (a) Classroom Lecturing (b) Raising a Hand (c) After-class Interaction (d) Batch Distribution of Assignments

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appear. Fig. 6 (c) represents an after-class interaction. When the interaction is in the form of text, the avatar types; and when in audio, the avatar turns her head toward the conversation partner.. 6 (d) shows batch distribution of assignments.

5 Conclusion This paper presents an optimized solution of the VC based on multi-agents. We describe the architecture of the system, explore the single and concurrent controller mechanism of avatar behavior, and elaborate on the intelligent tracking of teaching activity. Through intelligent tracking, avatars can be controlled more easily. Preliminary results show that our program works well with a better technology. 3D visualization and intelligence represent the future of 3D VC. Future work is to improve the 3D VC system functions to support teaching interaction, and to extend it to practical teaching applications.

References 1. Wansen, Z., Haihu, S., Lifu, W., Xudong, Y.: Global Education on the Net. In: Proceedings of the ICCE, pp. 325–331 (1998) 2. France, L., Heraud, J.-M., Marty, J.C., Carron, T.: Monitoring virtual classroom: Visualization techniques to observe student activities in an e-learning system. In: Proc. of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, Kerkrade, The Netherlands, July 2006, pp. 716–720. IEEE Computer Society, USA (2006) 3. Huhns, M.N., Stephen, L.: Multiagent Systems and Society of Agents. In: Weiss, G. (ed.) Multiagent Systems, A Modern Approach to Distributed Artificial Intelligence, pp. 79–120. MIT Press, MA (1999) 4. Santos Fh, J.V., Gomes, R.L., Bacurau, R.M., de Pedroza, A.C.P., Courtiat, J.-P.: Coordinating collaborative work with RECOLLVE. In: International Symposium on Collaborative Technologies and Systems, pp. 266–275 (2009) 5. Yano, Y., Matsuura, K., Ogata, H.: Asynchronous virtual classroom Agent-based Reusable learning environment. In: ICCE 2001, Korea, vol. 1, pp. 14–21 (2001) 6. Goncalvez, L.M.G., Kallmann, M., Thalmann, D.: Defining Behaviors for Autonomous Agents based on Local Perception and Smart Objects. Computers and Graphics 1(6), 887–898 (2006) 7. Minghua, L.: Design of intelligent virtual classroom on distance education. China Educational Technology, 97–101 (2008) 8. Minghua, L.: Design of teaching flat of virtual robot based on primary school. China Education Info., 58–61 (2008)

Learning in CALL Environments: An Exploration of the Effects of Self-regulated Learning Constructs on Chinese Students’ Academic Performance Haisen Zhang1 and Ronghuai Huang2 1

University of International Business and Economics, Beijing, 100029, China [email protected] 2 Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China [email protected]

Abstract. The paper attempts to explore the predictiveness of the constructs of self-regulated learning in students’ academic performance in CALL environments. Students (N=459) from a Chinese university were surveyed through the adoption of an internationally widely used questionnaire called “Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire” as well as a written self-report for such an endeavor. Results show that extrinsic goal orientation, task value, and meta-cognitive self-regulation are able to be more predicative of the dependent variable. The paper concludes that more attention should be given to the development of these aspects of students’ self-regulated learning capacity in order to be able to enhance the performance of their listening comprehension. Moreover, it also points out that general constructs of this kind are domain-specific and learning situation-specific. Finally, the limitations of the paper are discussed and suggestions for future research are presented. Keywords: CALL, self-regulated learning, listening comprehension, academic performance.

1 Introduction The importance of self-regulated learning (SRL) has long been recognized by the academia due to its relationship with students’ academic achievement in various domains of study. As [1] put it, “[s]elf-regulated learning skills are indispensable at almost all levels of education” (p. 259). However, previous studies reveal that the constructs or sub-factors of SRL do not make equal contribution to students’ academic performance. Their predicting power varies from construct to construct as well as from domain to domain and from subject to subject. Some found that metacognitive self-regulation was more predictive of academic achievement in an intermediate accounting course [2, 3] while others showed that expectancy for success and effort management were the strongest predictors of academic success in the subjects of Biology, English, and Social Science [4]. [5] demonstrated that extrinsic goal orientation could be predicative of academic performance from its indirect, positive effect P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 370–382, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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through achievement goal level. [6] and [7] found that expectancy was the most significant predicator for academic achievement of distance learners. [8]’s findings revealed that effort regulation had a positive effect and peer learning had a negative effect on learning computer concepts in a lecture-led concept learning of an information systems course. [9] found that different courses such as the computer applications course and the business information systems involved different self-regulated skills. However, little has been done in terms of how much the constructs of SRL may contribute to students’ English listening comprehension performance in computerassisted language learning (CALL) environments in the Chinese context. The purpose of this paper is to identify the pivotal constructs of learners’ selfregulated listening comprehension learning in CALL environments and to investigate why some constructs could be more predictive of students’ academic achievement in listening comprehension so as to give rise to pedagogical implications for teaching and learning in such environments. This study attempted to make the investigation by addressing the following two specific questions: (1) Are any constructs of SRL more predicative of students’ listening comprehension test achievement in CALL environments? (2) If so, why are they more compelling than others in the prediction of students’ test achievement? If not, why not? This paper first reviews general SRL constructs in a broader educational context. Then, it moves on to identify the SRL role in language learning on the basis of previous research. Next, it gives a detailed description of research methodology employed. Furthermore, it discusses the compelling constructs revealed from the data results and online written self-report. Finally, it presents pedagogical implications for how learners can be better assisted to enhance their academic performance in this specific learning context.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Constructs of SRL SRL, which is also called self-regulation [10], is “an active, constructive process whereby learners set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behavior, guided and constrained by their goals and the contextual features in the environment”[11, p. 453]. More simply put, it is “the self-directive process through which learners transform their mental abilities into academic skills” [12, p. 2]. It is composed of meta-cognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, and resource management strategies [13]. Meta-cognitive strategies are defined as strategies for cognition, which are used to plan, monitor, and modify cognition [14]. Cognitive strategies refer to those for performing learning tasks [13]. These two strategies include the constructs of rehearsal, elaboration, organization, critical thinking, and meta-cognitive self-regulation [15]. Resource management strategies are defined as strategies for managing and controlling resources available to students such as time and study environments, for allocating efforts on school work, learning with peers and seeking help from peers, teachers

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and/or adults [15]. These three strategies as a whole offer learners an opportunity to succeed in schools and beyond [16]. However, the components of SRL mentioned above constitute only one part of a whole picture of SRL. As we know, successful self-regulated learners are also selfmotivated learners [17, 18, 19]. Therefore, when we consider the constructs of SRL, we should not forget to include the motivational aspect of students’ learning [10]. Otherwise, we could only notice the trees without seeing the woods in researching SRL. As part of the whole arsenal of SRL, the motivational constructs include expectancy, value, and affect [13]. Expectancy refers to students’ judgments of their ability to perform a task. Value refers to the worthiness of accomplishing a task. Affect or emotions refer to students’ anxiety about taking exams. Research shows that these constructs are significantly related to other constructs of SRL [13]. They are blended together to be able to mirror the “will” and “skill” of self-regulated learners [20, p. 52]. 2.2 The Role of SRL in Language Learning in CALL Environments Self-regulation is a crucially important factor that influences student academic achievement [21, 13, 22, 23, 24; 25, 26]. Although personality characteristics, intelligence, aptitude, attitudes, age, learner preferences, and learner beliefs may come into play in terms of affecting language learning outcomes [See more in 27, 28, 29], it is proven to be of great significance in exerting tremendous impact on student academic performance [30, 23, 25] and more specifically on student language performance [31], especially when students learn a language in CALL environments, where they have self-access to digitized learning resources and self-pace their own learning, with an instructor being an organizer, helper, guide, and facilitator. For one thing, learning environments are “a critical component” of language acquisition [32, p. 2]. Not only can they make it possible for students to become “masters of their own learning” [23, p. 4], but they can also affect language learning performance [32]. In such environments, students learn at their own pace, in their unique way, for their own specific purposes, and toward the common goal. Through their interaction with the computer, electronic resources, their peers, the instructor, and the environment as a whole, their language learning can be dramatically enhanced [33]. With the change in pedagogical practices and in the role of teacher as more than a language instructor, students will take more responsibility for their own learning in terms of “planning and managing time; attending to and concentrating on instruction; organizing, rehearsing, and coding information strategically; establishing a productive work environment; and using social resources effectively” [34, p. 195] throughout the entire learning process. As a result, they have to assume responsibility for their learning results [35], which have resulted from goal setting, progress monitoring, selfevaluating, and other behaviors of SRL [17]. For another, in a technology-rich CALL environment, technology per se cannot make miracles in students’ language learning outcomes but the way it is used by its human users [33]. When students perform tasks in such environments, the way computers are used and, more importantly, their SRL

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skills are of paramount importance in terms of their impact on students’ language performance.

3 Methodology This study took a quantitative and qualitative approach to the investigative endeavor. It was carried out in one of the morning sessions when the students were required to complete a course assessment test at the end of the second semester of the first academic year. The listening section of a Chinese national College English Test (Band Four) for non-English majors was adopted as a measurement tool for assessing the participants’ level of listening comprehension. In addition, a widely used questionnaire (MSLQ) was employed in this study. An email written report of the students’ learning behaviors was solicited from a group of students after emerging themes were noted from the results of preliminary analyses of the questionnaire survey. 3.1 Participants The participants (N=459), who came from a key Chinese university in a metropolitan area in North China, were students of diverse majors from the freshmen population at this university. The majority of them were students of arts, namely, business administration, international trade, accounting, law, as well as literature and linguistics. Most of them were of 18-19 years of age and shared similar academic backgrounds. Specifically, they all passed the National College Entrance Examination in the same year and acquired the same one-year experience of self-regulated listening learning by working on an American language learning software program, featuring listening and speaking, in a self-access multimedia language learning center. The center has been awarded as one of the five exemplary multimedia language learning labs in this metropolitan city and serves as a model for other universities in terms of transforming foreign language education through information technologies. The participants selfaccessed the center and performed the required tasks of English listening, which was one of the required English language courses for general purposes, for a minimum of 2 class hours (one hour and a half) per week regularly and continually for two academic years after they were admitted to the university. 3.2 Instrumentation Three measurement tools were used in this study. The first one was a listening comprehension test adapted from the listening section in the national College English Test (Band Four), which was intended for freshmen and sophomore college students in China. The test covered 25 items and lasted 22.46 minutes, which was used to collect data about the students’ performance in listening comprehension. The second one was a questionnaire, which was intended to investigate students’ SRL behaviors. The questionnaire was adapted from the questionnaire titled “the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ),” which was developed by [15]. It encompasses motivation and SRL components and is a “self-report instrument designed to assess college students’ motivational orientations and their use of different learning strategies” [36, p. 4]. It has been used in hundreds of research studies across multiple

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disciplines across the globe [21] and “has proven to be a reliable and useful tool that can be adapted for a number of different purposes for researchers, instructors, and students” (p. 118). The reliability of the scale is relatively high (Cronbach's Alpha=.783), according to [37], who suggested that score reliability of .70 or better is acceptable for basic social science research purposes. There were 81 items in the original questionnaire but only 44 items were chosen and adapted for this particular study as it was believed to be appropriate to have parts of the questionnaire used and adapted for a study [36]. The adaptation of the instrument mainly resulted in rewording of the items to suit the purpose of this present study. The questionnaire under discussion was composed of three sections. Section one was demographically oriented, which intended to gather some demographical data about the participants. Section two mainly covered the items that were used to identify the participants’ motivational behaviors. Section three related to the items that were used to uncover students’ SRL behaviors. The questionnaire was designed on the basis of a seven-point Likert scale with categories ranging from “not at all true of me” to “very true of me.” The participants were required to tick the one that best suited him or her from the scale of each item. The last one was an email self-report, which aimed at soliciting the students’ responses about their SRL experience at the self-access learning center. There were three major questions, which mainly pertained to the four areas of concern: the efficiency of learning without a teacher’s help, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations as well as tutors’ helpfulness, and meta-cognitive self-regulation. The questions were used to unravel the reasons for the major constructs identified in the results of the initial survey analysis. 3.3 Procedures The questionnaire and the listening test were administered in a session at the end of the second semester in the 2008-2009 academic year, during which the students studying at the center were required to take an assessment test for the listening course given by the academic division of the school. Just before the assessment test was given, the listening test and the questionnaire were administered respectively. The test was created in an mp3 format and delivered through a learning platform at the learning center. The students listened to the test recording once and completed the test within the given time. After the test was done, the questionnaire was administered through an online survey system. The questionnaire was made available to all the freshmen students who were required to do the assessment test in the same session. When the listening test and the questionnaire were completed, they went on to do the assessment test. Their completed listening test and filled-out questionnaires (N=475) were retrieved and entered into a Microsoft excel data file after the assessment test was completed. Basic screening of the questionnaires was conducted by using Microsoft Excel. It was found that there were 459 questionnaires valid for this study, with others containing either missing or unrelated information, which were excluded from the final analysis of this study, along with their responding test scores. Then, data were run with SPSS 15.0 to obtain the results of initial analyses, which were used to lay a foundation for identifying learning behaviors associated with

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the identified compelling constructs. In the third week after the questionnaire was administered and emerging themes were noted, a group of volunteer participants (N=15), who were having another course in spoken English, were invited to make a written account of their experiences by responding to the 3 given questions by email. These responses were collected and then further explored to provide proof for the reasons why some constructs were singled out as the most important ones.

4 Results 4.1 Motivational Constructs and the Performance of the Listening Comprehension Test The test score was significantly correlated with all the constructs of motivation (p<.01), namely, intrinsic goal orientation, extrinsic goal orientation, task value, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy for learning and performance and test anxiety. Moreover, all of them were positively correlated with the test score except test anxiety (r=-.191, p<.001). That means that the stronger beliefs the students have in the first five constructs, the better test performance they may have. On the contrary, the higher anxiety they have, the poorer test performance they may achieve. Furthermore, the students’ Extrinsic Goal Orientation (r=.704, p<.001) and Task Value (r=.679, p=<.001) are more significantly correlated with the score than other constructs. The results of multiple regressions are shown in Table 1, with constructs of motivation being independent variables and the test score the dependent variable. There were altogether 4 constructs entering the regression model, namely, Extrinsic goal orientation, Task Value, Control of learning beliefs, and Self-efficacy for learning. As R2 is a factor that determines the variance accounted for by predictors, we can see that Model 4 could predict 61.6% of the variance. However, the additional two constructs have contributed much less to the model, with Control of learning beliefs accounting for 0.7% of the variance and Self-efficacy for learning, 0.5%. Table 1. Contribution of motivational constructs to each model

Model 1 2 3 4 a b c d

Adjusted R Std. Error of the R R Square Square Estimate .704(a) .495 .494 9.680 .777(b) .604 .602 8.583 .782(c) .611 .609 8.511 .785(d) .616 .612 8.471 Predictors: (Constant), Extrinsic goal orientation Predictors: (Constant), Extrinsic goal orientation, Task Value Predictors: (Constant), Extrinsic goal orientation, Task Value, Control of learning beliefs Predictors: (Constant), Extrinsic goal orientation, Task Value, Control of learning beliefs, Self-efficacy for learning.

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The analysis of variance (ANOVA) “tests whether the model is significantly better at predicting the outcome than using the mean as a ‘best guess’” [38, p. 189]. The results of the ANOVA analysis show that all of the four models can significantly predict the students’ test achievement (p<.001). However, the F-ratio revealed that the power of predictability was weakened with additional predictors added to the model, with Model 1 (F(1, 457)=447.883, p<.001), Model 2 (F(2, 456)=347.522, p<.001), Model 3 (F(3, 455)=238.471, p<.001), and Model 4 (F(4, 454)=181.915, p<.001) respectively. The coefficients of the stepwise multiple regression analysis with test score as dependent variables and the constructs entering the model as independent variables. When determining which constructs are more predictive than others, we can refer to the β value, which is “a measure of how strongly each predictor variable influences the criterion variable” [39, p. 208]. According to [40], any variable which has a β value of less than 0.1 can be excluded from the equation due to its less predictability. In this case, only Extrinsic Goal Orientation (β=.448) and Task Value (β=.374) could be retained, for their individual β value remained larger than 0.1 whereas the β values for Control of learning beliefs (β=.079) and Self-efficacy for learning and performance (β=.071) are less than 0.1. In summary, of all the constructs of motivational strategies, these two are the most predictive of the listening comprehension test score. 4.2 Constructs of SRL Strategies and Performance in the Listening Comprehension Test The results of the correlation analysis show that all of these constructs are significantly correlated with the test score (p<.01). This indicates that the better the students’ meta-cognitive self-regulation, the better they do in their listening comprehension test. Table 2 shows that there are three constructs entering the model, revealing that these constructs can be used to be able to predict students’ test score than others. The value of R2 is “a measure of how much of the variability in the outcome is accounted for by the predictors” [38, p. 235]. From this value in Model 1, we know that Metacognitive self-regulation accounts for 60.5% of variance in the listening test score. Although Models 2 and 3 have a larger value of R2, additionally included variables can only make very little contribution to the model, with Help seeking explaining 0.5% of the total variance and Effort regulation, 0.3%. Table 2. Contribution of the constructs of regulated learning strategies to each model

Model 1 2 3

Adjusted R Std. Error of R R Square Square the Estimate .778(a) .605 .604 8.565 .780(b) .609 .607 8.525 .783(c) .612 .610 8.498 a Predictors: (Constant), Meta-cognitive self-regulation b Predictors: (Constant), Meta-cognitive self-regulation, Help seeking c Predictors: (Constant), Meta-cognitive self-regulation, Help seeking, Effort regulation.

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Whether the available models can significantly predict the variance of the dependent variable still remains to be tested through an analysis of variance that “tests whether the model is significantly better at predicting the outcome than using the mean as a ‘best guess’” [38, p. 189). The results of the ANOVA of the three models reveal that all of these models can be significant predictors (p<.001). However, Model 1 seems to be significantly better (F(1, 457)=698.65, p<.001) than Model 2 (F(2, 456)= 355.30, p<.001) and Model 3 (F(3, 455)= 239.67, p<.001). The results of stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed which of the variables could significantly predict the variance of the dependent variable. As the t-tests are “measures of whether the predictor is making a significant contribution to the model” [41, p. 239), we could see that all of the three predictors, namely, Meta-cognitive selfregulation (t(455)= 20.49, p<.001), Help seeking ((t(455)= 2.26, p<.001), and Effort regulation ((t(455)= 1.97, p<.001), are all significant predictors. Based on the magnitude of t-statistics and the β-value criteria of judging the degree of contribution of the variables to the model, which is proposed by [40], Meta-cognitive self-regulation (β=.72, p<.001) could have more significant impact on the model than Help seeking (β=.08, p<.001) and Effort regulation (β=.06, p<.001).

5 Discussion and Analysis 5.1 Are Any Constructs of SRL More Predicative of Students’ Listening Comprehension Test Achievement in CALL Environments? Obviously, the answer is positive. As previous studies indicate, SRL has impact on academic performance [21, 42, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25]. From a global view of the constructs of SRL, they all contribute to the success of students’ learning. However, the contribution rates of these constructs vary a lot from construct to construct. As evidenced from the results above, the constructs of SRL are not equally important in terms of their effect on students’ learning performance. Among those constructs, extrinsic goal orientation, task value, and meta-cognitive self-regulation stand out to be the three constructs that are most vital in predicting the students’ listening achievement. 5.2 Why Are They More Compelling Than Others in the Prediction of Students’ Test Performance? Extrinsic goal orientation, task value, and meta-cognitive self-regulation are singled out to be the three compelling constructs that have the most significant effect on test achievement. The reasons behind their prominence in listening learning might be numerous. But one key reason that might be able to tell the whole story is that the students who studied listening in this self-regulated CALL environment could have no access to teacher guidance and assistance. Student learning was not facilitated by the teacher but by student tutors. It is apparent that these tutors might be excellent in terms of their own performance in learning but they might not be proficient in helping solve the students’ problems. This can be seen from what students confessed in the written email account of their learning experience.

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“Actually, I just study in my own way and don't listen to the tutors. And there is a more appropriate approach for me than the tutors'.” (yan1221, March 8, 2009) “Tutors at the lab concern more about the [equipment] and regulations than the stud[y]ing guidance. But that is not tutors' faults, coz we don't even think of [asking] tutors at the lab for help on study ways." (ruolin2001, March 9, 2009) Moreover, tutors were incomparable with teachers in terms of students’ special feeling toward a teacher both as an individual and as a mentor, let alone didactic effectiveness [43]. Accordingly, they had to readjust their role in learning by developing metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive awareness in the process of their learning and regulating themselves for the achievement of their learning objectives. Put it another way, they had to learn how to learn successfully and to work their own way to achieving effective learning when they had no assistance readily accessible. “To learn successfully, I’ll manage to do the following things: a. read English papers as often as I can. b. remember as many new words as I can. c. monitor the progress as much as I can.” (284663074, March 8, 2009) Owing to the lack of proper guidance and pedagogical assistance from teachers, these students were less intrinsically self-motivated. Those who had a high extrinsic goal orientation in this specific scenario manifested themselves as exam- and careeroriented learners. Simply put, they studied the language not out of their interest but out of their external pressures, such as for passing exams and for better job prospects. This is true for quite a number of the students. “I [admit] I learn it mostly for the sake of passing the exam, expressing [myself] correctly and clearly in order to get a good job.” (lixing1120, March 7, 2009) “To be honest with you, my teacher, the guy in China who says he only learns English for future consideration instead of passing the countless exams is, more or less, a day-time dreamer.“ (yani1990, March 8, 2009) Generally speaking, the students who are capable of self-regulating their learning behaviors will find themselves on the right path to success even without much guidance from teachers. However, the number of such students is small [43]. Most of them need teachers to enlighten them about what to learn and how to learn effectively. In other words, they expect teachers to give them a net and show them how to fish in the vast ocean of language learning. As we all know, needs give rise to motivation and the latter results in behaviors, which can eventually lead to results. One of a teacher’s multiple responsibilities is to know about students’ needs, to help them become both intrinsically and extrinsically self-motivated learners, to equip them with appropriate SRL skills and to guide them throughout the entire learning process. As seen from the results, all the constructs of SRL are significantly correlated with students’ test performance. If teachers could motivationally and strategically facilitate students’ learning, their performance might be better enhanced. However, pedagogically in this

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specific scenario, students’ extrinsic goal orientation, task value, and metacognitive self-regulation should be given first priority in order to assist them to learn more effectively.

6 Conclusions The findings reveal that extrinsic goal orientation, task value, and metacognitive selfregulation are the three compelling constructs that lead to performance enhancement in listening comprehension learning in CALL environments. When these selfregulated skills are fostered before students embark on learning in these environments, effective learning is more likely to take place. However, this does not mean that these three constructs are the most important ones of all the constructs related to SRL when students are learning any subjects in any learning situations. A generalization of the results must be made very carefully, for the findings of this study might well correspond to the unique student population and also have echoed the findings of the previous studies, which have shown that mixed results have been achieved in terms of which construct or constructs are more important than others [8]. Broadly speaking, the importance of the constructs under discussion is domainspecific and learning situation-specific. It is domain-specific because differing subjects require differing attention from students to differing motivational and learning strategy constructs. Take math and English learning for example, these two subjects involve varying learning strategies and also possibly different motivations of learning. It is learning situation-specific because learning situations such as available or unavailable help from the teacher, among others, may significantly affect students’ motivations and learning strategies, which may have been showcased by the findings in this study. The study has a number of limitations, some of which offer opportunities for further research. The first one relates to the student population under discussion. The participants come from a freshman population of arts. They have strong career orientations toward and aspirations for multinational companies and cross-cultural communication-related work environments. Also, they have pressure coming outside from the campus culture, in which learning English well is appreciated by the community. These characteristics can make the population unique in the Chinese institutions of higher education. Students of science and those who study at the institutions in nonmetropolitan cities may be distinctly different from the participants in this study. Another pertains to the subject matter. Learning other language skills or subjects may result in differences in the investigated constructs. The last one bears on research methodology. If classroom observations and interviews were undertaken to identify the students’ learning behaviors, more evidence could be gathered to enrich the current body of research literature. Acknowledgments. This study has been partially supported by a research grant (Contract No. 471018) of “Reforming the teaching of college English listening and speaking with multimedia technologies” at the University of International Business and Economics from a Teaching Reform Project of Beijing Higher Educational Institutions.

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References 1. Nückles, M., Hübner, S., Renkl, A.: Enhancing Self-Regulated Learning by Writing Learning Protocols. Learning and Instruction 19(3), 259–271 (2009) 2. Eide, B.J.: Integrating Learning Strategy Instruction in an Intermediate Accounting Course: Changes in Accounting Majors’ Learning Strategy Use and Course Performance. Ph.D. dissertation, Virginia Commonwealth University, United States (2009) 3. Pokay, P., Blumenfeld-Phyllis, C.: Predicting Achievement Early and Late in the Semester: The Role of Motivation and the Use of Learning Strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology 82(1), 41–50 (1990) 4. Doljanac, R.F.: Using Motivational Factors and Learning Strategies to Predict Academic Success. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, United States—Michigan (1994) 5. Lee, L.H.: Goal Orientation, Goal Setting, and Academic Performance in College Students: An Integrated Model of Achievement Motivation in School Settings. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, United States – California. Dissertations & Theses: The Humanities and Social Sciences Collection database (Publication No. AAT 9835095) (1997) 6. Hsu, J.T.-S.: Value, Expectancy, Metacognition, Resource Management, and Academic Achievement: a Structural Model of Self-Regulated Learning in a Distance Education Context. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, United States (1997) 7. Bell, P.D.: Can Factors Related to Self-regulated Learning and Epistemological Beliefs Predict Learning Achievement in Undergraduate Asynchronous Web-based Courses? Perspectives in Health Information Management 3(7), 1–17 (2006), http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/ picrender.fcgi?artid=2047299&blobtype=pdf 8. Chen, C.S.: Self-Regulated Learning Strategies and Achievement in an Introduction to Information Systems Course. Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal 20(1), 11–24 (2002) 9. Chalupa, M., Chen, C.: An Analysis of College Students’ Motivation and Learning Strategies in Computer Courses: A Cognitive View. Delta PiEpsilon Journal 43(4), 185–199 (2001) 10. Schunk, D.H.: Self-Regulated Learning: The Educational Legacy of Paul R. Pintrich. Educational Psychologist 40(2), 85–92 (2005) 11. Pintrich, P.R.: The Role of Goal Orientation in Self-Regulated Learning. In: Boekaerts, M., Pintrich, P.R., Zeidner, M. (eds.) Handbook of Self-Regulation, pp. 402–451. Academic Press, San Diego (2000) 12. Zimmerman, B.J.: Developing Self-Fulfilling Cycles of Academic Regulation: An Analysis of Exemplary Instructional Models. In: Schunk, D.H., Zimmerman, B.J. (eds.) SelfRegulated Learning: From Teaching to Self-Regulated Practice, pp. 1–19. Guilford Press, New York (1998) 13. Pintrich, P.R., De Groot, E.V.: Motivational and Self-Regulated Learning Components of Classroom Academic Performance. Journal of Educational Psychology 82(1), 33–40 (1990) 14. Hismanoglu, M.: Language Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching. The Internet TESL Journal VI(8) (2000), http://iteslj.org/Articles/Hismanoglu-Strategies.html 15. Pintrich, P.R., Smith, D.A.F., Garcia, T., McKeachie, W.J.: A Manual for the Use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning, Ann Arbor (1991)

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Automatic Support for the Analysis of Online Collaborative Learning Chat Conversations Stefan Trausan-Matu1,2 1

University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, 313 Splaiul Independetei, Bucharest, Romania 2 Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence of the Romanian Academy, 13 Calea 13 Septembrie, Bucharest, Romania [email protected]

Abstract. The paper starts from experiments of using online instant messenger chats as an assignment in a classical face to face course. Tutors reported that the activity of evaluating and grading students’ chats is very difficult. Starting from the analysis of their evaluations, Bakhtin’s polyphonic theory was chosen as a good starting point for developing automatic support tools. As a consequence, the PolyCAFe system based on this theory was developed using techniques from Natural Language Processing and Social Network Analysis. The system provides interactive graphics visualization of the chat and textual feedback. The persons who will beneficiate the most from the system are tutors. They can use the system for analyzing the participation of students and getting insights for writing a detailed feedback and grading. Students also may use the system, for getting feedback. Keywords: Hybrid Learning, Chat, polyphony, Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, Natural Language Processing, Social Network Analysis.

1 Introduction In recent years, due to online collaboration facilities offered by instant messenger (chat) and forums of discussions, new online learning scenarios appear. Hybrid learning, which is combining the classroom based learning with online learning, beneficiate also from these conveniences. In addition to the huge number of documents available on the web, the online collaboration tools offer new opportunities for hybrid learning encouraging group knowledge construction. The latter is in consonance with the change of paradigm generated by the failures of the knowledge transfer theories. Instead this perspective, which sees learning as a transfer of knowledge from texts or from teachers to learners, the participation paradigm considers that to learn means to be able to enter into a discourse [1], to handle a speech genre [2] or to be able to participate to a polyphony of voices [3]. This change of paradigm is in correspondence also with an alternative to the cognitive theories stating that knowledge should be investigated by analyzing one’s mind. Instead this egocentric view, the socio-cultural paradigm considers that knowledge should be considered as socially constructed [4]. The first paradigm, based on the knowledge transfer could be considered also as a P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 383–394, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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result of the lack of possibilities for social interaction. The facilities for social interaction on the Web2.0 (social Web) create a natural substrate for Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) [4]. The hybrid learning scenario considered in the paper is combining classroom lectures with individual study of learning materials and CSCL using online instant messenger chats for discussing topics assigned by tutors in relation to the lectures. The set-up was used for several years for computer science students at the University “Politehnica” of Bucharest. One important problem encountered was that tutors reported that the activity of evaluating and grading students’ chats is very difficult. Starting from the analysis of tutors’ experience and from CSCL fundamentals [4], Bakhtin’s dialogism and polyphony theory [2, 5, 6] was chosen for developing a theoretical model and automatic support tools. Consequently, the PolyCAFe system (Polyphonic Conversation Analysis and Feedback generation), based on this theory was developed using techniques from Natural Language Processing and Social Network Analysis [7]. It is a considerable improved successor of a previous system [8, 9] and, due to its polyphonic model is different from other approaches for analyzing chats or conversations [10, 11], which do not consider multiple voices (threads of discussion). PolyCAFe is a module in the EU FP7-IST project ‘Language Technologies for Lifelong Learning’ (LTfLL, [12], see also http://www.ltfll-project.org) and it provides interactive graphics visualization of the chat and textual feedback. The persons who will beneficiate the most from the system are tutors. They can use the system for analyzing the participation of students and getting insights for writing a detailed feedback and grading. Students also beneficiate from the feedback and interactive analysis tools of PolyCAFe. The remaining of the paper introduces first some experiences in using chat-based CSCL in conjunction with classical courses in the Computer Science Department of the “Politehnica” University of Bucharest. The polyphony theory is presented in the third section. The PolyCAFe system, developed on this theory for supporting collaborative learning using chats is the subject of the fourth section.

2 Hybrid Learning Using Online Chats 2.1 The Experience of Using Chats in Hybrid Learning A hybrid learning scenario that includes group knowledge construction was designed and experimented with students from several courses at the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the “Politehnica” University of Bucharest: Human Computer Interaction (fourth, final undergraduate year), Design of Algorithms (second undergraduate year), Adaptive and Collaborative Systems (first master year) and Natural Language Processing (first master year). As case study we will refer below to the experiences with the Human Computer Interaction (HCI) course. Numerous students enrolled for the HCI course, ranging from 160 students in the 2007-2008 academic year and 324 students in 2008-2009. This course includes classical face to face classes, individual study, laboratory activity and assignments. One of the assignments was the collaborative knowledge construction using online chat conversations. Tutors grouped students in teams of 4 participants. Each student has been

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assigned a topic to study individually and afterward to support it in an online chat debate with the colleagues from his/her team. The subject of the chat discussion at the HCI course was the collaborative tools available on the web. The four topics assigned to the four members of the teams were: ‘discussion forum’, ‘chat’, ‘wiki’ and ‘blog’. In addition to the face-to-face lecture on collaborative tools, students had to read documents in order to understand the subject in detail and to have arguments for supporting it. During the chat session, they presented their points of view, they debated and had to inter-animate (arguing on their assigned topics), the aim being to improve their own and the others’ understanding of the topics. Students were told to stay online and discuss for about two hours and to structure the conversation in two steps. In the first part, each of them had to support his/her assigned topic by presenting its features and advantages and criticize the others’ topics by invoking their flaws and drawbacks. In the final part of the chat, they had to discuss on how they could integrate all these tools in a software environment. For performing the chat conversations, students had access to the chat system developed in the Virtual Math Teams (VMT) project [13], installed on a server at the university. This system was used due to its unique feature of permitting to explicitly reference previous utterances or places on the whiteboard: During writing an utterance an explicit reference to a previous utterance may be included with a mouse click. The reference is shown with an arrow (see Figure 1). Other useful facilities of this chat system are the fact that chat sessions are saved on a server and they can be viewed and replayed with a special player. The explicit referencing facility is extremely important in chat conversations with more than two participants because it allows the existence of several discussion threads or voices, in parallel. The co-occurrence of several voices gives birth to inter-animation and polyphony [3], phenomena identified in any text by Mikhail Bakhtin [5, 6].

Fig. 1. Explicit referencing of previous utterances)

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2.2 The Manual Analysis and Grading of the Chats The analysis and grading of the students’ collaborative assignment was performed until now manually by tutors. This activity proved to be extremely time consuming, for each chat session the time needed for the analyze lasting more (even two times) than the actual duration of the online chat. For investigating the analysis and grading activities, a set of seven chats from the HCI course were analyzed in parallel by four tutors (not always the same). They had to write an evaluation (the feedback provided to the students) and to give grades to the chat as a whole and for each participant. At a later time, after the evaluations, the tutors were asked to report which were the problems they encountered when evaluating and grading the chat conversations. All the tutors complained that it proved to be very difficult to follow the threading of discussions. The conversation had very long chains and it was very hard to remember what said each student, what was his/her contribution in order to provide a correct assessment. Some of them mentioned that it would be useful to have a facility to see only of the utterances of a single student. Also the identification of important utterances was difficult because only afterwards this judgment may be done, after seeing the effect of these utterances on the subsequent ones. The majority of the tutors mentioned that they needed to follow more than once the conversation in order to evaluate it. As a conclusion, the existence of supporting tools for automatic analysis of CSCL chats would be definitively needed for being able to currently use this kind of assignment in hybrid learning. Such tools should provide abstractions of the chat and emphasizing discussion threads. They have to be able to identify the contributions of each participant and their interactions in the discussion threading. Proposals for grading the students would also be very useful. The remaining part of the paper discusses a theory that might stay behind developing such tools and an actual set of tools implemented for such analyses.

3 A Polyphonic Model for CSCL Chats The analysis of the tutors’ reports presented in the previous section emphasized the great difficulty of following the long threads of discussion and of being able to remember what said each student and how these contributions have effects on the subsequent utterances. This problem is similar to that of an inexperienced listener who does not comprehend a lot when hearing a complex classical music piece, for example, a fugue written by Johann Sebastian Bach. Fugues are typical examples of polyphonic musical pieces, in which several voices jointly play simultaneously one or more melodies. However, if the rules of polyphonic music composition are known, and if somebody can follow more than one voice at a time, everything becomes comprehensible. The analogy between polyphony and linguistic phenomena is not new. It has been introduced by Mikhail Bakhtin [2, 5, 6] and its usefulness for CSCL was discussed by Koschmann [14] and Wertsch [15]. However, no theory or computer analysis tools starting from Bakhtin’s polyphony were developed for multi-participants online chats before our approach [3, 7, 8, 9].

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In polyphonic music a number of melodic lines (“voices” or, in the linguistic perspective, discourse chains or threads) construct a harmonious musical piece (a discourse), generating variations on one or several themes. Dissonances (disagreements, disputes) may appear but they should be resolved in order to assure the harmony (or success of the conversation), even if several themes (melodies) or theme variations are played simultaneously. Voices in polyphonic music have two dimensions, the longitudinal melody (corresponding to the sequential threading of utterances or words) and the transversal chords implicitly generated by the coincidence of multiple voices. In chats, voices may be considered as particular positions, manifested as utterances, which may influence other voices and have both explicit (like those provided by the VMT chat environment [13]) and implicit links (for example, repetitions of words, co-references or argumentation links [7]). Due to the simple fact that voices co-occur, they are permanently inter-animating, entering in competition, generating multivocality in any conversation and even in any text (in Bakhtin’s dialogic theory everything is a dialog [2, 5, 6]). Moreover, echoes of voices influence later words: “all our utterances (including creative works), is filled with others’ words” [2]. The polyphonic model applied to CSCL chats may help not only in analyzing multiple discourse threads. It may also give a framework for evaluating other issues in students’ conversations in assignments. For clarification we will start from an analysis performed on the written evaluations made by tutors discussed in the previous section. We identified several classes of problems that they followed in their written feedback. The main concerns that they took into account were: Did the students discuss about the assigned concepts? Did they participate to the discussion? Did they debate (interanimate on) the assigned topics? Did they accept also other opinions? Did they only read and said what they read? Did they commit plagiarism? All the above questions may be viewed from the polyphonic, multivocality perspective in the following corresponding questions: Is the voice of the tutor or professor present, or they ignore it and discuss about other issues? Is there a real polyphony of inter-animating voices in the chat? Is the actual voice of students present? Are there also convergent inter-animation [3] patterns? Is the voice of a given student only repeating exactly other voice, without any contribution (or even committing plagiarism)? Are there new voices? The polyphonic model may be used not only for chats, it may be used for Hybrid Learning in general [16]. The concepts of voice, echoes of utterances, polyphony and inter-animation provide a basis for providing an unifying theoretical background for different types of learning: face-to-face, to a distance, using electronic means, and even individually. In each of these types several voices should be present (actually, virtually or as an echo in Bakhtin’s sense [2]), entering into polyphony and interanimating: the voice of the professor, of the learner, of the authors of read documents and of chat colleagues.

4 Automatic Support for the Analysis of Chats Ideally, a system for supporting tutors in the analysis of students’ chats should solve the problems mentioned in the previous sections. From the polyphonic perspective, this means identifying the threads of discussion in chats and the influence of each thread (voice) on the others (echoes and the inter-animation). Unfortunately, this is an

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extremely difficult, if not impossible task because it implies to develop computer programs for full natural language understanding, which is known as one of the most difficult problems in artificial intelligence [17]. However, software tools may be developed that can help tutors to easier follow the threading and understand the contributions of students [3, 7, 8]. In this section the PolyCAFe system is presented, which is extending in many directions the series of these tools. We will discuss mainly the support for tutors, but students also were considered and they can beneficiate in the form of feedback and by using the same interactive visualizations provided for tutors, for a self-analysis of their contribution.

Fig. 2. The architecture of the analysis system

Fig. 3. A fragment of a chat log encoding

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Starting from the analysis of tutors’ concerns in the end of the previous section, we could group the problems that were considered in the system in three categories: the correct content of students’ utterances, the degree of collaboration (including involvement, acceptance of others, leader/lurker role, interaction or inter-animation) and the existence of discourse and debate threads. The PolyCAFe system for the automatic analysis of CSCL chat conversations considers the above categories (see Figure 2). The implementation starts from the polyphonic theory [3] integrating techniques from Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Social Networks Analysis (SNA) [7]. Flexible interfacing is provided in the form of a set of seven widgets [18] for managing the assignments, for uploading chat logs and for providing interactive graphical and textual feedback for each of the students and for the group as a whole. For the input of the analysis system an XML encoding of the chat logs was designed (see an example in Figure 3). PolyCAFe is able to convert several other chat logs formats in this XML schema, for example the VMT format [13] or the textual one provided by Yahoo messenger. The output is a series of textual and interactive graphical visualizations [7] (Figures 4-7).

Fig. 4. The interactive graphics interface

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Fig. 5. The visualization of the presence of the concepts from the assignment

Each utterance in the XML encoding has an unique identifier (‘genid’) and the existing explicit links (references, the ‘ref’ attribute) to previous utterances, which were specified by the participants using the facility provided by the VMT environment. In addition to the input annotations of a chat, the schema also includes at the end evaluation data generated by the system. For detecting if chats include the correct content, NLP techniques are used. The NLP pipe preprocesses the chat logs for both content and inter-animation analysis [7]. In order to detect inter-animation in chats, threads are identified starting from the explicit links indicated by the student and from implicit links, detected using also NLP techniques: speech acts, adjacency pairs, co-references, cue-phrases or starting from repeated words [7]. Several criteria are used for detecting inter-animation patterns [7], such as the presence of questions, agreement, disagreement or explicit and implicit referencing. In addition, the strength of a voice (of an utterance) is computed starting from the strength of the utterances that refer to it. If an utterance is referenced

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Fig. 6. The utterances of Liviu

by other utterances that are considered important, obviously that utterance also becomes important [7]. The evaluation of the contributions of each learner considers several features like the coverage of the expected concepts, readability measures, and the degree to which they have influenced the conversation or contributed to the inter-animation [7, 19]. Numerical values describing the activity of the participants are computed using Social Network Analysis, Latent Semantic Analyses and other techniques [19]. A graphical interactive visualization and analysis of the conversations is provided. For each participant in the chat, there is a separate horizontal line in the representation and each utterance is placed in the line corresponding to the issuer of that utterance, taking into account its positioning in the original chat file – using the timeline as an horizontal axis (see Figure 4). A ruler is indicating the number of the utterance. Below it, a graphical visualization of the degree of collaboration is provided. The bottom part of the window in Figure 4 contains three tabs. The first contains some settings for visualization options. The second tab shows the conversation thread containing the utterance corresponding to the node on which the user has clicked with the mouse. The interactive graphics facilities help tutors to have a glimpse on the participation of the students in the conversation. For example, in Figure 4 it is obvious that Mariuca

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Fig. 7. The evaluations of Liviu and Maria

and Dragos have only a very short presence at the beginning of the chat. Another easily detectable fact is that Liviu has participated less intensely in the last part of the conversation than in the beginning. Regarding the topics of the conversation, assigned by the tutor (chat, wiki, forum and blog), or any other words, the ‘Special threads’ tab allows to select the visualization of their sequencing. For example, from figure 5 the tutor may see that there was a main inter-animation region, between utterances 150 and 180, where the assigned topics were debated. This fact is also revealed by the collaboration graphic. In addition to the graphical visualization, the system includes also widgets for textual feedback. For example, the visualization of the utterances of all or only one (as indicated as very useful by the tutors – see section 2) of the participants, together with the importance value is provided in the ‘Utterance feedback’ (Figure 6). A grading of the participants is also provided, considering several features (Figure 7). A first evaluation and assessment of the system was performed both with tutors and with students [18]. With this system, after concluding a chat session, students may upload the chat logs which, after are processed provide useful feedback.

5 Conclusions Online chat conversations may be used as assignment in combination with classroom lectures in a hybrid learning scenario. However, the analysis and grading of the participation of students in a chat given as assignment is a very time consuming and difficult task. Several issues are considered in this analysis: content, collaboration and

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discourse building. Therefore, the PolyCAFe automatic analysis system was developed. The system is based on a model based on Bakhtin’s polyphonic theory, which may be used for understanding the mechanisms of knowledge building in collaborative chats, in particular and in hybrid learning, in general. The main idea is the identification of different voices, of their echoes and inter-animation. PolyCAFe helps tutors to identify and analyze all these elements in order to analyze the contributions of each student. Interactive graphical visualizations are provided and various metrics useful for grading are computed. A flexible interfacing is provided in the form of widgets for managing the assignments, for uploading chat logs and for providing interactive graphical and textual feedback, for each of the students and for the group as a whole. PolyCAFe validation has been performed under the LTfLL project, in which the system was developed.

Acknowledgements The research presented in this paper was partially performed under the FP7 EU STREP project LTfLL. Many people participated to the design, implementation and evaluation of the automatic evaluation and visualization system. Traian Rebedea conducted the implementation team and had the most important part in materializing the ideas in code. Important contributions had Mihai Dascalu, Alexandru Gartner and Dan Banica, Contributions had also Mihai Nicolae, Ionela Voinescu, Dan Mihaila and Erol Chioasca, Costin Chiru and Vlad Posea has also participated to evaluation.

References 1. Sfard, A.: On reform movement and the limits of mathematical discourse. Mathematical Thinking and Learning 2(3), 157–189 (2000) 2. Bakhtin, M.M.: Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. University of Texas Press (1996) 3. Trausan-Matu, S., Rebedea, T.: Polyphonic Inter-Animation of Voices in VMT. In: Stahl, G. (ed.) Studying Virtual Math Teams, pp. 451–473. Springer, Heidelberg (2009) 4. Stahl, G.: Group Cognition: Computer Support for Building Collaborative Knowledge. MIT Press, Cambridge (2006) 5. Bakhtin, M.M.: The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. University of Texas Press, Austin (1981) 6. Bakhtin, M.M.: Problems of Dostoevsky’s poetics. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis (1993) 7. Trausan-Matu, S., Rebedea, T.: A Polyphonic Model and System for Inter-animation Analysis in Chat Conversations with Multiple Participants. In: Gelbukh, A. (ed.) CICLing 2010. LNCS, vol. 6008, pp. 354–363. Springer, Heidelberg (2010) 8. Trausan-Matu, S., Rebedea, T., Dragan, A., Alexandru, C.: Visualisation of Learners Contributions in Chat Conversations. In: Fong, J., Wang, P. (eds.) Blended Learning, pp. 215– 224. Pearson Prentice Hall, London (2007)

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9. Rebedea, T., Trausan-Matu, S., Chiru, C.: Extraction of Socio-semantic Data from Chat Conversations in Collaborative Learning Communities. In: Dillenbourg, P., Specht, M. (eds.) EC-TEL 2008. LNCS, vol. 5192, pp. 366–377. Springer, Heidelberg (2008) 10. Joshi, M., Rosé, C.P.: Using Transactivity in Conversation Summarization in Educational Dialog. In: Proceedings of the SLaTE Workshop on Speech and Language Technology in Education (2007) 11. Jurafsky, D., Martin, J.H.: Speech and Language Processing. In: An Introduction to Natural Language Processing, Computational Linguistics, and Speech Recognition, 2nd edn. Pearson Prentice Hall, London (2009) 12. Berlanga, A.J., Rosmalen, P.V., Trausan-Matu, S., Monachesi, P., Burek, G.: The Language Technologies for Lifelong Learning Project. In: Aedo, D.S.I., Chen, N., Kinshuk (eds.) Proceedings of the 9th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, Riga, pp. 624–625 (2009) 13. Stahl, G. (ed.): Studying Virtual Math Teams. Springer, Boston (2009) 14. Koshmann, T.: Toward a Dialogic Theory of Learning: Bakhtin’s Contribution to Understanding Learning in Settings of Collaboration. In: Hoadley, C., Roschelle, J. (eds.) Proceedings of the Computer Support for Collaborative Learning 1999 Conference, Stanford. Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah (1999) 15. Wertsch, J.V.: Voices of the Mind. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1991) 16. Trausan-Matu, S.: The Polyphonic Model of Hybrid and Collaborative Learning. In: Wang, F.L., Fong, J., Kwan, R.C. (eds.) Handbook of Research on Hybrid Learning Models: Advanced Tools, Technologies, and Applications, pp. 466–486. Information Science Publishing, Hershey (2010) 17. Winograd, T.: Thinking machines: Can there be? Are we?, Report No. STAN-CS-87-1161, Stanford (1987) 18. Rebedea, T., Dascalu, M., Trausan-Matu, S., Banica, D., Gartner, A., Chiru, C., Mihaila, D.: Overview and Preliminary Results of Using PolyCAFe for Collaboration Analysis and Feedback Generation. Submitted to EC-TEL 2010: Fifth European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning (2010) 19. Dascalu, M., Trausan-Matu, S., Dessus, P.: Utterances Assessment and Summarization in Chat Conversations. In: Gelbukh, A. (ed.) Natural Language Processing and its Applications. Research in Computing Science, vol. 46, pp. 323–334 (2010)

Knowledge Construction through Discussion Forum in a Blended Learning Environment Jianhua Zhao1 and Yinjian Jiang2 1

School of Information Technology in Education, South China Normal University, 55 Western Avenue of Zhongshan, Guangzhou, 510631, China 2 School of Foreign Languages, Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University, 293 Western Avnue of Zhongshan, Guangzhou, 510631, China [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Discussion forum is used for knowledge construction popularly because it can provide collaborative learning environment and facilitate students joining online communication. In order to analyze knowledge construction activities based on Salmon’s model, case study and content analysis are employed for investigating three issues in this study, i.e. the distributed number of postings, shared and unshared postings, and students’ conversation at different phases of knowledge construction. The results demonstrate that socialization is one of the essential elements of knowledge construction. Other relevant findings for those three issues are also presented, and they could be applied for guiding knowledge construction design and application. Keywords: Discussion forum, knowledge construction, blended learning environment, collaborative learning, CSCL.

1 Introduction Discussion forum is an important place where students can use it for knowledge construction and it has been explored many researchers (Cobos & Pifarre, 2008). Participants of discussion forum can collaborate for their work, share understandings and experiences, propose suggestions, and express their emotions through script-based communication. Therefore, scripts are considered as a technique which can be used for facilitating learning (Dillenbourg, 2002). Knowledge construction is an approach which students are involved the construction of meaning through interactions with others and can be characterized by a joint commitment to a shared goal (Cobos & Pifarre, 2008). The activities, e.g. discussion, conversation, and communication, are normally used for facilitating this process because collaboration learning is not one single mechanism, but the specific activities that students perform when they work together, which may trigger specific learning mechanism (Dillenbourg, 1999). A knowledge construction process relates to the extent to which teachers help students to understand, investigate, and determine how the implicit cultural assumptions, frames of references, perspectives, and biases within a discipline influence the ways in which knowledge is constructed within it (Banks, 1999). Group learning activities can be organized and applied in online discussion forum. Group members would discuss and communicate together as an online group for P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 395–406, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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completing group task which is organized in discussion forum. The purpose of online group is for individual development. Actually, communication in an online group represents the requirement of Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory which individual development should be addressed in a specific social-cultural environment and realized through interaction with others. The activities related to social interaction and knowledge construction are specifically concerned in this process, and meanwhile, coordinated role of tools and historical and cultural environment of knowledge construction process are highlighted as well (Vygotsky, 1978). Research results tell us that if learners are independent on social, interactive, cultural and historical environment, they would not acquire thinking and cognitive skills (Wertsch, 1991). Cognition is an element which related to history and culture, and integrated with public and social process (Goodwin, 2000). It is also connected with resources and tools in a specifically cultural concepts and materials. The way of students’ thinking and action supported by tools should be examined in a specifically cultural society in order to understand how collaborative learning works.

2 Theoretical Foundation 2.1 The Base for Designing an Online Discussion Forum towards Knowledge Construction Gilly Salmon proposes an online learning model, e-tivities (Salmon, 2002), is used for designing knowledge construction activities in this study. Salmon’s model is described in Fig. 1. The five-stage model provides an example of how participants can

Fig 1. The five-stage e-tivities model

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benefit from increasing skill and comfort in working, networking and learning online, and what e-moderators need to do at each stage to help them to achieve this success.The model shows how motivate online participants, to build learning through appropriate e-tivities and to pace e-learners through programmes of training and development (Salmon, 2002). Stage 1 is the base of the flights of the steps. Individual access and the induction of participants into online learning are essential prerequisites for online knowledge construction. Stage 2 includes individual participants establishing their online identities and then finding others with whom to communicate. Students are going to mutual engage in information communication at stage 3. The goal of stage 3 is to build a form of cooperation which each person supports the other participants’ goals. At stage 4, course-related discussions develop and the interaction becomes more collaborative. Participants at stage 5 look for more benefits from the system to help them achieve personal goals and reflect on the learning process (Salmon, 2002; Salmon, 2000). 2.2 The Schemes for Analyzing Knowledge Construction There are lots of coding schemes which could be used for analyzing knowledge construction, e.g. the categories of question for problem-solving (Graesser & Person, 1994), common question space analysis approach (Roschelle, 1996), and the typology of written texts in the phase of discussion (Barbera, 2006). In this study, two schemes were chosen for analyzing a process of knowledge construction activities, i.e. the model of “from unshared knowledge to constructed knowledge” (Beers & et al., 2005), and the prototype model for reflection on online learning behaviour (Seddon & Postlethwaite, 2007). The model of “from unshared knowledge to constructed knowledge”. There are three intermediate forms including a route from unshared knowledge in one participant’s head to constructed knowledge in a team, i.e., external knowledge, shared knowledge, and common ground, and it includes four processes, namely externalization, internalization, negotiation and integration (see Figure 2) (Beers & et al., 2005). Unshared knowledge represents a status of participant in a knowledge construction process which there is no response to her/is posting. However, it is just a starting point. Student’s private knowledge is externalized when team members make unshared knowledge explicit or tangible to others by making a contribution to a conversation (Leontjev, 1981). Once a team member made such a contribution, the others will try to internalize it. A shared contribution is the prerequisite for negotiation of common ground, which is through the process of internalizing others’ contributions, and subsequently providing feedback based on one’s own perspective by word or action (Alpay, Giboin, & Dieng, 1998; Baker et al., 1999). Learners would construct new knowledge through adding new relations and concepts to it via integration. From common ground view, as the product of knowledge construction, problem solving would be considered as the solution(s).

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Fig. 2. From unshared knowledge to constructed knowledge

The prototype model for reflection on online learning behaviour. Table 1 describes the prototype model for reflection on online learning behavior. The first column indicates that seven levels of learning behavior were thought commonly to be evident in talk2learn community interaction. The names for these levels are set out in column two of the prototype model. The third column in the model describes typical activities that might be indicative of each level. It is suggested that within each level several types of behavior might be seen, demonstrating a variation in the complexity of activity. Finally in the fourth column some examples of ‘typical’ dialogue that might be thought to exemplify the activities are detailed (Seddon & Postlethwaite, 2007). Table 1. The prototype for reflection on online learning behavior (Seddon & Postlethwaite, 2007, P: 188) Levels

Learning behavior

Level A

Socializing

Identifying oneself through social information and greeting others

Level B

Exchanging information

Providing information Asking simple questions with information Making simple responses with information

Level C

Understanding Exploring or explaining the information information given by oneself Exploring or seeking explanation for information from others

Typical Activities

Examples ‘Hi, I’m Xiaojun and I am just starting this course’ ‘Hello everyone—Happy New Year’ ‘For my study I am going to look at performance management of office and mid day staff’ ‘Can anyone provide information on the topic of Assessment for Learning’ ‘Yes I found the Paul Black hotseat useful on this topic’ ‘I feel that our solution will only be effective if we can ensure that all staff feel ownership’ ‘Can you explain further about your ideas for CPD’

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Table 1. (Continued) Levels

Learning behavior

Typical Activities

Examples ‘I don’t think your idea would work in our school where we have small numbers’ ‘I disagree—teachers who are prepared to use technology tend to be creative risk takers’ ‘Perhaps all working relationships suffer from power dynamics—as you alluded to in your first message’ ‘Responding to Mary and John together since you identify similar issues like location and gender in your question’ ‘Have you looked at the department website www://xyz which would suggest this interpretation of the facts’ ‘I will certainly suggest a trial of the model you put forward’ ‘I tried your ideas in a recent inspection and was told…..’ ‘The points raised were all valid and gave me much food for thought’

Level D

Applying and Analyzing information

Simple restating of information as it applies to one’s own context States their interpretation of the information given

Level E

Synthesizing information

Draws information together in summary or generalization building on others’ information Draws in information from other sources towards an opinion

Level F

Evaluating information

Level G

Awareness of learning

States potential solutions or actions based on the dialogue Reports implementation of such solutions or actions Shows awareness of the learning that has occurred through dialogue

3 Methodology Case study is employed for this research and the data of case study are analyzed by content analysis. Shepard and Greene (2003) consider case study is an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, incident, or community. Case study involves an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case, which provides a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. Content analysis is a methodology in the social sciences for studying the content of communication. Babbie defines it as the study of recorded human communications, such as books, websites, paintings and laws (2004). It is most commonly used by researchers in the social sciences to analyze recorded transcripts of interviews with participants. It is an in-depth analysis using quantitative or qualitative techniques of messages using a scientific method (including attention to objectivity-intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented (Neuendorf, 2002). 3.1 Research Purposes The purpose of this research is to analyze the knowledge construction activities in a blended learning environment. Online discussion is a fundamental approach for

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organizing knowledge construction activities. To explore participants’ conversion and individual scripts would help to design the effective and flexible knowledge construction activities. 3.2 Research Questions Two research questions involved in this study, i.e. how students’ dialogues in the discussion forums represent their knowledge construction process, and what kinds of characteristics show in a knowledge construction process. 3.3 Introduction to the Case The case of this study is chosen from a course – “Media and Instruction” – a bilingual course running for grade 2008 in 2009 at the School of Information Technology in Education, South China Normal University. 134 students registered in this course. The time of the course was lasted for 16 weeks. 3 tutors and 8 teaching assistants were engaged in it. Teaching methods included FTF (face-to-face), online learning and experimental/ practical teaching. The students were organized two classes because it is hard to manage in a big class. Learning activities were applied for organizing teaching process, e.g. clock partners, discussion forum, and brainstorming. If students can complete a learning activity, the results would be posted in the discussion forum by them. Otherwise, students would continue work off class. When they got the work done, they would post them to a specific discussion forum. Blackboard was chosen as an online learning environment. The typical characteristics of Blackboard include simplicity and flexibility. Teachers and students are easy to know how to use it in learning and teaching. At the beginning of the course, a training induction was set up for introducing the objectives of the course, learning methods, and the learning environment to students in order to help student improve the awareness of the course and knowledge construction. Students were separated into 24 learning groups (i.e. curriculum groups) and each group includes 4-5 students. Students focus on the specific tasks when they were engaged in online learning. They were discussing the possibilities for their undertaking tasks toward finding the optimizing solutions. When they complete the tasks, the learning products, e.g. report, presentation, or paper, would be posted in the discussion forum. School- based learning and teaching is different from a completed online learning because partial or whole task would be done in a FTF environment. Therefore, a blended approach is usually applied in a school- based environment. 3.4 Designing to the Online Knowledge Construction Activities Salmon’s model was used for designing knowledge construction activities in this course. Online learning activities were based on discussion forums. When student engaged in online learning, they would participate in “Greetings and Welcoming” in order to build an online learning community for knowledge construction. When they knew how to communicate in Blackboard fluently, a serious discussion forum would be designed based on learning units and contents in order to organize students’ discussion. When students completed a unit discussion, the learning product would be posted to the relevant discussion forums for sharing their perspectives. Toward online

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knowledge construction, learners were engaged in plentiful online learning activities. At the end of the course, a reflection discussion was set up for students sharing their experiences, understandings, and achievements in order to help students know the course deeply. Various discussion forums was designed for assisting knowledge construction activities, i.e. Question & Answer, Glossary, Coffee Corner, Learning Suggestion, and Presentation to Learning Achievement. There are 31 discussion forums in the course in total. 3.5 Data Collection The data of this study would be collected from discussion forum in Blackboard which came from students’ discussion online. Based on the research purposes, a phase-based data collection method would be used for collecting data which produced by students when they were engaged in knowledge construction activities. Phases were extracted in terms of Salmon’s learning activity model, including socializing phase (i.e. Greetings and Welcoming, phase 1), online communication and knowledge construction phase (i.e. discussion for learning units, phase 2), development phase (i.e. reflection, phase 3), and learning support (i.e. supportive discussion forums for learners). Table 2 shows the number of postings in different discussion forum based on the phases of knowledge construction. Table 2. Distribution status of the number of postings in different phases Online learning phases Number of the postings Time of the lasting

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Learning support

Total

585

1906

200

318

3009

2 weeks

14 weeks

2 week

16 weeks

16 weeks

The status of shared or unshared postings. The purpose for analyzing the status of shared or unshared postings is to explore the relationship between postings and knowledge construction in different phases in “Media and Instruction”. The basic characteristic of the shared or unshared postings is whether there is following posting or not, including unshared posting, weak shared posting, mid shared posting, and strong shared posting (showed in Table 3). Table 3. The number of shared or unshared postings The status of shared or unshared postings

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Learning support

Unshared (-)

17

581

118

164

Weak shared (+)

67

256

34

24

Mid shared (++)

26

81

-

11

Strong shared (+++)

8

9

-

2

* Notes: unshared (-) = 1, 2 < weak shared (+) < 4, 5 < mid shared (++) < 9, strong shared (+++) > 10.

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Conversation status for knowledge construction activities. The postings were categorized according to the conversion among participants and the different phases (i.e. phase 1, phase 2, phase 3, and learning support) of knowledge construction activities. A qualitative analysis was conducted for the postings in the different phases, and the number of the postings at different level was counted. The status of the postings for knowledge construction activities showed in Table 4. Table 4. Conversation status of knowledge construction based on different phases Levels Level A Level B Level C Level D

Level E Level F Level G

Learning behavior Socializing Exchanging information Understanding information Applying and Analyzing information Synthesizing information Evaluating information Awareness of learning

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Learning support

1024

732

226

129

382

921

102

483

241

357

365

206

571

981

217

103

163

542

92

195

289

625

149

237

125

256

235

132

4 Data Analysis and Discussion Based on the data in Table 2, Fig. 3 would be used for describing the relationship between the number of postings and different phases. 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Learning support

Fig. 3. Distributed numbers of the postings in the different phases

The time for phase 1 and phase 3 was similar. 134 students at phase 1 posted 585 notes within 2 weeks and the average number of postings for each of them is 4.4. The result reveals that students were engaged in online learning actively, and the degree of online socializing was relatively high. Phase 3 was the final stage of the course. Students posted 200 notes within 2 weeks. Analyzing students’ postings at this stage, most of them were related to self-reflection, suggestions, opinions, and experience

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sharing. The contents of the postings were practical, plentiful, and focused which would facilitate students learning in the future. The time for phase 2 was longer than phase 1 and phase 2. Students participated in online communication and knowledge construction toward learning objectives of the course at this phase within 14 weeks. Participants posted 1906 notes in total to different learning units and the average number of postings for each student was 14, which mean each posting for each student in every week. This number was less than phase 1, and even phase 3. However, most of the students were engaged in a blended learning approach in this course. Normally, they joined FTF discussion before online meeting. When they worked the task out, the learning products were posted by one of students in a group. Therefore, it just presented a partial portrait of a whole picture of group discussion. The number of the postings was decreased for this reason as well. In this sense, the results of the phase 2 might not represent the real situation of online communication and knowledge construction. However, the consequence of phase 2 showed the reasonable results of knowledge construction. Learning support presented in the whole learning process in the course. The total number of the postings was 318 within 16 weeks, which demonstrated students’ needs of learning support. The status of shared and unshared postings at different phases showed in Fig. 4. 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 -100 Phase 1

Unshared Weak shared M id shared Strong shared

Phase 2

Phase 3

Learning Support

Fig. 4. The status of shared and unshared postings at different phases

The curves in Fig. 4 presented the similar shape illustrated that the situation of the number of shared and unshared postings was similar as well. In order to in-depth analyze them, the distributed number of posting for shared and unshared postings was transmitted to percentage expression (see Table 5). Table 5. The percentage status of shared and unshared postings for different phases The status

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Learning support

Unshared (-) Weak shared (+) Mid shared (++) Strong shared (+++) Total number for Shared postings

2.9 11.5 4.4 1.4

30.5 13.4 4.3 0.5

59 17 -

51.6 7.6 3.5 0.6

17.3

18.2

17

11.7

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Table 5 showed that the status of shared postings in the three phases was similar from 17% - 18%. The number of unshared postings was significant small in phase 1, and it presented the same result with Figure 4. The percentage of unshared postings at phase 3 was extremely big and reason for this might conclude as students were engaged in self-reflection process which is more responded by individual learners, and meanwhile, phase 3 was the final stage of the course and students had no much free time for having more time discussion online. It also explained the reason for the shared postings was weak. Concerning phase 2, the percentage of unshared postings was 30.5% which was much higher than phase 1. The reason for this, actually, had been discussed above. The postings just presented the learning results, rather than showed the status of online detailed discussion. Partial group work had been done FTF by group members. This would be the typical characteristic of school-based online learning and teaching. The similar numbers of weak shared postings for phase 1 and phase 2 revealed that there was no significant difference for the frequency of learners participated in online discussion. Strong shared postings presented the degree of students’ discussion was high. The results demonstrated that the percentage of strong shared postings at phase 1 was bigger than phase 2. There were no mid and strong shared postings at phase 3, and it demonstrated that students’ discussion was just at a lower level. With respect to learning support, the percentage of shared and unshared posting revealed that the number of responded postings was extremely lower or just superficial response. The discussion forums for learning support would be applied for publishing notification, rather than discussion. However, 3.5% mid-shared and 0.6% strong shared postings showed us that learners would choose the essential issues for in-depth discussion too. In order to analyze the conversion towards knowledge construction, the postings were analyzed based on Level A - Level G and the different phases. Figure 6 demonstrated the relationship among students’ conversion. Level A

1000

Level B

800

Level C

600

Level D Level E

400

Level F

200

Level G

0 Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

Learning support

Fig. 6. The conversion status towards knowledge construction

Analyzing the curves in Figure 6, Level A showed a big difference from others, and Level C and Level G were presenting a small one. Others, i.e. Level B, Level D, Level E, and Level F showed similar shapes. Socializing was described through Level A. Investigating the curve of Level A, the number of postings was biggest at phase 1,

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lesser in phase 2, and smaller phase 3. When the curve went to learning support, it became smallest one. The results demonstrated the similar results which had been analyzed above. The position of Level A at different levels showed that socializing at phase 1 was extremely important and students were most active as well. The reason for this was the objective of phase 1 was towards online socialization and it became normal situation at other phases. Level C and Level G presented similar shapes in Figure 6 which they grew up from phase 1 through phase 2 to phase 3, and then grew down to learning support gradually. The positions of Level C and Level G at phase 3 were located at the first and the second one, which demonstrated they were frequently showed postings. This result was presenting the objectives of phase 3 too, which students’ communication towards understanding of information and awareness of learning based on their reflection. Level D located in the second position and level B was the third one at phase 1. Following positions were Level F and Level E. These four curve shapes were similar to other phases and learning support. The results presented the similar frequency of postings concerning applying and analyzing information, exchanging information, evaluating information, and synthesizing information. The distances between large and small number of postings at phase 3 and learning support were 273 and 380, which were smaller than phase 1 (899) and phase 2 (725). Therefore, the number of postings at phase 3 and learning support was more closed than phase 1 and phase 2.

5 Conclusions Socialization is an essential element for learners engaged in network learning, especially for knowledge construction activities in discussion forum. The result of this study has proved that learners’ competence in social communication has been trained and developed by socializing phase in Salmon’s model, and it also can be retained in online communication and knowledge construction. Shared and unshared postings in online discussion forums towards knowledge construction are relevant to the phases of knowledge construction very much. The degree of shared postings in socialization phase is most high and it means participants are more engaged in discussion. At the phase of information communication and knowledge construction, even socialization is also high. However, students’ discussion is also occurred FTF. Students post learning outcomes to discussion forums and reduce the frequency of online discussion, and it influences the degree of shared postings. Development phase is the final stage of the course and students more concern individual learning and reflection in order to facilitate individual development. The results of the percentage for shared or unshared postings in the three phases of knowledge construction show similarity of shared postings, but the degree of shared postings is difference. The degree of shared postings in learning support is relative lower, but it is growing from weaker to stronger with big covers. Students’ conversation for online knowledge construction presented similarity based on this study. Socialization in knowledge construction presented reducing trends for different phases and learning support. However, it would be depended on the objectives of the phases. Except understanding information and awareness, other conversation status presented similar situation for different phases and learning support.

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References 1. Babbie, E.: The Practice of Social Research. Thomson Learning Inc., Wadsworth (2004) 2. Banks, J.A.: An Introduction to Multicultural Education, 2nd edn. Allyn and Bacon, Boston (1999) 3. Barbera, E.: Collaborative knowledge construction in highly structured virtual discussions. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education 7(1), 1–12 (2006) 4. Beers, P.J., Boshuizen, H.P.A., Kirschner, P.A., Gijselaers, W.H.: Computer support for knowledge construction in collaborative learning environments. Computers in Human Behavior 21, 623–643 (2005) 5. Cobos, R., Pifarre, M.: Collaborative knowledge construction in the web supported by the KnowCat system. Computers & Education 50, 962–978 (2008) 6. Connor, C.: Virtual learning and inter-professional education: developing computermediated communication for learning about collaboration. Innovations in Education and Teaching International 40(4), 341–347 (2003) 7. Dillenbourg, P.: Introduction: what do you mean by “collaborative learning”? In: Dillenbourg, P. (ed.) Collaborative learning. Cognitive and computational approaches. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1999) 8. Dillenbourg, P.: Over-scripting CSCL: The risks of blending collaborative learning with instructionaldesign. In: Kirschner, P.A. (ed.) Three worlds of CSCL: Can we support CSCL?, pp. 61–91. Open Universiteit Nederland, Heerlen (2002) 9. Goodwin, C.: Action and embodiment within situated human interaction. Journal of Pragmatics 32, 1489–1522 (2000) 10. Graesser, A., Person, N.: Question asking during tutoring. American Educational Research Journal 31, 104–137 (1994) 11. Harasim, L., Hiltz, S., Teles, L., Turoff, M.: Learning networks: A field guide to teaching and learning online. MIT Press, Cambridge (1995) 12. Littleton, K., Hakkinen, P.: Learning together: understanding the processes of computerbased collaborative learning. In: Dillenbourg, P. (ed.) Collaborative learning. Cognitive and computational approaches. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1999) 13. Neuendorf, K.A.: The content analysis guidebook. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks (2002) 14. Roschelle, J.: Learning by collaborating: convergent conceptual change. In: Koschmann, T.D. (ed.) CSCL: Theory and Practice of an Emerging Paradigm, pp. 209–248. Erlbaum, Mahwah (1996) 15. Salmon, G.: E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. Kogan Page, London (2000) 16. Salmon, G.: E-tivities: The key to active online learning. Kogan Page, London (2002) 17. Seddon, K., Postlethwaite, K.: Creating and testing a model for tutors and participants to support the collaborative construction of knowledge online. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 16(2), 177–198 (2007) 18. Shepard, J., Greene, R.W.: Sociology and you, p. A-2. Glencoe McGraw-Hill, Ohio (2003) 19. Vygotsky, L.: Mind and society. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1978) 20. Wertsch, J.: A sociocultural approach to socially shared cognition. In: Resnick, L., Levine, J.M., Teasley, S.D. (eds.) Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition, pp. 85–100. American Psychological Association, Washington (1991)

On-Line Learning Community Based on Curricular∗ DanDan Gao and XiangDong Chen East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China [email protected]

Abstract. On-line learning community based on curricular is a kind of limited community and not spontaneously formed. In such a community, the participants can not freely choose learning contents, teachers and learning partners. A common goal, the collective identity and collaboration are the basic three elements of such limited community. This paper puts forward some promoting community formation and development strategies based on the three elements. Keywords: Learning community; Limited community; Curricular.

1 Introduction More and more educational researchers are taking into account to the on-line learning community. According to the view of Ludwig-Hardman [1] : The learning of on-line learning community takes the computer as the medium, learner-centered, in cooperation and mutual communication, creating knowledge and sharing values and practices. Traditional interaction in classroom occurs mostly in between teachers and students, such as teacher questioning and answering individual students. In most case, students are listening, occasionally questioning, learning and the examination. If such interactive forms are dominant, learning community is impossible to get well development. Based on the teaching experience, whether traditional classroom or on-line classroom, people will query whether we need such kind of learning community, especially for those traditional and content intensive courses. Although different teaching methodologies has own strong point, many researches indicate that in the learning process, establishing community has the following effects: (1) In a community, students feel more connected with each other. Taking the online course, students often feel helpless and alienation with teachers and other students [2]. Community can reduce the distance between participants, and improve learners' feelings about the content of course and learning attitude. (2) Learning community for teaching contents provides a social scene. Students can analysis problems from several angles, and through debating perfect their knowledge, share their thoughts and ideas, learn how to take the companion as a resource, and more willing to take risks to solve complex and inferior structure problems [3]. ∗

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(3) It is also a bridge between school and work environment. Within the environment of course, it provides a real but safe practice scene in which lets learners to cooperate for solving practical issues. This skill obtained from the school environment will help student to convert from school environment to formal working environment [4]. Participating in the community, students will learn how to coordinate with partisans, divide the works, and comply with relevant discipline, and it will help a lot for their future work. In short, no matter what traditional or on-line course, learning community will provide more plentiful and real learning situations. However, compared with the spontaneous and open learning community, the community of regular curricular has its own characteristics. It is not an entirely voluntary and self-organization group, in which most courses are usually degree certificates or a part of the training. Although the learners could voluntarily take these courses (such as taking as an elective course), once participated in the course, the selection of learning contents, teachers, and partners is not free, i.e., based on classroom community is a limited community.

2 Differences between Limited and Opening Community Different with the informal open learning community, the limited community has many restrictions under the framework of course. The learners get together through the network and study according to a standard and the predetermined time (such as a semester or shorter time). All learners will feel themselves in such a situation: z z z

In order to get a good core or mark, participation is necessary (as it is one of the evaluation basis by teachers) Cannot choose his/her teacher and classmates Communication must be in a fixed period of time

That means such leaning environment has certain limitations. Compared with the open learning community, the limited community is relatively close community. Although the cooperative learning based on the network cannot have the benefits like opening, but sometimes it is more convenient for teacher to guide the problem discussion in a small group. Based on relevant literatures (Misanchuk & Anderson, Brown, Sato Manabu, Zhong QiQuan) [5] [6] [7] and our study, some differences both two communities are listed in table 1. At first, there are no traditional teacher role for many open communities, but for limited community, teachers are a key part in the community in which they must provide the basic framework for interaction and tasks (including course outlines, communication and information resources), apply teaching strategy, supervise, monitor and evaluate students' activities and learning, provide feedback, help students with learning difficulties, and establish the trust relationship with students, etc. It is also important roles for teacher to formulate rules, provide appropriate rewards and punishment, actively supervise discussion, answer questions, resolve conflicts, and strengthen guidance in order to promote community.

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Table 1. Comparison between limited community and open community

Teachers’ role Learning content

Formation

Limited community Important Provided mainly by education or training institutions, teachers, partly by learners; more closed and structured Definition & organization by teacher, student number fixed

Task strongly structured and pointed by teacher Very short, hardly form own history Evaluations by teachers and Return for participating partners For skills & knowledge, pass the Target exam. Common tasks History

Open community Not like traditional teacher role Provided mainly by participants, open and less structured Natural formed, student number not fixed, big fluidity Non structured, pointed by student themselves Long, easy form own history Prestige in the network Common hobbies.

interests

and

Second, the discussions or learning topics in open community are formulated by the participants themselves, usually without any constraint, depending entirely on personal hobby, topics being multifarious and involving different types of subject, lack of systematic for the contents. While in the limited community, learning or discussion is restricted by the course contents, topics also relatively narrow, and learning resources are often needed "audit". Third, the curriculum in the limited community is built by course designers or teachers and managed by teachers in most cases. The members of participation are often "forced" after registered as a member and relatively fixed, and the members are strongly homogeneity. Open community is spontaneous, self-organized, and managed by members. Member number is not fixed, liquidity, often quit differences between members. Also, the members of the open community often need to do one thing that tries to attract more people to participate in the community, but limited community is not necessary. Fourth, whether open community or limited community, members need to complete some common tasks. In limited community, the tasks are often established under the guidance of teachers, with certain pertinence and structure, but the tasks in open community are raised by the participants based on their interests or hobbies. Fifth, some successful open communities have a long life cycle, even over ten years. For example, some hackers learning communities have formed its own culture, history and even ceremony, although part members often changes [8]. The life cycle of limited community is very short (normally a semester or year). In fact, most limited community is terminated following the end of course and hard to form own history.

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Sixth, the evaluation for participants, open community depends more on the prestige which means the prestige is the “return” for the community members to their contribution. For limited community, the evaluation of teachers is often most important for the participants. Finally, limited community is attached to a course and students participate in for acquiring the skills, knowledge, and also an important purpose is to obtain corresponding credit, or certificate. Then, the open community focuses on individual interests and hobbies. Of course, limited community has different types in connection with different courses: one is the traditional classroom course which uses online as aided tool; The second one is the traditional curriculum through school of network; The last one is some on-line training courses. These three courses in the limited community have some difference and common, here our discussion is mainly aimed at their common characters.

3 Elements of Limited Community Limited community fundamental elements and Arsene Wenger [9] is very close to the practice community. Learning community based on the online course can be seen as a special case of practice community, but the community members are based on the registration for the course and assigned by teachers. Community priority task is consciously learning, to complete the prescribed activities, to do best for the course, and to interact between members under the guidance of teachers. According to LudwigHardman & Misanchuk, our study suggests three factors for the limited community: Common goal, Collective identification, and Cooperation. When we are trying to establish and maintain a limited community, these factors should be considered. (1) Common goal In some form, a learning community is a group in which individual has different point of view for a common goal or vision and is willing to cooperate [10]. When the members have a common goal, they have greater wish to participate, and try to do best for making contribution to the target. For example, students in the learning process, may be assigned to a group to finish a project, the evaluation is the individual and collective performance, a common goal (collectively) makes cooperation can truly be in full swing. In limited community, the goal is initiative and conscious for the pursuit of knowledge, and the course content is limited in the scope of curricular that is different with other social structure. For the common goal, it is needs to create a mutual trust and respect to promote learner's environment, it allows students to exchange and share ideas, and take the responsibility. (2) Collective identification A formation signs of the community involve: constructing public knowledge, forming common vocabulary, jargon and conversational mode, and all the members of the community, with a barrier of collective identity public [11]. Clear boundary strengthens the sense of belonging and encourages members continuing interaction and more closely link.

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Members of open community are liquidity. Community culture includes common goals and beliefs, system, and the standard. When a new member joints into the community, she or he should ensure to keep and continue this culture. As limited community diachronic is short compared to open community, it's development is not relied on the new members to join. So the curriculum designer’s challenge is how to build a community quickly. In many cases, the group's members has no record of interaction and is not meet each other in future, so establishing and maintaining such a community will be a more difficult matter. (3) Cooperation Learning fundamentally includes learn from others, self learn, and learn together. Online learning community makes learners have the opportunity to learn from others, learn together, and contribute to other learners. In network environment, cooperation for learning is usually an indispensable prerequisite. There are two issues should be taken into account during the process of cooperation learning. Firstly, the learning community values should be tolerant of different background and permit different views and opinions. However, if there is no proper means for solving disputes, the deep divergences between the members of community will affect stabilization. Therefore, the online courses have definite behavior rules to support the cooperative work of members and decision making. Secondly, this collaboration must be mutually reciprocity. This reciprocity is different in different age, professional level and the interest of students, in accordance with their respective, provide the knowledge and learn knowledge from the community. In this process, the provider and receiver of knowledge should be mutually beneficial. As participating in the community will take time and energy, learners should see "good" and then will perform this new practice. In fact, many course designers normally ignore this. If letting learners to feel this is a mutual and beneficial activities, it will strengthen his belongings and feel to have an obligation to participate in community activities and try to do best for making its contribution to the target.

4 Development Strategy of Limited Community Based on literatures and our teaching practices [12], the summary table 2 enumerates some strategies related to the three elements of learning community. This is an open form, any relevant ideas and strategies for supporting the community can be added to the list. Ludwig-Hardman through observations discovered the life cycle of limited community has three stages: Students were asked to enter a predefined sequence, then interactive with classmates, finally summing up the experience through reflections, close community through ceremony. These three stages can call: initialization, participation and closed. In each stage, it is need to consider above factors. For example, in the start stage, community focuses on community identity. In participation stage, may focus on a common goal and cooperation. At the end, the community is to reexamining identity, to study or reflect the collaboration process and target.

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z Common goal

z z z z z z z z

Collective identification

z z z z z z z z

z z z

z z Cooperation

z z

Projects and tasks of course are reliable and meaningful for learners. Let learners work together directing at the real problem. Learners jointly determine the clique goal. Learners with companion to share their personal goal. Learners judge common characters & divergences between personal and group goals, priority thinking common goal and creating action plan for achieving goals. Learners provide evaluation suggestions for community work. Learners can brow information of some courses offered in advance, so they have an expected understanding to community. ……. Develop a mark and motto of community, labeling in all materials of the community (such as the website, research report). Establish individual and community files, appropriately post personal data. Set some periodic events, encourage learners to participate in. Constantly add new study contents. Allow establishing small groups in the community for private discussions. Cultivate students to supervise discussion, then transfer to their leadership. Let learners have opportunity to interview, deepen understanding each. Collect views about different themes. According to the learner favor, learning content notify by various forms send to learners on time (including new posts in community, upcoming events or guest lectures, some events deadlines, etc). Let each learner join virtual on-the-spot investigation, understanding the value of other participants. Let each learner becomes a tutor for a particular topic. Developing some appropriate online "Ritual" (such as greeting each other, stood up in classroom), which can be used in new participants into community, celebrating progress, or community closed etc. ….. Provide enough tools for communication and introduction for members. Demonstrate various participating skills, enable students to skillfully use communication tools. Let learners joining project cooperation, encourage sharing experiences and opinions.

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Table 2. (Continued)

z z z z z z z z z z z z

Set joining rules for community Supervise discussions as early as possible, answer questions, provide feedback, conflict resolution, and guide discussion. Allow learner some "unintelligence" problems through post for discussion. Offer different roles for learner in community or small group. Using open theme, encourage members design solution scheme. Invite experts to participate discussion in the community. Provide (or let learners develop) an explanation how to evaluate collaborative contribution. Formulate reward system for supporting cooperative work. Encourage every group develop specialty in its particular area, members will disperse into a new panel, for effective diffusion of knowledge in group. After every stage (such as a week), let learner to summarize their works and put forward new plan and difficulty points. Training team how to negotiate and resolve the divergences. …..

5 Conclusion Most current research for online learning community is not cognizant of the differences between open and limited community. This research thinks: open community and limited community exist great differences, so it should be distinguished when in the process of research and practice. This paper discusses both community characteristics, three elements and strategies for developing limited community. The further research can be started from the following aspects: the evaluation standard, how to let learners to voluntarily participate in the limited community, limited community history lineage, how to effectively integrate the community and the classroom, limited community management, the different roles in different communities, the tools (such as the Blog, BBS) to format the characteristics of limited community, etc.

References 1. Ludwig-Hardman: Case study: Instructional design strategies that contribute to the development of online learning community. University of Colorado, Denver (2003) 2. Riel, M., Polin, L.: Online learning Communities: Common Ground and Critical Differences in Designing Technical Environments. In: Barab, S., Kiling, R., Gray, J. (eds.) Designing for Virtual Communities in the Service of Learning, pp. 16–52. Cambridge University Press, New York (2004) 3. Dunlap, J., Grabinger, R.: Preparing students for lifelong learning: A review of instructional methodologies. Performance Improvement Quarterly 16(2), 6–25 (2003)

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4. Barab, M., Barnett, K.: Squire: Preparing pre-service teachers: Developing an empirical account of a community of practice. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 11(4), 489–542 (2002) 5. Misanchuk, M., Anderson: Building community in an online learning environment: Communication, cooperation and collaboration [DB/OL]. In: Proceedings of the Teaching Learning and Technology Conference. Middle Tennessee State University (2002), http://www.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed01/19.html (retrieved November 8, 2009) 6. Brown, R.: The process of community-building in distance learning classes. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks 5(2), 18–34 (2001) 7. Sato, M., QiQuan, Z.: School - learning community problems perspective. Global Education Outlook 32(7), 6–11 (2003) 8. Ji-ping, Z., XiangDong, C.: Hacker culture and its network learning mode. Journal of Chinese educational Technology (6), 5–8 (2006) 9. Wenger, A.: Practice Communities: Guide for learning organization knowledge management. Mechanical Industry Press, Beijing (2003) 10. Barab, S., Duffy, T.: From practice fields to communities of practice. In: Jonassen, D.H., Duffy, T. (eds.) Theoretical foundations of learning environments, pp. 25–55. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah (2000) 11. Rheingold, H.: The virtual community: Homesteading on the electronic frontier. Addison Wesley, Reading (1993) 12. XiangDong, C., et al.: Online interactive analysis of asynchronous communication. Journal of modern educational technology (3), 29–32 (2008)

Comparison of Students’ Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction Factors in Different Classroom Types in Higher Education Fong-Ling Fu National Chengchi University, No. 64, Sec. 2., ZhiNan Rd., Wenshan District, Taipei City 11605, China [email protected]

Abstract. Effective classroom learning requires a good learning environment integrated with quality teaching, quality course content, and a collaborative approach towards learning. This study sets out to examine the drivers of student satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the three classroom settings common to higher education: face-to-face, Web-based, and blended classrooms. The Critical Incident Technique was used to collect data and to form categories of satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors. The results indicate that student satisfaction/dissatisfaction factors change in different classrooms. In face-to-face classrooms, the instructor’s teaching ability and level of enthusiasm are the most critical factors. On the other hand, availability of the online learning system turned out to be the most critical factor in both Web-based and blended learning contexts. The mix of different interaction types makes the blended classroom popular with students. Regardless of classroom environment, a collaborative learning style remains a key factor in achieving students’ satisfaction, which leads to better learning performance. Keywords: Blended education, Dramaturgical model, Satisfaction factor, Webbased leaning.

1 Introduction With the popularity of Web technologies, the use of asynchronous learning (ALN here after) in higher education has been on the rise for years. Much previous research has debated the effectiveness of ALN versus face-to-face (F2F here after) classrooms. Some argue that the ALN environment benefits student learning performance because the ALN learning tools and materials are available 24 hour-a-day, producing more opportunities for learning. Moreover, it is argued that the online format of communication in the ALN environment provides enough time for both teacher and students to collect their thoughts before answering questions, which introspective learners or students studying outside of their native languages prefer over the higher pressure F2F classes [7], [20]. Meanwhile others have argued that the verbal and nonverbal communication and interaction in F2F classrooms produce emotional connections that are hard to duplicate in an ALN classroom [20]. In addition, there is the blended P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 415–426, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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classroom, which combines elements of both F2F and ALN learning into a single classroom environment and creates more teaching options for instructors to choose from, but lacks clear guidelines about how to implement it at this point. Taken together, these different arguments would seem to indicate that no single educational environment is perfect for all scenarios or all types of student needs; trade-offs between benefits and weaknesses exist for each type of classroom in different contexts. As the two factors theory states [14], satisfaction and dissatisfaction act independently of each other: a lack of dissatisfaction does not necessarily translate to true satisfaction with one’s situation, and lack of satisfaction does not always mean that one is dissatisfied. Previous studies on learning performance have proposed many factors are responsible for classroom atmosphere, including student background, learning content, teacher skill-level, and so on, which all must be combined together to achieve (1) the preliminary goal of student satisfaction and (2) the ultimate goal of motivating students towards classroom engagement. Upon closer examination though, two shortcomings emerge about past studies and their findings: the vast majority of research focuses only on the drivers of learning satisfaction without addressing matters of dissatisfaction, and previous research mostly examines factors of learning context without providing models that organize those factors in easy to understand ways. In regards to the first problem, the author suggests that cross-disciplinary research shows satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors are independent and not simply flip sides of the same coin. Regarding the second issue, the author believes that the dramaturgical model borrowed from the marketing industry can serve as a simple, but effective framework for understanding the classroom.

2 Literature Reviews In regards to classroom learning satisfaction/dissatisfaction factors already identified, the field has made advancements over the years in identifying and categorizing many sources of student motivation as illustrated in 2.1. The dramaturgical model proposed by established sociologist Goffman to be an appropriate model for understanding the educational context which was illustrated in 2.2. 2.1 Factors of Learning Context First, there are the Physical Learning factors, include: 1) layout, clearness, and neatness of classroom, 2) quality or quantity of physical facilities to support teaching [19], 3) appropriateness of functions in the learning system, 4) accessibility of the learning system, 5) speed of net transfers, and 6) ease-of-use of interface [28]. The second set of student satisfaction factors are Teacher Characteristics, comprised of: 1) teacher earnestness, warmth, and empathy, 2) professional skill, 3) communication and expression capability, and 4) service that exceeds expectation [1]. Next are the Classmate Interactions, which include classroom atmosphere for collaborative learning and the ability/option to make friends with classmates [4]. Fourthly there is the set of factors involving Course Content, which consists of practicability, abundance, difficulty, interest, and pedagogic design [16]. The next group of factors relates to the perceived level of appropriateness in communication style; this is labeled as Interactions between

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Teachers and Students and includes whether the communication style contains positive tones (praise) or negative tones (critique), and also the promptness of teacher response to students’ questions [5]. The sixth and final group of factors is Learning Effectiveness, which consists of 1) benefit to learner’s knowledge, 2) learning performance, 3) positive/negative learning experience, and 4) active learning [2], [15]. 2.2 The Dramaturgical Model The dramaturgical model was to measure impression of management efforts and states the customer service experience can be characterized as drama, using the idea of shopping environments as theatrical stages involving setting, actors, an audience, and performance [11]. At the core of a customer service encounter is the impression of the “performance”, which refers to the set of activities that occurs before the audience but which culminates from interactions with the other drama elements: actor, setting, audience, content and interactions. The next element of the dramaturgical model is the drama content; this refers to the narrative resources that organize a drama performance, highlighting and portraying facts that might otherwise remain unapparent or obscure [8]. Setting is defined as the combination of front stage and back stage. Applying the concept of physical setting to asynchronous learning’s virtual classrooms, we find that Internet technology dramatically changes the theatric stage of the classroom environment. In traditional classrooms, teachers need to be very well-prepared as to ensure a smooth performance and to avoid making mistakes during lectures in front of the students. The virtual classroom on the other hand, usually involves the use of prerecorded video lectures and learning content, allowing the back stage to be easily separated from front stage. The role of teacher in the classroom is like that of an actor in the dramaturgical model. In this case, the audience is replaced by the students, and they come with a preconceived set of expectations regarding the teacher’s appearance, professional technique, and attitude [10], [13]. However, the role of teacher differs between traditional and virtual class with respect to two areas: 1) in a traditional class, the teacher is the source of knowledge, but in a virtual class the teacher takes on the role of facilitator or guide [21], [24]. 2) When comparing face-to-face interactions with online video meetings, the effectiveness of non-verbal communication, such as body language, vocal tone and pitch decreases in its ability to express enthusiasm and emotion. Due to limited network bandwidth, the pictures of the teacher are unable to fully capture much of his or her non-verbal communication in an online video lecture. Therefore, a teacher’s traditional set of tools for attracting students’ attention may be hard to duplicate in virtual classes. The dramaturgical model’s next component is audience. With a high contact service such as higher education, effective learning must manage student participation. The atmosphere in a traditional classroom is influenced by verbal interactions or body language (e.g. listening with rapt attention vs. dozing off) between classmates. In virtual classrooms, these classmate interactions rely mainly on text which provides advantages to certain portions of the net generation - introverted students or those who have difficulty to express themselves verbally, especially prefer web communication [7]. The final piece of the dramaturgical model is drama interaction. In

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education, the drama interaction is the level of student involvement, and can range from active to passive; this is influenced in part by the teacher’s performance and ability to manipulate student satisfaction [23]. All these metaphors of the dramaturgical model (drama performance, drama content, stage setting, actor, audience, drama interaction) provide terms that are easy to understand and that help clarify the key ideas in customer service experiences. The dramaturgical model’s biggest contribution however, is in showing and reminding us that social interactions in service oriented environments are fluid, just as actors of a drama must constantly adapt and work to maintain a favorable impression from others (the audience). Harmonious cooperation of all elements is required for a successful performance [11], [12]. Applying concepts of the dramaturgical model to higher education classrooms (traditional F2F, virtual ALN, and blended), we are able to examine and classify the various aspects of the classroom experience that effect student satisfaction and dissatisfaction, while using the dramaturgical model as a cohesive framework that ties these ideas together in an intuitive way.

3 Research Methodologies The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) was used to collect data and to form the categories and subcategories of satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors in this study. CIT is a form of content analysis method founded by Flanagan [6] that has grown in popularity with service-related research over the last three decades, especially in the service areas of quality, satisfaction, failure, and recovery [9]. The purpose of CIT is to make data collected from the field useful for answering the research questions while giving up as little detail and depth as possible [3]. 3.1 Collection of Data A single survey was used to ask respondents to note any satisfying or dissatisfying experiences they had in class. The critical incident question applied in this study was “Please try to remember when you had an extraordinarily satisfying or dissatisfying experience related to the class. Can you, in your own words, describe the time it occurred, what happened, what the instructor had said or done, and what the outcome was.” The study’s sample included 115 students recruited from the ALN class “Media Literacy”, 135 from the blended class “Principle Accounting”, and 95 from the F2F class of “Introduction of Software”. The sample composed of slightly more males (59 %) than females (41%); 100% of the sample is Asian. The sample was quite young (age 18 – 22), with all students belonging to the undergraduate class of National Chengchi University in Taiwan. All students were Social Sciences majors, studying in fields such as business, law, economics, education, literature, etc. In many cases, there were multiple incidents per survey, and out of the total respondent population of 345 students, the study captured 631 valid incidents. This high number of valid incidents is considered adequate for extrapolating results because it is higher than the average number of incidents (433) in previous CIT studies [9]. Furthermore as this is a study focused on satisfaction and dissatisfaction with

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classroom experiences, it also meets the basic requirement of 50 to 100 incidents for target activities that are clearly defined and not complicated [6]. The breakdown of incidents for F2F, ALN, and blended classes in the study is as follows: 74, 103, and 155 satisfactory incidents respectively, and 78, 117, and 104 dissatisfactory incidents respectively. 3.2 Classification of Data The primary goal of the study is to identify and categorize the basic elements that lead to satisfaction or dissatisfaction in three type classrooms. The incident classification scheme placed respondent incidents into categories based on the six major groups of student motivation factors mentioned in the background section (Physical Learning Factors, Teacher Characteristics, Course Content, Teacher/Student Interactions, and Learning Effectiveness) and 22 additional sub-categories developed through an iterative process as shown in Tables 1 and 2. The researcher and two other highly trained coders performed the coding for each incident in this study. The analytical induction process was used to place recalled events “into groups and categories according similarities in the reported experiences” [3]. In CIT studies, reliability of a judge’s (coder’s) ability to consistently classify incidents into specific categories is very important [9]. This ability to be consistent in categorizing incidents over time is measured as intra-judge reliability. In the study, the intra-judge agreement was measured after each judge had completed one week of coding. All intra-judge agreements were greater 0.88 for all three coders. The other dimension of reliability is inter-judge reliability, which measures the degree to which two or more coders agree that a given observation should be classified in a particular way [9]. The inter-judge agreements were calculated using Holsti’s coefficient based on Smith and Houston research [26]. All inter-judge agreements were greater than 0.85. Both the intra-judge and inter-judge agreement minimum values were higher than the acceptable standard of 0.8, and are therefore concluded to be reliable.

4 Results and Discussions The data collected on satisfaction incidents has been grouped into Table 1, and the dissatisfaction incidents placed into Table 2. 4.1 Analysis of F2F Class Incidents As Table 1 shows, the major source of satisfaction incidents in F2F classes came from the teacher group (44%), with most of the satisfaction originating from three particular teacher sub-groups: earnest or empathetic teacher attitude which make up 19% of total satisfaction incidents, good expressional skill making up 14% of total satisfaction incidents, and good professional skills at 9% of total satisfaction incidents. The second important group of satisfaction incidents was the interaction between students and teacher (23%), with the sub-group of “getting in-class praise from the instructor” accounting for an impressive 83% of that group’s total (19% of total satisfaction incidents).

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Classification

Sub-classification

Learning Set

Proper Function Ease to Use Flexibility Availability Subtotal

Teacher

Attitude Professional Skills Communication Skill Spontaneous Service Subtotal

Classmate Interaction

Collaborative Learning Making Friend Subtotal

F2F(%)

Blended(%)

ALN(%)

0 0 0 0. 0

3 0 16 28 47

3 4 26 3 36

19 9 14 3

9 7 0 1

0 1 0 1

44

17

2

4

14

9

1 5

1 15

0 9

Course Content

Practice Abundance Difficulty Interest Pedagogic Design Subtotal

4 3 0 4 5 16

1 1 0 0 1 3

7 2 2 2 7 20

Relationship between Teacher and Student

Internal motivation Response Subtotal

19 4 23

7 10. 17

10 12 22

Learning Effectiveness

Raise Knowledge Learning Performance Learning Experience

3

0

1

4 5

0 1

5 5

12

1

11

Subtotal

For the dissatisfaction incidents in F2F classes (Table 2), the major causes of dissatisfaction were mostly a mirror of the sources of satisfaction incidents. Again, the teacher was the dominating source (47% of total F2F complaints), with 40% of those complaints relating to poor teacher attitude (such as too many absences), 30% unhappy about poor teacher communication skills, and another 30% dissatisfied with the teacher’s professional skills.

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Table 2. Classification of Dissatisfaction Incidents Classification

Sub-classification

F2F(%)

Learning Setting

Classroom Setting

3

2

0

Physical Facilities Proper Function Accessibility Speed of Net Ease to Use Subtotal

3 0 0 0 0 6

1 9 25 23 6 66

1 11 16 16 9 53

Teacher

Attitude Professional Skills Communication Skill Subtotal

19 14. 14 47

0 0 0. 0

0 5 1 6

Classmate Interaction

Collaborative Learning Making Friend Subtotal

0 1 1

6 0 6

0 3 3

Course Content

Practice Abundance Difficulty Interest Pedagogic design Subtotal

4 0 5 3 2 14

1 7 9 0 5 22

1 4 1 0 5 11

Relationship between Teacher and Student

Internal motivation Response Subtotal

13 6 19

3 2 5

11 11 22

Learning Effectiveness

Raise Knowledge Learning Performance Learning Experience

4 6 3

1 0 0

0 3 2

13

1

5

Subtotal

Blended(%)

ALN(%)

4.2 Analysis of the Blended Class Incidents Interestingly the major cause of satisfaction in the blended class came from a completely different group than the F2F class’ primary satisfier. While the F2F’s primary satisfaction factor was the teacher’s role, which equaled 44%, in the blended class (Table1), most of the satisfaction was due to the increase in learning performance by adoption of an e-learning system (47%). Within the learning performance group, the sub-group of increased learning opportunities (60% of this group’s satisfaction incidents) made the largest contribution because students stated that online transparencies, video, lecture notes, and assignment demonstrations were very helpful when doing homework or preparing for exams. Another 16% of satisfaction incidents in the

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blended class were due to the increased choice of learning media the e-learning system provided during the traditional classroom and web portions of the blended class. With unsatisfied incidents, 66% of the complaints came from problems with the learning system’s performance (Table 2), with the subgroups of system inaccessibility and low transmission speed making up the majority of system performance difficulties (38% and 35% of the group respectively). 4.3 Analysis of the ALN Class Incidents In regards to the ALN class, satisfaction incidents were lead by the factor group: elearning systems (36%). Within this group, flexibility in arranging the learning schedule counted for 72% of the system related satisfaction incidents. Regarding the entire ALN experience, the two other significant sources of satisfaction were the groups of 1) teacher’s enthusiasm & promptness in answering questions which counted for 22% and 2) good course content, such as well-designed e-learning activities, which counted for 20%. NOTE: unlike the drivers of satisfaction in the blended class, increased learning opportunity was not an important source of satisfaction in the ALN class. One possible reason could be the 24-hour a day availability of the learning system was considered par for course in ALN class. The other possibility being that the course was easy enough that content did not need to be reviewed more than once. Further, there was one other key difference between the blended and ALN class’ satisfaction drivers – in the blended class, students considered developing web-based content as “extra work” for the teacher while the same behavior simply met expectations in the ALN class. Just like the primary source of satisfaction, the primary cause of dissatisfaction in the ALN class also regarded the learning system (53% of negative incidents). 49% of these complaints came from the subgroup category of low transmission speed, with system instability/unreliability accounting for another 30%. Back at the group level, interaction problems between students and teacher totaled 22% of the dissatisfaction incidents in ALN class. This is in contrast to the significant factors of dissatisfaction in the blended class, where student-teacher interaction problems only equaled 5% of the reported dissatisfiers and indicates that the availability of in-person interaction offered in blended classes decreases the need for interaction online.

5 Findings of the Research Adoption of e-learning technology changes almost all the core learning context and the alteration of critical factors regarding student satisfaction/dissatisfaction was thus high. The conclusions and suggestions are as follows. 5.1 Changes on Service Encounter by Adoption of Web-Based Technologies To further analyze the factors influencing student satisfaction/dissatisfaction, the critical incidents can be classified according to impact level: (1) critical category factors incur both high volumes in satisfied and dissatisfied incidents; (2) the satisfied category contains factors with a high volume of satisfied incidents but low numbers of dissatisfied incidents and vice versa for (3) the dissatisfied category; (4) neutral category factors have low levels of both satisfied and dissatisfied incidents [18].

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Table 3. Classification of Incidents Category

F2F

Blended

ALN

Critical factor

Teacher Learning set Interaction between teacher and students

Learning set Interaction between teacher and students

Satisfier

Collaborative learn- Collaborative learning ing Interaction between teacher and students Teacher

Collaborative learning

Dissatisfier

Course content

The primary critical factor in the F2F class was the teacher’s classroom behavior; this includes elements such as attitude, professional & communication skill, etc. On the other hand, in both the ALN and blended classes (which have portions of face-toface lectures replaced by online video) the satisfaction and dissatisfaction were most heavily influenced by the availability of the learning system for flexibility of learning schedule. Therefore the learning set became the most critical factor (Table 3). Although the internet independent F2F class and the internet dependent ALN class both share teacher-student interaction as secondary critical factors, the primary critical factor remains different. This finding is similar to the result of a study in e-commerce (also an online service), where the majority of satisfaction incidents concerned system performance that surpassed expectations and the majority of dissatisfied incidents were complaints that the system functions did not work well [22]. For the satisfiers in the study, the collaborative learning factor was a satisfier in all three class types (Table 3), which verifies the findings from previous researches that collaborative learning is favored and less expected by university students, no matter which types of learning environment [7]. This also seems related to the positive effects on students’ achievement collaborative learning has been found to have in a broad spectrum [25]. Compared to the results from Meuter’s research [22], we found that the needs for interaction with people (both teacher and classmates alike) were more important in self- learning than in web-based transaction service. Previous authors have argued that the communication and social exchange within face-to-face groups produced emotional connections which are hard to duplicate in an ALN classroom [20]. Others still have argued the opposite, that online learning supports collaboration in ways superior to F2F classes, through the exchange of experience, development of community to share knowledge, and facilitation of high degree cognition [17]. Along this line of reasoning, further arguments have been made that the ALN environment is a particularly good fit for those students with an introverted personality or those who prefer nonverbal communication [27]. In the study, the high

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percentage of both satisfied and dissatisfied incidents indicates that no single interaction media held a significant learning advantage over the others, but having a choice in multiple-media types tended to satisfy the students. This is concluded from the fact that teacher-student interaction was critical in both F2F and ALN classes, but in cases where both types of media were provided, such as this study’s blended class, the importance of the teacher-student interaction factor dropped from the critical category into the satisfied category, indicating that the availability of multi-communication media enhances students’ satisfaction. 5.2 Suggestions Based on the findings above, we propose some suggestions for learning system, teacher, and pedagogic for collaborative learning as follows: To learning system, as the learning system/set is the most critical factor in student satisfaction with ALN and blended classes, and since successful connection and satisfactory internet speed are the keys to smooth performance, we suggest allocating internet bandwidth to match the number of registered students, especially during peak times. Secondly, since a substantial number of students prefer to use the system during the weekends or the night before the quiz or homework due, rearranging the working schedule of maintenance personnel to include this window of time can greatly improve recovery time in case of weekend or evening service failure. Finally, the most basic but most important issue is to provide a friendly interface to the learning system. Charisma of the lecturer is not as important in ALN classes as traditional classrooms, since the former involves lectures that are recorded before the actual lessons take place and that pass through post-production touch up processes, while the latter is a live performance with no chances to redo or re-record over slip ups. Furthermore in ALN classes, any flaws that do occur are masked by lower quality images limited to Internet bandwidth capacity while mistakes in face-to-face classes are seen clearly in person. For students in the ALN environment, the role of the teacher is no longer as a service provider, but a facilitator of learning activities – they provide services based on the students’ requirements, such as answering questions. Therefore, for teachers using ALN environments, small acts of kindness toward students such as promptly responding to questions posted online, can particularly impact student satisfaction. Secondly, teachers in an ALN environment can learn to benefit from further cooperation with assistants or other faculty members. The assistant can be delegated more responsibility for communication-related tasks such as filtering the questions in student in an ALN environment or answering the easy questions before reminding the teacher take care of the more difficult questions. In instances where teachers are offering the same course, everyone can benefit through sharing or cooperatively developing the learning material. Finally, un-experienced teachers can use online courses to obtain training and skills by playing the student role and exploring different sides of the teaching process. Students control more of the learning process in both ALN and blended learning environments than in F2F classrooms, so encouraging participation is especially important for learning success in these environments. As ALN and blended classes offer more interactive channels between classmates and more opportunities for creative

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participation, collaborative learning should be encouraged – not only does it enhance learning effectiveness but it is more convenient to use in ALN and blended environments. In addition, collaboration between teacher and students can create strong favorable impressions of the teacher and increased student participation. For example in the experiment’s blended classroom, one critical incident that left many students feeling that the teacher was particularly diligent and considerate occurred after he called for a meeting in the chat room the night before a quiz. In addition to building students’ respect and favor, more than 90% of the students participated in the out-ofclass discussion. Simple collaborative activities can go a long ways towards student satisfaction and is recommended for any class type. In ALN and blended classes though, the online component of classroom communication makes collaborative learning particularly easy to implement with minimal preparation time.

References 1. Albirini, A.: Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Information and Communication Technologies: the Case of Syrian EFL Teachers. Computers & Education 47, 373–398 (2006) 2. Behuniak, P.J., Gable, R.K.: Sex Differences in Student’s Satisfaction with College and Attitudes about Future Employment for Five College Majors. Journal of College Student Personnel 23(4), 11–17 (1982) 3. Bitner, M.J.: Evaluating Service Encounter: the Effects of Physical Surroundings and Employee Responses. Journal of Marketing 54, 69–82 (1990) 4. Cho, H., Gay, G., Davidson, B., Ingraffea, A.: Social Networks, Communication Styles, and Learning Performance in CSCL Community. Computers & Education 49, 309–329 (2007) 5. Crosby, L.A., Evans, K.R., Cowles, D.: Relationship Quality in Service Selling: an Interpersonal Influence Perspective. Journal of Service Marketing 54, 68–81 (1990) 6. Flanagan, J.C.: The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin 51(4), 327–358 (1954) 7. Francescato, D., Porcelli, R., Mebane, M., Cuddetta, M., Klobas, J., Renzi, P.: Evaluation of Efficacy of Collaborative Learning in Face-to-faced and Computer-supported University Contexts. Computers in Human Behavior 22, 163–176 (2006) 8. Goffman, E.: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, p. 30. Penguin, Harmondsworth (1959) 9. Gremler, D.D.: The Critical Incident Technique in Service Research. Journal of Service Research 7(1), 65–89 (2004) 10. Grove, S.J., Fisk, R.P.: The Dramaturgy of Services Exchange: an Analytical Framework for Services marketing. In: Berry, L.L., Shostack, G.L. (eds.) Emerging Perspectives on Services Marketing. American Marketing Association, Chicago (1983) 11. Grove, S.J., Fisk, R.P., Bitner, M.J.: Dramatizing the Service Experience: a Managerial Approach. Advances in Services Marketing and Management 1, 91–121 (1992) 12. Grove, S.J., Fisk, R.P., Dorsch, M.J.: Assessing the Theatrical Components of the Service Encounter: a Cluster Analysis Examination. The Service Industries Journal 18, 116–134 (1998) 13. Guiry, M.: Consumer and Employee Roles in Service Encounters. Advances in Consumer Research 19, 666–672 (1992) 14. Herzberg, F.: One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? Harvard Business Review 81(1), 87–96 (2003)

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15. Hsu, M., Chen, I.Y., Chiu, C., Ju, T.L.: Exploring the Antecedents of Team Performance in Collaborative Learning of Computer Software. Computers & Education 48, 700–718 (2007) 16. Hwang, W., Chang, C., Chen, G.: The Relationship of Learning Traits, Motivation and Performance-learning Response Dynamic. Computers & Education 42, 267–287 (2004) 17. Leung, W.: Use of the Internet and Information Technology to Facilitate Teaching Evidence Based Practice – a Case Study. Teaching and Teacher Education 16(2), 223–238 (2002) 18. Lockwood, A.: Using Service Incidents to Identify Quality Improvement Points. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 6, 75–80 (1994) 19. Mangano, J.A., Corrado, T.J.: Adult Student’ Satisfaction at Six Two-year Colleges. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 180563 (1979) 20. Marjanovice, O.: Learning and Teaching in a Synchronous Collaborative Learning Environment. Journal of Computer Assistance Learning 15(2), 129–148 (1999) 21. Martens, R.L., Gulikers, J., Bastiaens, T.: The Impact of Intrinsic Motivation on E-learning in Authentic Computer Tasks. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 20(5), 368–376 (2004) 22. Meuter, M.L., Ostrom, A.L., Roundtree, R.I., Binter, M.J.: Self-service Technologies: Understanding Customer Satisfaction with Technology-based Service Encounters. Journal of Marketing 64(3), 50–64 (2000) 23. Moisio, R., Arnould, E.J.: Extending the Dramaturgical Framework in Marketing: Drama Structure, Drama Interaction and Drama Content in Shopping Experience. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 4(4), 246–256 (2005) 24. Moreno, R., Mayer, R.E.: Engaging Students in Active Learning: the Case for Personalized Multimedia Messages. Journal of Educational Psychology 92, 724–733 (2000) 25. Slavin, R.E.: Research for the Future: Research on Cooperative Learning and Achievement: What We Know, What We Need to Know. Contemporary Educational Psychology 21(1), 43–69 (2006) 26. Smith, R.A., Houston, M.J.: A Psychometric Assessment of Measures of Scripts in Consumer Memory. Journal of Consumer Research 12(2), 214–224 (1985) 27. Sweeney, J.C., Ingrain, D.: A Comparison of Traditional and Web-based Tutorials in Marketing Education: an Exploratory Study. Journal of Marketing Education 23(1), 55–63 (2001) 28. Yang, Z., Liu, Q.: Research and Development of Web-based Virtual Online Classroom. Computers & education 48(2), 171–184 (2007)

Cognitive Load Theory Based Effectiveness Evaluation on Dynamic Math Teaching Liming Zhang, Ngaihong Chan, and Yilin Chu University of Macau Av.Padre Tomas Pereira, Taipa, Macao {lmzhang,ma85950,ma85944}@umac.mo

Abstract. In computer supported teaching, the final test result was usually used to evaluate the teaching effectiveness. However, it was not easy to facilitate the students to make a significant progress in a short period. In this study besides the final test results, the cognitive load and non-test performances were also used to investigate the effectiveness of computer supported dynamic math teaching. Results indicated that though there was no significant difference in the final test results, computer supported dynamic math teaching performed significantly better in graphic related problems in non-test performances. Considering the combination results of the non-test performance and cognitive load, the computer supported dynamic math teaching method could facilitate more efficient learning. Keywords: Cognitive load theory, Computer support learning, Dynamic math teaching.

1 Introduction With the rapid development in information technology, computer supported instruction becomes more and more popular. A great deal of studies has been conducted on effects of using computer based teaching in relation to students’ achievement. Though significant differences were expected by scholars, the data analysis results often showed that computer based teaching had similar effectiveness with the traditional one in students’ achievement. One of the main reasons was the short experiment period. To solve the problem, beside the students’ achievement Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) was introduced to evaluate whether computer supported instruction could support more efficient and deeper learning activities so as to increase the learning effectiveness. CLT originated in the 1980s and underwent substantial development and expansion in the 1990s by researchers from all over the globe. The theory is now a contributor to both research and debate on issues associated with instructional design. CLT, according to Sweller [13, 14], is an integrated theory that uses the evolutionary origins of human cognition as a base from which to generate instructional implications and applications. It is based on concepts from cognitive architecture and cognitive psychology, including working-memory, long-term memory, and schema theory. P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 427–438, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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CLT researchers have recognized three categories of load during instruction. They are Intrinsic, Extraneous and Germane cognitive loads [9, 14, 15, 17]. First, Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the load placed on working memory by the intrinsic of the materials to be learnt. It is entirely determined by levels of element interactivity [12, 14]. Simultaneously, it is affected by the expertise levels of leaner [4]. Second, Extraneous cognitive load is the load placed on working memory by the instructional design itself [1]. Unlike intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load is imposed by inappropriate instructional procedures [14]. It is under control of the instructor. Last, Germane cognitive load is the load placed on working memory during schema formation and automation [1, 9, 15]. CLT assumes a limited working memory connected to an unlimited long-term memory [5]. How to decrease the extraneous cognitive load, in order to free the working memory for tasks associated with the germane cognitive load is the prime goal of instruction [14]. There are three classic categories of cognitive load measurement techniques: Subjective, Physiological and Task Performance. Subject techniques use rating scales to report the experienced effort or the capacity expenditure [15]. The direct subject measurement was used in this study to assess the extraneous cognitive load of the subject who was learning in the computer supported environment. The NASA-Task Load Index [3, 7] is a kind of subjective measures which consists of rating scales, providing participants six dimensions to perceive cognitive load: mental demand, physical demand, temporal demand, effort, frustration tolerance, and performance. Because NASA-TLX is a multidimensional scale, it is usually administered only once, at the end of a learning or test phase [16]. There is another un-dimensional 9point scale developed by Paas [8]. Because it has only one item asking participants to rate their perceived mental effort, it can be used during the process of performance as well [1]. Researchers have indicated that measures during task performance are very suitable for studying fluctuations in cognitive load while subjective data collected after tests seem to provide a good indication of overall cognitive load [8, 10, 11, 16]. According to the review of CLT measurement [16], the instrument used the 9 points scale, ranging from 1 (Extremely Easy) to 9 (Extremely Difficult). Participants were required to rate “How easy or difficult was this task?” Based on Paas and van Merrienboer [10], effective instruction represents by the students’ higher performance plus higher involvement, which is illustrated in Figure 1. CLT is becoming one of the major supporting theories in multimedia learning. There are many books and papers providing advices on how to design multimedia learning environment. What are advised, however, are largely based on the practical experience and wisdom of the authors. Until very recently, the lack of scientific research evidence in many multimedia learning books has been justified on the grounds that a solid research base did not yet exist. However, the quantity and quality of scientific research – conducted by researchers around the world – have reached a level warranting the field’s first comprehensive research-based handbook of multimedia learning -- The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning [6], in which CLT is the theory foundation. The experiment-based dynamic math teaching method is a new teaching model which enables students to acquire knowledge through observation, reflection and induction with the aid of information technology. It is a combination of information technology and instruction. Dynamic Mathematical Laboratory (DM_Lab) is one of

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the teaching software series. They were developed by the school which conducted this experiment [18]. Its function is similar to the Geometer’s Sketchpad (GSP). It is a dynamic construction and exploration tool that enables students to explore and understand the mathematics in ways that are simply not possible with traditional tools. Students can construct an object and then explore its mathematical properties by dragging the object with the mouse. Students can work on independent explorations. Performance high efficiency

high involvement

hi he

li

hi

he

le

Mental Effort

li

low involvement

le

low efficiency

Fig. 1. CLT Based Instruction Model

This study is set to investigate the following research questions. z

Is the experiment-based dynamic teaching method more effective than the traditional teaching method for secondary math teaching? z Do the students have lower cognitive load (CL) in the experiment-based dynamic math teaching than in the traditional teaching?

2 Experiment Design In this paper an experiment was designed to compare students’ achievement and cognitive load between two groups. Since the students could not be randomly assigned, a quasi-experiment was used in the study. To evaluate the students’ overall progress, task and assignment performances were also analyzed. Tasks referred to the class tasks which were conducted 10 minutes before the class end. There were total 4 tasks in the experiment. Assignments were homework which requested the students to finish individually after class. There were total 2 assignments in the experiment. The independent variable was the two different teaching methods. The dependent variables include the followings.

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Task performance, which was defined as the scores achieved on the tasks. Task CL, which was defined using the scales of the “Self-report Cognitive Load Questionnaire”. z Assignment performance, which was defined as the scores achieved on the assignments. z Math achievement, which was defined as the scores achieved on the final test. z Experiment CL, which was defined using the scales of the revised NSAS-TLX questionnaire. 2.1 Participants The participants in this study consisted of 83 Form 5 students in a secondary school in Macao. Class A with 42 students was selected as the control group. This group was taught by traditional instruction alone. Class B with 41 students was selected as the experiment group and was taught using the experiment-based dynamic mathematics teaching. 2.2 Teaching Materials and Measurement Tools In this study, the Ellipse Unit was selected as the content which was to be taught to the students. The content primarily consisted of three sections: Ellipse’s formula, Ellipse’s geometric properties and Ellipse’s parameter equation. Ellipse Unit is part of mathematic curriculum of F5. So its complexity and difficulty are approximate and acceptable for students. The instructional software used in the study was DM_Lab. This tool has been applied in many laboratory courses in the experiment school and

Fig. 2. DM_Lab Interface (Wai, 2002)

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proved to be a useful mathematics instructional tool. DM_Lab interface is illustrated in Figure 2. The measurement tool for student achievement was the school-based task papers, assignment papers and the final test paper. The Self-report Cognitive Load Questionnaire was used directly after the tasks in the experiment to measure the perceived cognitive load. The questionnaire, which consisted of a single question with a 9 points scale, was adopted in this study. It had been developed by Chuang [2] with reliability of α=0.889. Being adjusted with advice from the senior math teachers, it had a relatively high validity of experts. Experiment CL scale used in the study was a Chinese edition revised from NASA-Task Load Index. This scale has 6 dimensions: (1). mental demand; (2). physical demand; (3). temporal demand; (4). effort; (5). frustration tolerance; (6). performance. The rating of this questionnaire was 5-points, ranging from 1 (very low) to 5 (very high). Total reliability of this scale was 0.86. The loadings of items on significant components were all above 0.42. So the scale was of good construction validity [19]. 2.3 Teaching Design The experiment took place over two weeks during the routine hours of the school day. Both the experiment and control group took 12 Ellipse lessons. Each lesson lasted 40 minutes. The flowchart of the experiment procedure is illustrated in Figure 3. Pre-test Tasks on lecture 2,3,6,11

Assignment 1 Lecture 1-11 Assignment 2

Self-reported CL Questionnaire Final Test

NASA-TLX Questionnaire Fig. 3. Flowchart of the Experiment Procedure

Pre-test was conducted before the experiment to investigate participant’s mathematics ability in Ellipse. There was significant difference in expertise experience between the experiment group and control group. The reason was that there were several students in the experiment group failed to go up to the next grade and stayed in the same grade for an additional year. To exclude the pre-test effect, the repeatedmeasures were used in the data analysis in this study. The final math test scores in last semester were also analyzed by SPSS. There was no significant difference between two groups.

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During the experiment, the students in the experimental group sat separately in front of the computers in the computer room. At the beginning of each lesson, the teacher asked the students to review what they had learnt from the previous lesson. Then the teacher started to elaborate the principles and steps of the operation process by using DM_Lab and a LCD projector as an aid. Then the students were asked to use DM_Lab by themselves to support their exploration of basic concepts and properties. Meanwhile they needed to solve ‘Ellipse problems’ the teacher requested. In last 10 minutes, students were given tasks or exercises for homework. The same math teacher delivered the entire courses to the control group in a traditional classroom. For the first session of each lecture, the teacher began by reviewing the main Ellipse theorems from the previous lesson. This was followed by a session of graph demonstration. First the teacher raised a geometry problem to promote student thinking. Then the teacher demonstrated the detailed problem solving procedures on the blackboard. If necessary, related images would be shown on an overhead LCD projector in front of the blackboard. The students followed the teacher’s guidance; meanwhile they might make scribal notes of the theorem proof and relative calculations. Neither the teacher nor the students in the control group used DM_Lab. In last 10 minutes, the students were given tasks or exercises for homework. The teaching contents were same in both the experiment and control groups. The tasks were conducted on lessons 2, 3, 6 and 11. The task topics were usually one question and related with the corresponding lecture. The students were requested to finish the task individually within 10 minutes. The 9-point scale Self-report Cognitive Load Questionnaire was conducted directly after the task paper collected. The question was “How difficult was this task?” The final test was conducted at lecture 12. After the test, the students were requested to fill in the NSAS-TLX Questionnaire.

3 Experiment Results and Analysis The data of the study came from task papers, task CL, assignment papers, final test paper, and experiment CL, respectively. All data were analyzed on SPSS 15.0. 3.1 Task Performance There was one question in each task. The mark was 1 for correct and 0 for incorrect. Table 1 showed the means, standard deviations, and T-test results of four tasks’ scores in both the control and experiment groups. There were no significant differences on four task scores between the experiment and control groups. 3.2 Task CL Table 2 showed the means, standard deviations, and T-test results of the Task CL scores of four tasks in both the control and experiment groups. There was significant difference on Task 1; however, there was no significant difference on other tasks. Table 2 also illustrated that in the Task CL, the means of the control group were lower than that of the experiment group in four tasks. This result showed that the control

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Table 1. Means, standard deviations and T-test results in Tasks

Tasks

Teaching-method

N

Mean

Std. t Deviation Task 1 Control Group 42 1.74 .024 .945a Experiment Group 41 .027 1.00a Task 2 Control Group 42 .64 .043 .903a a Experiment Group 41 .047 .944 a Task 3 Control Group 42 -1.19 .018 1.00 a Experiment Group 41 .020 .969 Task 4 Control Group 42 .45 .023 .967a a Experiment Group 41 .026 .982 * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. (P<.05). a: exclude the effect from the covariates of the pre-test and last term test.

Sig. .09 .52 .24 .65

Table 2. Means, standard deviations and T-test results in Task CL

Tasks

Teaching-method

Mean

Std. t Sig. Deviation 2.71 .00* Task 1 Control Group 3.26a .28 .31 Experiment Group 4.4a 1.12 .27 Task 2 Control Group 3.47a .29 .32 Experiment Group 3.95a 1.13 .26 Task 3 Control Group 3.80a .28 .30 Experiment Group 4.27a .43 .67 Task 4 Control Group 3.13a .31 .34 Experiment Group 3.33a * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. (P<.05) a: exclude the effect from the covariates of the pre-test and last term test. group reported the tasks easier than the experiment group did. Based on the CLT instruction model and combining the Task performance and Task CL, the computer supported instruction was more effective in Task 1,2 and 4, meanwhile the traditional instruction was more effective in Task 3. When we closely check the task topics, task 1,2,4 were more graphic related. 3.3 Homework-Performance Table 3 showed the means, standard deviations, and T-test results in Assignment 1. The mark was 1 for correct and 0 for incorrect in each question. In Assignment 1, there were significant difference between the control and experiment groups on question 3, 6, and 7. The experiment group achieved significant higher marks in question 3 and 7, while the control group achieved significant higher marks in question 6. In

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L. Zhang, N. Chan, and Y. Chu Table 3. Means, standard deviations and T-test results in Assignment 1

Questions

Teaching-method

Mean

Std. t Deviation -.338 1 Control Group .72a .073 .078 Experiment Group .67a .153 2 Control Group .92a .041 .044 Experiment Group .93a 2.188 3 Control Group .68a .064 .068 Experiment Group .88a 1.522 4 Control Group .78a .058 .061 Experiment Group .90a .039 5 Control Group .90a .048 .051 Experiment Group .90a -2.571 6 Control Group .90a .060 .064 Experiment Group .70a 3.853 7 Control Group .20a .066 .071 Experiment Group .58a * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. (P<.05) ** The mean difference is significant at the .01 level. (P<.01) a: exclude the effect from the covariates of the pre-test and last term test.

Sig .736 .879 .032* .132 .969 .012* .000**

Assignment 2, there were significant difference between the control and experiment groups on question 1, 2, 3, 8, and 12. The control group achieved significant higher marks in question 8, while the experiment group achieved significant higher marks in all other questions. Moreover, in most questions the significant difference level was less than 0.01. 3.4 Students’ Achievement UNIANOVA was used to measure the students’ achievement based on the final test performance. Table 5 showed the means, standard deviations, and T-test results in students’ achievement. There was no significant difference between the control and experiment group in students’ achievement. The mean in the control group was slightly better than the one in the experiment group. However, there was significant difference in the final question in the test paper between the control and experiment group. The control group achieved significantly higher scores in that question than the experiment group did (t=-3.396, Sig=.001). The question was graphic related question. 3.5 Experiment CL Table 6 showed the means, standard deviations, and T-test results in Experiment CL of both the control and experiment groups in six dimensions. There was no significant difference on the sum of CL dimensions between the control and experiment groups. However, there was significant difference in Temporal Demand dimension

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between the control and experiment groups. The experiment group claimed more time required in learning during the experiment. Based on the higher marks in final test and lower time required in learning, the control group performed better than the experiment did. Table 4. Means, standard deviations and T-test results in Assignment 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Teaching-method

Mean

Std. Deviation

t

Sig

Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group

.06a .32a .04a .26a .05a .27a .80a .84a .46a .33a .54a .37a .83a .87a .50a

.057 .060 .051 .054 .055 .058 .060 .063 .076 .080 .076 .080 .057 .060 .074

3.104

.003**

2.969

.004**

2.664

.009**

.427

.671

-1.239

.219

-1.514

.134

.435

.664

-2.292

.025*

Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group

a

.26 .078 .050 .65a .073 .66a .077 10 .34a .073 .918 a Experiment Group .44 .077 11 Control Group .587 .10a .051 Experiment Group .14a .053 12 Control Group 3.850 .10a .064 Experiment Group .46a .067 * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. (P<.05) ** The mean difference is significant at the .01 level. (P<.01) a: exclude the effect from the covariates of the pre-test and last term test. 9

.961 .362 .559 .000**

Table 5. Means, standard deviations and T-test results in students’ achievement

Teaching-method

Mean

Std. t Sig. Deviation Control Group -.402 .689 1.89 69.32a a Experiment Group 68.20 2.04 * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. (P<.05) a: exclude the effect from the covariates of the pre-test and last term test.

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4 Conclusions and Future Research 4.1 Conclusions z

In the view of students’ achievement, both instructional methods had similar effectiveness in teaching. The traditional instruction performed slightly better than the experiment-based instruction in the average marks and some questions in the final test. Table 6. Means, standard deviations and T-test results in CL

Mental demand Physical demand Temporal demand Effort Frustration tolerance Performance

Teaching-method

Mean

Std. Deviation

T

Sig.

Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group Control Group Experiment Group

2.78 2.80 2.19 2.89 2.57 3.02 2.72 2.99 2.77 3.09 2.83 2.75

.73 .53 .92 .98 .77 .54 .73 .59 .82 .78 .65 .68

.137

.081

3.318

.616

3.071

.018*

1.870

.072

1.788

.569

-.570

.434

* The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. (P<.05).

z

z

z

z

Regarding the experiment CL, experiment-based instruction requested significantly more time to facilitate the teaching and learning. The experiment group reported higher CL than the one reported by the control group. It indicated that the experiment-based dynamic math teaching method requested the students’ to make much more effort in learning. Higher CL could be either positive or negative which depends on the learning performance. Considering the combination results of the students’ final test results and the Experiment CL, traditional instruction could be more effective. In the view of students’ Task, Assignment performance, and Task CL, the experiment group performed significantly better in most of the situation, especially in the graphic related questions. Considering the combination results of the Task performance and Task CL, the experiment-based dynamic math teaching method could facilitate more efficient learning. The students’ performance in graphic related problems was much better during the non-test performance than those in the test. It indicated that DM_Lab could help the students understanding better the graphic related problems; meanwhile it might cause the students’ dependence on the software tool which resulted in worse performance during the test without the software support. The experiment results also indicate that the normal test paper might not be a good evaluation tool for the computer supported instruction.

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4.2 Research Limitations and Future Study The experiment results show that some correct answer rates in the algebra related questions are significantly higher in traditional teaching than that in the experimentbased instruction. So to the algebra deduction related topics, teachers are suggested to take discretionary consideration on teaching method design. The traditional math test is usually paper-based. It might not be suitable to evaluate students’ ability in using computer software as a tool to solve the problem. However, that ability is acceptable in practice. How to properly evaluate students’ math ability might become a research topic in the future. Though the experiment was conducted in a Macao school and on a math topic, obviously, no interpretation of the experiment results restricted to the local and the particularly chosen subjects. They could be extended to more general cases.

References 1. Ayres, P.: Using subjective measures to detect variations of intrinsic cognitive load within problems. Learning and Instruction 16, 389–400 (2006) 2. Chuang, C.P.: The design of cognitive load scale. In: FoGuang University, IECT Taiwan & Foundation of China audio-visual Education jointly (ed.) Symposium on Cognitive Load: Theory and Applications, 4th edn., pp. 5-1-1–5-22. FoGuang University, YiLan (2007) 3. Hart, S.G., Staveland, L.E.: Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical and theoretical research. In: Hancock, P.A., Mesh Kati, N. (eds.) Human Mental Workload, pp. 139–178. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam (1988) 4. Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., Sweller, J.: The Expertise Reversal Effect. Educational Psychologist 38(1), 23–31 (2003) 5. Kirschner, P.A.: Cognitive load theory: implications of cognitive load theory on the design of learning. Learning and Instruction 12, 1–10 (2002) 6. Mayer, R.E.: The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2005) 7. NASA-TLX. Task Load Index, http://humansystems.arc.nasa.gov/groups/TLX/ (retrieved on February 23, 2010) 8. Paas, F.: Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology 84, 429–434 (1992) 9. Pass, F., Renkl, A., Sweller, J.: Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design: Recent Developments. Educational Psychologist 38(1), 1–4 (2003) 10. Paas, F., van Merrien̈boer, J.J.G.: The efficiency of instructional conditions: An approach to combine mental effort and performance measures. Human Factors 35(4), 737–743 (1993) 11. Paas, F., Tuovinen, J.E., Tabbers, H., van Gerven, P.W.M.: Cognitive load measurement as a means to advance cognitive load theory. Educational Psychologist 38(1), 63–71 (2003) 12. Sweller, J.: Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty and instructional design. Learning and Instruction 4, 295–312 (1994) 13. Sweller, J.: Instructional design consequences of an analogy between evolution by natural selection and human cognitive architecture. Instructional Science 32, 9–31 (2004)

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14. Sweller, J.: Cognitive Load. In: FoGuang University IECT Taiwan & Foundation of China audio-visual Education jointly (ed.) Symposium on Cognitive Load: Theory and Applications, p. K1-44. FoGuang University, YiLan (2007) 15. Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J.G., Paas, F.: Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review 10(3), 251–296 (1998) 16. van Gog, T., Pass, F.: Instructional efficiency: revisiting the original construct in educational research. Educational Psychologist 43(1), 16–26 (2008) 17. van Merrienboer, J.G., Sweller, J.: Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions. Educational Psychology Review 17(2), 147–177 (2005) 18. Wai, F.L.: DM_Lab and experimental geometry instruction. Macao Foundation, Macao (2002) 19. Qian-ben, Z., Yi-zheng, H., De-zheng, Z., Bi-shan, X.: Cognitive Load Measurement Instrument Design. In: Symposium on Cognitive Load: Theory and Application Conference, pp. 5-1-1– 5-1-19. FoGuang University, YiLan (2007)

Impact of 3D/VR Action Video Games on Players’ Cognition, Problem Solving and Its Implications in Simulation Training Xuemin Zhang1,∗, Bin Yang1, and Yongna Li2 1

School of Psychology and Beijing Key Lab of Applied Experimental Psychology, State Key Lab of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China, 100875 [email protected] 2 Department of Psychology, New York State University, Albany, New York, USA, 12246 [email protected]

Abstract. As video game becomes more and more popular, its impact on our life, work and learning seems to be more important. Psychologists and educators have been focused their attention on its social and cognitive effect on players in the past 30 to 40 years. They have done many studies on its effect on players’ social and cognitive development. It has been found that video game experience do exert positive effects on human’s improvement in basic cognitive skills, such as cognition, distribution of attentional resources, perceptual learning, etc. and problem solving. Based on the previous literatures and our studies, we will briefly review the impact of video game play on players’ cognitive development and problem solving. Finally, the implications of video game play on cognitive development and training are discussed. Keywords: Action Video Game Play, Learning, Cognition, Problem Solving.

1 Introduction Since 1980s, the number of video game players has been growing surprisingly. Especially in the recent 10-20 years, the development of computer technology facilitated the three dimensions and virtual reality (3D & VR) online video games developed rapidly. For example, a traditional games producer sold out about one billion games in all from 1983 to 1995, which meant that each teenager at least had one copy of this kind game in the world. This was a very serious problem. In more recent years, as more and more PC-based games and online video games have gained greater popularity, one person may own many kinds of games. Especially the online games popularity enables players to play with from several to hundreds of others all over the world. Video game play has become a more social activity.

∗

Corresponding Author: Xuemin Zhang, Beijing Normal University, School of Psychology, Beijing, China. 100875. Email: [email protected]; Tel/Fax : 86-10-58807499/58809659.

P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 439–452, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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The following survey showed the popularity of video game play in China. The total sales of computer games were 409.9 million in 2008, and it was of 15% increase than 2007 which were 366.7 million. By the end of 2008, there were 900 million internet game users and more than 50% of Chinese internet users played at least one kind of online games. There were 49.36 million frequent game players, and 40.17 million of them were adolescents. This increasing speed is surprising in every year. By the end of 2009, there were roughly 1400-1500 million internet game players and it will increase 20% in the next few years, which will reach 2000 million or more at the end of 2010. In the United States, Japan and South Korea, the percentage of internet game players was higher than that of China. Game players have become a big population in all over the world. As the game players increasing rapidly, the negative aspects of game playing has become a serious social problem. Many adolescents spent a lot of time playing video games on the computer and even became addicted to video game playing. Parents and school teachers began to worry about the negative effect of the spreading of video games. For example, people believed that spending much time on video games may cause depression and violence in adolescents, and many students who played video games were not interested in their school study any more. Moreover, web or game addiction, aggression evoked by violent games, and some other negative social effects also became serious social problems. At the same time, some positive aspects were also noticed by practitioners in different professional fields which we will discuss in present review. Since video games became more and more popular, it is impossible to treat them as some kind of evil things and get rid of them from our life. What we can do was to change the way we think of them and how to avoid their negative effect and improve their positive effect from the games’ original design. Some work (Wu and Li; 2008) had been done to find out the value of video games, such as their positive effect on human’s learning, cognition and problem solving. Actually, the computer video games were described by Klabbers (1999) as actions involving many skills and knowledge. Playing video games provides the possibility to improve players’ cognitive skills, because game play involved the process of solving problems by using some clues and following specific rules. The computer video games were specified as two categories: knowledge-directed games and non-knowledge-directed games. The knowledge-directed games were designed based on some professional knowledge in a certain field, whereas the non-knowledge-directed games did not require specific knowledge to play. Most of action video games were non-knowledge-directed games, in which the problem space was created by setting up plenty of plots. Therefore, video games can teach you how to learn new knowledge and help you with your thinking and development of creativity. That was why many researchers devoted themselves to finding out the educational values of video games. The psychologists argued that video games created an imaginary world for the players. People knew they were not real and they did not need to take them very seriously. But they can really get into them when playing. The players were active participants in the games for players must be an observer with particular purpose and sought for useful information, not just accept the stimulus passively. Learning in the games was not stimulus-centered or task-driven, but player-centered or player involved. The players did not need to form the hypothesis of what they see or hear before they were aware of their perception. The researchers of game-playing can study

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the players’ behaviors by observation without assumption about the internal mental structures and ability. People might notice that the latest technique made the imaginary virtual world become to be more real. People can experience “real” learning environment during game playing. According to these great studies, the present paper will give a brief review of the positive effects of video games on players’ learning, cognition and problem solving, and its implications on cognitive development and training. Finally, suggestions for the game designer and producers will be discussed.

2 The Impact of Video Game Play on Cognition In recent years, some studies focused on the causes and behavior medication of game play addiction (Zhang and Lei, 2007), and on how to apply the video games into school teaching (Yan, 2006). However, most of the studies were related to some positive influences of video games in the past 30 to 40 years. They found that video game play could help people gain the experience of interaction, develop the skill of handeye coordination, encourage the students to look for fun during the boring classroom study, and help people to develop the sense of achievement in the virtual world which they can not make in the real world. Some studies indicated that video game play could improve children’s cognitive skills (e.g., spatial representation and mental rotation, spatial attention processing, reaction time, attention distribution, and so on) (Forsyth & Lancy, 1987; Gagnon, 1985; Gauvain, 1993; Green, & Bavelier, 2003; 2006a; 2006b; Greenfield, Brannon, & Lohr, 1994; Subrahmanyam, & Greenfield, 1996), problem solving and logical reasoning (Gauvain, 1993; Greenfield, Brannon, & Lohr, 1994; Greenfield, 1985; Greenfield et al, 1994; Rosas et al 2003), and visual information processing (Green, & Bavelier, 2003; 2006a; 2006b; Castel, Pratt, & Drummond, 2005). There were so many different video games sold in the market, and many of them have exceptionally high cognitive requirements (e.g., attentional, perceptual or sensory processing, response speed and smart hand-eye coordination) for players (e.g., discriminating one color, shape, object or any other features in the perceived fields). Therefore, many researchers suggested that video game play could result in some modifications or improvement in players’ visual-motor skills (e.g., controlling the aircraft to elude the coming bullets or respond the “enemy” pops up as quickly as possible), other cognitive skills and ability in their life or work (Griffith et al., 1983; McClurg & Chaille, 1987; Orosy-Feldes & Allan, 1989). We will discuss these topics in the following parts. 2.1 Video Game Experience and Attention Distribution Attention theory suggested that there was limited capacity of attentional resources, because people were only able to pay attention to a limited number of objects rather than all information in the visual field at the same time. The most important function of our visual system was to search and select the relevant information to the task at hand while restrainting the interference from the irrelevant stimuli, which would help people to separate the helpful stimuli from the useless information. Some studies

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found that video game play could improve the efficiency of attentional resources allocation (Castel, Pratt & Drummond, 2005; Lavie, 2005; Zhang et al., 2009). Green and Bavelier did a series of studies on this topic (Green, & Bavelier, 2003; 2006a; 2006b; 2007). They used the flanker compatibility effect measured the attentional resources distribution both in action video game players (VGPs) and non video game players (NVGPs). In one of their studies, participants were asked to finish a target task (sought through the display to determine whether a square or diamond was presented) while ignoring the distractors (other shapes such as triangles). The task was controlled through the factors such as cue validity, number of distractors, and target locations to attest players’ attentional resources distribution. When the target task was made very difficult by increasing the number of the distractors, NVGPs had to devote all of their available attentional resources to the target task and had no leftover resources to process the distractors. However, the VGPs could successfully complete the target task, and also had left-over resources to process the distractors. The results indicated that VGPs than NVGPs had an enhanced attentional capacity and were able to process more visual information in the visual field at the same time, that is, they have more attentional resources or they could allocate the resources efficiently. Based on the previous studies, Zhang and Yang (2009) explored the attentional distribution of action video game players and non players under different perceptual loads in focused attention condition. They found that, under low perceptual load, action video game players tried to focus their attention on the task at-hand whereas the non players tried to explore the adjacent locations with the left-over resources from the research task; however, under high perceptual load, the players would process the visual information at the adjacent locations of the target with the left-over resources, because they had a comparatively greater attentional capability, whereas the non players focused their attention on the target locations to finish the search task. Furthermore, the training study of the present research indicated that the two video games applied (Counter-Strike as action video game & Tetris as control game) could both facilitated the reaction speed of the participants and that limited training could not alter the way of the spatial attention distribution. Greenfield and colleagues (1994) investigated the divided attention of experts and novice VGPs through the divided task, and the results indicated that the experts could divide their attention more efficiently than novices. Green and Bavelier (2006a), Castel, Pratt and Drummond (2005) suggested that action video game players were able to divide their attention more efficiently because of their great attentional capacity, and they also could search and detect targets from distractors more efficiently than novice players. Zhang and Yang (2009) study also supported these results. Therefore, based on these studies, it could be suggested that video game play could play an important role in improving the efficiency of the attentional resources allocation and visual search performance. However, because the task in video games was so different, their function on attentional resources allocation and visual search performance may be different in different types of game playing. Further studies need to be conducted to investigate the different effects of game task on attentional distribution and visual search performance. Video game playing also has significant implications in some practical fields, such as simulated training for flight or driving.

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2.2 Video Game Experience and Multiple-Object Tracking (MOT) Performance Video game play could influence people’s perceptual and basic cognitive ability such as attentional resources distribution and visual search performance. However, in our life, people always need to find the target information in dynamic world. Especially sometimes we need to track several moving objects or a wealth of information simultaneously. So the MOT performance seems more important. Many video games also required players to track one to several moving “targets” (two or more enemies or dangerous objects might pop out simultaneously during the fighting). Pylyshyn and Storm (1988) created the multiple-object tracking (MOT) paradigm to investigate the ability in multiple objects tracking task. In MOT task, participants were asked to track several randomly moving objects (circles or other shapes, or shapes of different colors, or faces et al.) on the displayer. They found that subjects were able to successfully track up to 3-5 moving targets in a visual field when the objects moved randomly (up to 85% correct ratio). MOT performance study on video game players conducted by Green and Bavelier (2006b) found VGPs were able to successfully track approximately 5-7 items; however, NVGPs could only track less than 5 objects. This indicated that video game play could improve people’s ability to track simultaneously moving objects. This ability also helped the players’ take the defense action immediately when met more than one dangerous objects or enemies. And the ability also will help them to perform better in real life or work. The recent study conducted by Zhang et al. (2009, unpublished) also found that VGPs outperformed NVGPs in MOT performance. However, their difference in detection performance in probe dot detection task needed to be studied further. These results suggested that MOT performance could be trained and improved by some specific task experience (e.g., action video game training or driving and flight simulation training). It also could be applied to other professional people who were required to have better MOT performance. 2.3 Video Game Experience and Perceptual Learning In cognitive studies, it was known that practice or training in visual or perceptual learning task resulted in improvements of performance in the task (e.g., reaction time or correct ratio during finishing the task). Many studies have indicated that subjects improved with practice or training in a number of perceptual learning tasks, especially visual spatial learning tasks. Traditional related studies suggested that perception learning can not transfer among similar or different tasks. However, recent studies indicated that perception learning could occur in many perceptual tasks, that is, people’s perception in the same or similar perpetual tasks could be affected by the similar perceptual experience (Shiu & Pashler, 1992; Sagi & Tanne, 1994; Sireteanu & Rettenbach, 2000; Schoups, Vogels, Qian & Orban, 2001; Saffell & Matthews, 2003). Video game play could lead to a number of modifications to vision and cognition such as reaction time, the efficiency of attentional resources allocation, and the ability of visual search and to track moving visual information. However, arguments concerning the effects of video game play on vision and cognition may be raised as to whether any kinds of video games could result in such modifications or improvements to the capacity or the allocation of visual attention.

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Because the scenes of 3D/VR video games seem much more like the real world, and involve players’ cognitive resources and skills which are employed in our life and work, learning from video games is complicated. In some sense, these skills could be transferred to the similar situations in our life. Thus, finding more transferring rules or principles will help us get trained in some basic cognitive ability and complicated cognitive skills, such as training through 3D driving games or simulator. 2.4 Video Game Play on Response Speed and Motor-Cognitive Skills As we know, many video games need the players respond as quickly as possible to almost any pop out objects (a soldier or an aircraft) in the screen or during the game situation. They also need experienced motor-cognitive skills to finish series of cognition and action tasks (e.g. avoiding the dangerous things, shooting enemies, eluding bullets, beating opponents, or getting supply). During the video game playing, players need to perceive the game situation and operate more than ten key buttons on the keyboard or game pad at the same time, and any false cognition and action control could result in failure in the playing. Griffith and colleagues (1983) conducted such studies, and they asked subjects to track a moving stimulus and found that video game players could finish the task at faster speed than non video game players. This suggested that video game play could improve players’ eye-hand coordination and enhance their reaction time. Orosy-Fildes and Allan (1989) applied pre-post design where all participants were first given a reaction time pretest and then half of them as experiment group received a fifteen minutes video game training, and the rest without game training. They found that the participants who received the training responded faster in the post-test than in the pretest. However, the rest without training did not show response speed improvement. Video game play improved the players’ motorcognitive skill and response speed. Many other studies also indicated that video game training can improve the reaction time in the basic cognitive task (Green, & Bavelier, 2003; 2006a; 2006b; 2007; Zhang et al., 2009). In these studies, the games were not popular now or updated because of the 3D/VR and video game technology development. 3D/VR and online-based interactive video games were different from all the computer games playing before 1990s. They were more complicated, interactive and real for the players who should spend more cognitive resources when playing games. So the effects of 3D/VR online video games on player’s reaction time and motor skill play a more important role than previous games. This is a potential researching field both for researchers to find more cognitive effect for the VGPs, and for practitioners to develop more effective training projects based on video games.

3 The Relationship of Video Game Experience, Cognitive Skills Development and Problem-Solving Problem solving is of great importance in our life. It was found that cognitive strategies can facilitate the solving of impasses encountered during the processing of problem-solving (Glaser, Lesgold, & Lajoie, 1985; VanLehn, & Jones, 1994; VanLehn,

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Siler, & Murray, 2003). The impasse, in this context, was characterized as a gap in prior experience or a lack of knowledge necessary to complete a given task (Blumberg et al., 2008). Impasse negotiation relied on the reacquisition of the missing information through the outside resources, such as teachers or reference materials, or through planning and strategy manipulations (Blumberg & Sokol, 2004), and reminding some important cues from memory by themselves. This information will help the players to solve the impasse successfully. The players would learn new knowledge and problem-solving strategies in this way. Impasse-driven learning was clearly inherent to the structure of video games given that video games were designed to sustain player’s interest by presenting increasingly challenging problems or obstacles to overcome (Driskell & Dwyer, 1984). Blumberg et al. (2008) and Zhang et al. (2008, 2009) also did the similar study on video game and problem solving. They studied the problem-solving skills used by frequent and infrequent Chinese video game players to negotiate impasses encountered while playing a novel video game. All participants were instructed to think aloud while playing a video game for twenty consecutive minutes. Comments made were then used to make inferences about the problem-solving skills that participants used to resolve impasses encountered during the game. Findings showed that frequent players made significantly greater reference to insight and game strategies than infrequent players. When encountered an impasse, all players were most likely to comment on their game progress and potential game strategies to use. Over the course of game play, some cross-cultural differences were also found. Zhang et al (2009) studied the influence of video game experience on problem representation, efficiency of strategies, meta-cognition, and quality of mental models during the process of solving the problems encountered in a new game. This experiment asked all the participants to keep thinking aloud during the twenty minutes process of playing, and their verbal report was analyzed to study the problem solving. The results indicated there was a significant influence of computer games on game players’ performance in an unfamiliar game. The most frequently referred comment was direct strategy, next were game rules and cues, monitoring and game progress. Expert players performed better than novice players on problem representation, efficiency of strategies, and meta-cognition. In some literatures, the relationship between impasse and learning was defined as “presenting a new venue for examining the specific problem solving strategies that facilitated ‘expert’ performance during game play” in Blumberg’s study (2008). Experts here referred to the frequent players who had more background knowledge and experience with video games than novices or infrequent players. Hong and Liu (2003) found that experts demonstrated greater analogical thinking than novices who demonstrated more trial and error when playing the game. Unfortunately, they did not use a real video game in their study. It was still unclear how video game players thought when they were actually playing the games. Cognitive skills are the basis of expertise and professional skill’s development to solve complex problems in a particular field. Glaser, Lesgold, and Lajoie (1985) proposed six dimensions to appraise the development of cognitive skills. Those dimensions included (1) the structure and organization of knowledge; (2) the depth of problem representation; (3) the quality of mental models; (4) the efficiency of procedures or methods; (5) the automation of cognitive performance; and (6) the

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meta-cognitive skills. Compared with novices, the experts formed some complicated connections between the knowledge and skills, so that they could represent the problems in deeper levels and could apply more accurate, more direct, and more efficient methods in the process of problem-solving. The experts also had the ability to construct high-quality mental models to guide the problem solving, and they were better in planning, monitoring, and self adjustment. 3D/VR based video games will help to improve these cognitive aspects in our complicated cognitive skills.

4 Task Difference among Computer Games and Cognitive Performance Computer games could be classified into violent and non-violent games according to the violent components contained. It also could be classified into 3D/VR video games 2D intellectual games. There were also many other classifications. Whatever types of the games are, our concern is about their facilitation on human cognitive performance. The following is a review of the facilitation of different types of games on human cognitive performance. According to the previous studies and reviews, video game play could result in improvement in sensation, attention, perception, and problem solving ability, enhancements of eye-hand coordination or motor-cognitive skills, and other special skills from the cognitive aspects. It could also assist the special professional training and the disabled to improve their special skills or regular-life skills. So how to make use of the positive aspects of computer games according to the skill requirement of different games was an important issue for the designers, players, professional practitioners, and educators. We look forward to the further positive application of computer games in various aspects of our life and professional career development. The applications included the following fields: (1). Driving simulation training, computer-based driving training program have been wildly adopted in driver training. The famous driving training program called 3D Driving School was used by many computer game players and some novice drivers. (2). Flight Training program. As we knew that pilot selection and training was very expensive from the beginning of a pilot candidate to the real pilot driving the airplane in sky. It was estimated that roughly 10% of the candidate pilots who have already been admitted by the flight school could become real pilots. Thus it cost lots of money and time to train the candidates before a large number of them were dropped. However, in recent years, flight simulation training has been adopted and more cost was saved. (3). Astronaut weightlessness training, working environment and special operation training in the ground simulated training. These trainings could meet the requirement of real simulated environment, and the adaptation of astronauts’ psychological ability (both emotional and cognitive aspects). (4). Other professional expertise trainings, such as human-machine interaction training to industrial operators or engineers. Simulation training was also used in many other fields we did not discussed here.

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(5). Create special training programs for the cognitive aging population and the disabled population and help them to adapt daily life. We will discuss these issues in the next part. There are also many other applied fields in ergonomics, industrial engineering, professional development, and other fields which we will not discuss in details in this review.

5 Practical Implications of Video Game Play and Training It has been well demonstrated that video game play can lead to a great deal of improvements on one’s perception and cognition. So what’s the practical meaning to study video game from the aspects of cognition? Or what are the practical implications of video game training? In this section, we will discuss these issues mainly from the following four aspects. 5.1 Behavioral Medication and Training for Children Video game play did exert negative effects on children’s behavioral, cognitive and social development. So developing healthy games was necessary for training children to form good habit and use the positive aspects of video game play. We knew that it usually took about fifteen years for one’s perceptual and cognitive skills to develop to reach adult level (Green & Bavelier, 2004). However, research by McClurg and Chaille (1987) found that children improved their mental rotation performance after video game training. And the 5th grade children in their research who got the video game training outperformed those 9th graders without training. Hasdai and colleagues (1998) found that children who got trained on a joystick-controlled video game performed better in learning to operate a motorized wheelchair, and also improved their ability of eye-hand coordination. Dye and Bavelier (2004) found that video game play improved children’s visual attention performance in Useful Field of View (UFOV) and the attentional blink tasks. Green and Bavelier (2003a, 2003b, 2004, & 2007) suggested that children played video games might benefit from the video game experience in some ways (e.g., visual spatial cognition, perception, and problem solving, et al.). Video game play also facilitated the natural development of the children’s cognitive system in brain. So how to conduct the children to use the video game in a positive way is very important. This will be helpful to both their physiological and psychological development in healthy way. However, no related event-related potential and brain imaging studies were done on the effect of video game play on center neural system of the brain. Further studies need to be done to provide more support for the positive effects of video game play on players. It seems difficult for the researchers, because it is difficult to discriminate the positive from the negative effects of different video game components on the activity of the brain. 5.2 Training and Assistance for Cognitive Aging Population and the Disabled As the rapid growth of aging population in all over the world, many old people suffered the decline of a number of perceptual and cognitive skills as they become old. For example, some researchers indicated that the elderly people always suffered

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decline of memory, reasoning, manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination and response speed (Drew & Waters, 1986; Whitcomb, 1990), even some basic ability in their life. For these disabled people, they also have the similar problems because of the physiological disability. The specifically designed games or simulated computer programs will significantly find a way to help them to practice their disabled ability, and improve the ability to normal life level (e.g., some specially designed computers and software used the artificial intelligence technology can help people in writing, pointing, speaking, and some operations they can not finish by themselves). Drew and Waters (1986) explored the effects of video game play on the elderly cognitive training. They found that, after a two months video game training (one hour per week), the elderly participants (ranging form 61 to 78 years old) showed improvements both in the Purdue PegBoard and in the Rotary Pursuit tasks in the experiment. This suggested that the two months’ video game training helped them to improve the ability of manual dexterity and eye-hand coordination. The same kinds of study conducted by Clark et al. (1987) found that the elderly people (average age was 65 years) responded faster after seven weeks game training than before in a reaction time test, and at the same time, the elderly group without the training program treatment did not show improvements in reaction time. The results also found that the reduction of reaction time for those given the video game training was even greater in incompatible response condition than that in compatible response condition by simply pressing the button task. Some cognitive aging studies conducted in Beijing Normal University also supported that computer game training can improve elderly people’s memory, and some other basic cognition. According to the previous studies, video game training can improve simple cognitive skills and some of the advanced ability. In further studies, researchers should classify the positive effects of video game on player’s different cognitive aspects, and make progress in helping the old people and people with different disabled ability train their declined cognitive function or disabled ability. The designers and producers also can design some computer-based assisted programs to help these special populations to process information and practice some regular motor-cognitive skills in daily life as normal population. We look forward to these further studies, designing and production based on 3D/VR artificial intelligence and cross model technology to make the training or assistance for the special population into reality. 5.3 Training for Professional Skills Many studies have indicated that video game play facilitated people’s sensory, attentional, perceptual and advanced cognitive skills (e.g. eye-hand coordination, response speed, response selection, attentional capacity, visual search efficiency and the ability to track moving targets, the advanced cognitive skills, motor-cognitive skill and some special professional skills). There were some important implications of video game experience on the training and simulation of professional skills. Many studies suggested that video games benefited from some military tasks (Jones, Kennedy & Bittner Jr., 1981; Lowery & Knirk, 1982; Lintern & Kennedy, 1984). Gopher and colleagues (1994) found that the personnel trained by a video game outperformed those without game training. There were many related studies not mentioned in present paper.

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These studies suggested the important effects of computer video games and their applications. There were many areas adopted simulated training based on computer games, such as driving, flight, navy, aerospace and other military operation. As we knew that compared with these professional trainings, traditional training cost more time and money from a novice to an experienced expert. Many people were dropped during training because of their lack of some specialized motor cognitive skills or some related basic cognitive processing and problem solving ability. Real condition training would cost even more. In the past years, simulation training became more popular in some specialized fields. Before the people trained in the real condition (use the car, airplane or aircraft, marine or aerospace craft), they often trained their various skills in the simulator which based on the computer software simulator and special designed hardware simulator. This would reduce the training cost both in time and money. This technology has already applied in many industrial fields. In the future studies and applications, more and more computer game based training programs or simulator will be employed in industry and daily life.

6 Suggestions and Implications Video games had gain great popularity in the world which brought great profits for the video game industry. Therefore, it should be of significance and interest to study video games and find out how to make them capture much more players’ attention. The suggestion of Green and Bavelier (2004, 2007) for video game training might be helpful, which was to make the difficulty level of the video games just higher than where the players were so that they could attain their goals before losing their patience. Advanced cognitive skills also could be trained by specially designed video games or software simulator. After we found more learning rules and principles from video game play, it would be helpful to make our skill learning and training more efficiently. In our recent study, we did find VGPs outperformed NVGPs on these advanced cognitive skills (Zhang et al., 2009). So, when we saw from another perspective, video games can be used not only as entertainment, but also better tools for learning knowledge and skills. If the designers and producers release more games focused on knowledge or skills acquisition, problem solving ability, some basic cognitive processes and avoiding their negative social effects, it will be more helpful to conduct the players in a positive way. This is also the social duty and responsibility for the designers and producers. From the previous studies of video game play and cognitive development, some focused on basic cognitive process and found positive effects of video game on cognition; other focused on training for special population and profession. Generally, all these studies have found some important results on cognitive effect of video games. There were also training applications of video games for improving special skills (such as training in driving, flight, motor skill, and other operation skills). Especially, in more recent years, video games were adopted as a simulated training program in military area, such as special training for the operators in navy and air force, even in simulated war training and launched vehicles testing before launching. Moreover, from these studies, we could find the theoretical contribution on cognitive theory. That is, some basic cognitive ability also could be trained and

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improved by practicing video games and other simulated training programs. Actually, not all basic cognitive processes were studied in the previous literatures. It is still unclear whether video game play would change the neural mechanisms, so further studies need to be done in the future. Moreover, many studies have been well demonstrated that video game play can lead to a number of modifications to cognitive skills. However, researchers found the results in lab, but not in daily life, even though some researchers trained some skills as video game application. In fact, video games and simulator have been used in driving and flight simulated training. Further work should be done in other training programs, and make cognitive ability and skills improved from video game play transferred to work, life and learning process. This needs the researchers, game designers and users pay much effort to conduct the design and spreading of the video games in a positive way. Especially developing some training simulation programs for the special population and special professional population, who will gain a great deal of benefits from the computer games in daily life and work.

Acknowledgements The present paper was supported by 2008-2009 grant of the Beijing Key Lab Project (Beijing Key Lab of Applied Experimental Psychology). The authors wish to extend their thanks to my graduate Li Mao, lab engineer He Li, and undergraduates involved in our study.

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Implementing Institutional Online Assessment – Addressing the Challenges Esyin Chew, Norah Jones, and Haydn Blackey Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (CELT), University of Glamorgan, United Kingdom, CF37 1DL {echew,njones2,hblackey}@glam.ac.uk

Abstract. This paper provides a case study of a challenging institutional adoption of online submission and assessment. The paper reports on the way in which an institutional strategy and underpinning principles at the University of Glamorgan was implemented, highlighting both good and constructive lessons learnt. A to-do list (what is working) and ‘not to-do list’ (what is not working) for engaging staff with online submission and assessment is presented.. Seven evidence-based good practices, and the educational ethos for the centralised support team for supporting online submission and assessment, are discussed as an attempt to remove both the internal and external barriers of staff engagement. The findings of this case study show that positive engagement with academics is being achieved. Glamorgan’s experience is discussed to provide insights which can be compared and contrasted with experiences in other institutions to inform others who are attempting similar developments while enhancing what we are doing from the feedback on the papers from others in the same or similar environments. Keywords: Online Assessment, Blended Learning, Technology Enhanced Learning, Institutional Policy, Academic Engagement.

1 Introduction Blended learning is increasingly being used as a strategy in many higher educational institutions (HEIs) in the UK (JISC, 2005; Sharpe et al., 2006). Modern higher education may experience changes in daily practice as a result of educational technologies being embedded into educational practice. It has changed how stakeholders of higher education such as students and academics gain access to information and communicate with each other. Academics need not carry a pile of books to lectures or print out dozens of handouts; research students no longer need to physically attend the library to renew books or to find a journal article. Instead, the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), digital library, online journal articles, web 2.0 technologies, online assessment and a variety of educational technologies are pervasive. However, we would argue that although technological innovations have a great impact on the information/ resources accessing and communication aspects in most of the UK HEIs, core assessment-related activities may remain as an optional “add-on” to embed technologies, especially in the context of Welsh HEIs (GWELLA, 2009). Many universities may P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 453–464, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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provide facilities such as electronic coursework submission with plagiarism detection and publishing results online. Most of these are administrative tasks carried out by faculty administrators and have less engagement by the academic staff. Assessmentrelated activities are not limited to administrative processes such as the presentation of the student results. It involves the active engagement of academic staff to provide scholarly support, judgments and feedback for both formative and summative assessment. Online assessment refers to the use of educational technologies to digitise, make more efficient and effective; rethink, redesign and even transform assessmentrelated activities (JISC, 2006). Such assessment rethinking, redesigning and transforming enhanced by educational technologies inevitably involve the intangible expertise and knowledge of the subject area provided by academic staff. The research on how effective and beneficial learning and teaching with educational technologies has flourished (Kozma, 1994; 2000; Lee and Suliman, 2001; Bates and Poole, 2003). There is also a rich literature which tends to focus either on design and development of the online assessment system and practices (Crisp and Ward, 2008; CAA, 2009); or student/staff perception and experiences of educational technologies in general (Milliken and Barnes, 2002; Bonk, and Graham, 2006; Ziegler et al., 2006; Jones et al., (in press); Holley and Oliver, (in press); Waycott et al., in press). However, the gap between understanding the benefits of online assessment, and having staff engage with it in a day-to-day assessment activities is significant. In general, individual staff engagement is often driven by individual educational beliefs/ epistemology or disciplinary differences, attitudes working with technologies and self-efficacy. (Chew et al., 2009b; Sang et al., 2010). Further investigation of the “engagement”, in particular with online assessment, is necessary. This paper adds to the growing amount of blended learning research by using a case study of the institutional practices and experiences of a Welsh HEI – to see how the University of Glamorgan has increasingly engaged its academic staff in online assessment in the year 2009-2010.

2 Institutional Core Strategy and Underpinning Principles at Glamorgan Institutional engagement with online assessment is a challenging action plans for most of the Welsh HEIs, including the University of Glamorgan. Croft (1994) says that there are two challenges faced by embedding technology in learning and teaching practice: (1) we should have a distinct idea of the purpose(s) we wish to serve, (2) we must maintain the flexibility and imagination to adapt the tool to new uses as they arise. Glamorgan has committed to “the delivery of a first class learning environment incorporating the highest standard of e-learning, tutor facilitation and use of cutting edge learning facilities”, that includes the institutional commitment to electronic submission and the increased use of online assessment (L&T Strategy, 2010; UoG, 2010). Glamorgan’s first strategic priority is to improve the nature and quality of the student experience (UoG, 2010). Therefore, the institutional priorities are (1) to provide student experience-centred educational services; and (2) to offer the sound tutor facilitation with the flexibility to adapt cutting edge learning facilities. Kay (2006) asserts that a successful blended learning engagement, in general, is to challenge the thinking process of academic staff, such as the educational belief and

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attitudes towards technologies. Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2010) defines the term “engage” as to interest someone in something and keep them thinking about it; and to take part in something. There are five faculties at Glamorgan, Faculty of Advanced Technology (AT), Glamorgan Business School (GBS), Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences (HASS), Faculty of Health Sport and Science (HeSaS) and Cardiff School of Creative & Cultural Industries (CCI) (UoG, 2009). The “engagement” with “online assessment” at Glamorgan can defined as engaging Glamorgan academics in the five faculties in using “online assessment” – to keep them thinking about and debating the topic; and to take part in the improving, redesigning or transforming of assessment and feedback with (or without if it is not applicable) online assessment. The University agrees with JISC’s (2007) definition of online assessment as the end-to-end electronic assessment processes where educational technology is used for the presentation of assessment and the recording of responses. It involves the assessment process such as coursework submission, peer-assessment, grading ad feedback, traditional examination and quizzes from the perspective of students, tutors and awarding bodies. Swan et al. (2006, pp.1) suggests that technology integration in learning and teaching practices needs to be understood not as an add-on, systemdriven embedment, “but one motivated by learning and teaching needs and in which multiple technology choices are readily available to teachers and students both within and beyond the classroom”. Chew et al. (2009b) also asserts that the understanding of disciplinary needs and diversity to provide less “ticked-box” exercises in the institutional engagement is essential. Based on Jones’ Blended Learning Continuum (2006), that was adopted by the University in 2005, Figure 1 illustrates a wide range of online assessment tools freely available to both academics and students. The continuum of online assessment, from the electronic submission to the partial tutor-intervention of online grading and feedback or a complete end-to-end computer-assisted assessment, provides more flexibility for academics to decide at which point the best option is, in order to suit the individual’s disciplinary needs. At the same time, one may be able to conduct self evaluation and understand more options along the way. The “E-intensive” in this model, however, is not asserted as the best solution. It is a subject-dependant and flexible model acting as an online assessment guideline to individual disciplines and requirements at different point.

Fig. 1. How to Engage Glamorgan Academics with Online Assessment

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Online assessment must not simply invent new technologies which recycle the current ineffective practices (Ripley, 2004). The Higher Education Academy (HEA, 2010) work with the UK HEIs to support the following assessment practices: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Assessment feedback Plagiarism / academic integrity Assessing and recording student achievement Methods of assessment: essay-type, MCQ, portfolio and etc The assessment process: formative vs. summative

The National Student Survey results (NSS, 2009) indicate that only 65% agree their experience of assessment and feedback is positive. We would stress that it is meaningless to embed new technologies but at the same time “recycle the current ineffective assessment practices”. The core principle for institutional commitment to online assessment is that it is not about promoting new technology to the Glamorgan academics but tools to empower them to improve, redesign and transform the 1 to 5 assessment-related activities listed above (Fig 1).

3 Good and Constructive Lessons Learnt 3.1 Successful Establishment 2006-2009 The institutional strategy and assessment policy at Glamorgan, discussed in section 2, have provided a distinctive ground for the promotion of online assessment adoption across faculties. The creation of a new post - the Head of Learning and Teaching, in each faculty, has evidenced the commitment of top management. The creation of a new role: the Blended Learning Champions, in each faculty, has empowered the disciplinary-tailored peer-support and engagement. The Learning Zone (CELT Learning Zone, 2008), a blog, acts as an impetus for discussion and communication on innovation in learning and teaching. There is an ongoing debates about Glamorgan academics maintaining facilitation and full support for students in the move from traditional assessment to online assessment. There are issues such as practicality, technical issues, individual preferences to mark online/offline and how to prepare both staff and students. Jelfs and Colbourn (2002) suggest the need for increased financial support for additional staff development and training. The University has successfully obtained the HEFCW Technology Enhanced Learning Strategy Funding which allows the employment of professional personnel in both pedagogies and technologies to provide holistic support for staff. The establishment of the Excellence in Learning, Teaching & Assessment Awards in 2008 and 2009 (i.e. Excellence and Innovation in Learning and Teaching Practice and the Innovation and Excellence in Student Assessment) acts as a direct link between excellence in learning, teaching and assessment with academic recognition – a formal incentive or rewards system across the University to motivate innovation in learning, teaching and assessment. These approaches helps to ensure is the strategy, policy and practice of online assessment are widely embedded.

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3.2 What Is Not Working? Apart from the successful establishment, the University encountered some challanging experiences which inhibit staff engagement. Phipps (2009) listed the following bad practice carried out by an educational institution which could lead to the disconfirming experience(s) or failure of academic staff engaging with blended learning: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.

Making them bring their own sandwiches during the training Telling them something is “cutting edge and you must use it!” Talking about Mac’s or talking about technology they haven’t got The technology fails Technology is too complicated to use Too many pages of user manual Writing a 40-page e-assessment strategy – nobody read/understood it Require them to perform an accessibility audit

In the past, The University of Glamorgan experienced some of the bad practices listed above such as points iv. and v. which, unavoidably led to the disconfirming experiences of our staff with some of the online assessment tools. We must admit that there were some difficult times along the way and we would like to append Phipps’s (2009) not-to-do list. Table 1 is based on institutional experiences and lists the barriers hampering Glamorgan academics’ online submission and assessment implementation efforts: Table 1. What is Not Working for Glamorgan What is not working for Glamorgan About the staff development

About the technology

• Group too large / training sessions that overrun or lose • The technology is too focus complicated • Putting staff with different level of the technological • Raising expectation of the competence in the same training session technology but it may not • Assuming one-size fit all without considering the work as expected later disciplinary differences – it would be good to have • The system is “down” disciplinary-tailored training sessions • Run a training session introducing pedagogical models - it was it was difficult to explaini and debate the educational “philosophy” to staff who may not be interested in this • Issue with balancing one-to-one support and group training to achieve both efficiency and effectiveness About “after sales” services: • Making the technology the focus instead of the learning and teaching matter • Ask academic staff to log a call to the centralised ICT support without follow-up • “One man show” - no backup plan or other support alternative when “the person” is not around

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4 How to Engage Staff - What Works? 4.1 Seven Evidence-Based Good Practices Kay (2006) suggests the several strategies to engage staff in blended learning such as (1) delivering a single technology course; (2) offering mini-workshops; (3) integrating technology in all courses; and (4) modelling how to use technology. At Glamorgan, we have embedded most of these strategies and the following, from top-down, horizontal and bottom-up approaches, to engage the staff. Top down approach At the beginning, we strongly assert that a better understanding and support of the top management, head of departments or those “influencers” in individual faculty is very important. This will facilitate more informed decisions about the uptake and implementation of online submission and assessment - as an institutional-wide adoption: 1. Strong support from the Senior Management team of the University There is the VC’s vision statement and a clear institutional strategy that highlight technology enhanced learning, teaching and assessment. Such top-down messages have been disseminated through the institutional websites, blogs and in many committee meetings, e.g. 100% online submission across the institution for coursework where appropriate. 2. “Influence the influencer” We first target the engagement of the senior members, Heads of Division/Department, Heads of Learning and Teachings etc. After some Heads and “influencers” have attended the awareness raising or training sessions, they have encouraged the whole department/division to engage with online submission and assessment. Such gentle top-down approach is encouraging as they were convinced of the benefits of online assessment for both staff and students. Peer encouragement and discussion also being generated by them in the faculty or departmental meetings. Please see the following email quotes from staff who requested support for e-submission. “Someone told me that there is such tool call Turnitin. Could you please give me some information about it?” ~Staff from the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences “My colleague has attended the online submission training and she recommended me to attend one...” ~Staff from the Business School “My Head of Division asked me to sign up for the group training...” ~Staff from the Business School Horizontal approach The Horizontal approach is very effective in terms of the self-initiative and willingness from the Glamorgan academics rather than merely the top-down pressure.

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3. Short and simple user guide and Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) Short and simple user guides are essential. Academics are always busy and occupied by all sorts of scholarly activities such as teaching, students supervising, research and consultancy. A short and handy online user guide and online FAQ is very helpful. There have been many queries from both internal and external academics asking for the in-house tailored user guides. 4. Disciplinary group training In 2009, 40 group training sessions were delivered and more than 175 staff have attended the sessions. This training has been designed in a way that is disciplinarytailored – we attempt to use “disciplinary-specific language” in our examples and good practices is shared in the group sessions. We found out these practices stimulate active group discussion and consensus for certain practice and prepare better peer support after the group training. We always obtain positive feedback through emails or by word of mouth after the sessions. 5. One-to-one support In 2009, more than 200 staff were supported in a one-to-one approach. This is helpful especially for the post training support and staff who lack technological competence. We have developed a better and deeper “customer-relationship management” by providing effective, timely and prompt responses to all sorts of technology enhanced learning and teaching queries. The appreciation emails or cards and the increasing uptake of staff into online submission and assessment is evidence of this good practice. 6. Funded research project One key method to engage staff is to “use research to support the change”. The motivation for collaborative publication and a small pot of research funding is very helpful to both young academics and senior academics. We have successfully obtained research funding from the TurnitinUK and the Education Sandpit project to provide such motivation to engage with staff. Bottom-up approach 7. Student-driven engagement is the most efficient and effective practice at Glamorgan. Since the Glamorgan first strategic priority is to improve the nature and quality of the student experience (UoG, 2010), Glamorgan academics are striving to live up to the priority – our student experiences. We have often received requests from students and staff such as the following: “I would like to request access to Turnitin for my assignment X” ~Student from the Cardiff School of Creative & Cultural Industries “Would it be possible for you to talk to my supervisor to set up Turnitin for my master dissertation?” ~Student from the Business School “My students request to use Turnitin, please show me how to set it up!” ~Staff from the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences

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Fig. 2. Summary of the Evidence-based Good Practice to engage Staff

We would like to assert that of all the best interventions used to engage with academic staff, none of them are related to how advanced or how impressive the technology is. All of them are people-processes or people-oriented, not technological processes or technologically-oriented. We would stress that a technological focus in an institutional-wide blended learning adoption is less likely to be a success. 4.2 Educational Ethos for the Centralised Support Team for Online Submission and Assessment The University of Glamorgan has invested in a centralised support unit - the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (CELT, 2010) that comprises staff who have a breadth of professional and operational experience in blended learning, education and the use of information and communication technology. The establishment of this multi-disciplinary team is proficient in developing and supporting pedagogy and the development and technology to enhance learning practice (Chew et al., 2009a). There are new roles being in place to support the institutional-wide online submission and assessment commitment, such as the Senior Lecturer in Technology Enhanced Learning, Teaching and Assessment and Curriculum Advice Officer for Technology Enhanced Learning. These academic posts aimed to engage the Glamorgan academics with the pedagogical-oriented of assessment-related activities and offer both pedagogical and technological support. Since most of the 7 good practices discusses in section 3.1 are people-processes and educational processes, the professional

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educational ethos is essential for the team. In summary, there are several important factors which inform the ethos of the centralised support personnel: • Less threatening when promoting online submission and assessment: introduce the range of tools/services and let academics decide which one/ whether to use • Be sympathic, patient and flexible to deal with “the first timer”, all kinds of queries, terminologies and different “voice tones” from academics from different faculty • Be honest about the limitation of the technologies - should not exaggerate the “wonder’’ of e-submission and e-assessment; and should not raise the expectation of academics where the technologies may not work as expected later • Give a solution, or at least a supportive and prompt response to queries and requests. It is“evangelism”, not a daily boring support tasks • “Whoever makes you go one mile, go with him/her two” • Good relationship with all faculties members and the centralised ICT support team • Enthusiastic for both education and technology (online assessment), and the support (promotion and pastoral care) Ertmer (1999) has proposed two barriers to “evangelising” blended learning to staff: the internal barriers and the external barriers. Internal barriers include the obstacles of individual belief, attitudes and philosophy about learning and teaching. Chew et al. (2009b) expanded that finding to a further aspect – the epistemology and disciplinary differences of individual academics. External barriers are related to the external environment context such as issues related to accessibility, technical support and training. It is almost impossible to engage staff when these barriers are present. The 7 good practices and educational ethos for the support team discussed above are an institutional attempt to remove both the internal and external barriers suggested by Ertmer (1999) and Chew et al. (2009b).

5 Conclusion There have been national studies concentrating on institutional e-learning or blended learning practices in both the UK and US. The University of Glamorgan is one of a number of UK HEIs which has taken a whole institutional approach to the adoption of online submission and assessment. The paper reports on the way in which an institutional core strategy and underpinning principles at the University and both good and constructive lessons learnt in the past few years. A to- do list (what is working) and a not to do list (what is not working) for engaging those staff with online submission and assessment are reported based on experiences at Glamorgan. Seven evidencebased good practices and the educational ethos for the centralised support team for supporting online submission and assessment are discussed. The University of Glamorgan is currently ahead of other Welsh HEIs in terms of online submission and assessment adoption. The findings of this case study show that positive engagement with academics is being achieved, by providing support to more than 40% of the staff in an academic year. Up-to-today, there are 1,026 absolute unique visitors for the Glamorgan’s Online Submission and Assessment wiki (2010)

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with the top visit content for “Frequently Ask Questions” and User Guides (in power point, PDF and videos). On the other hand, there are increasingly debates across the faculties for the technical limitation, good practices, standardisation and consistency, readiness of both staff and students for online assessment. It will be a continuing and challenging realisation in the up-coming year(s) to engage with the other half of Glamorgan academics population and to cope with the debates. Glamorgan’s experience is discussed to provide insights which can be compared and contrasted with the experiences in other institutions to inform others who are attempting this development while enhancing what we are doing from the feedback on the papers from others in the same or similar environments.

References 1. Bates, A.W., Poole, G.: Effective Teaching with Technology in Higher Education. John Wiley & Son, CA (2003) 2. Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R. (eds.): The Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs. Pfeiffer Publishing, San Francisco (2006) 3. CAA (2009) Annual International CAA Conference Since 1997, Loughborough (1997), http://www.caaconference.com/past.php (retrieved January 26, 2010) 4. Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2010), http://dictionary.cambridge.org/ (retrieved January 26, 2010) 5. CEL, Centre of Excellent for Learning and Teaching, University of Glamorgan (2010), http://celt.glam.ac.uk (retrieved January 26, 2010) 6. CELT Learning Zone, CELT Learning Zone Blog. (2008), http://learning.weblog.glam.ac.uk (retrieved January 10, 2010) 7. Chew, E., Jones, N., Blackey, H.: A UK Case Study - Technology Enhances Educational Experiences in the University of Glamorgan. In: The IEEE International Conference on Future Computer and Communication, Kuala Lumpur, April 3-5 (2009a) (IEEE No. 09PR3591; ISBN 978-1-4244-3754-2) 8. Chew, E., Turner, D., Jones, N.: Chapter 1 - In Love and War: Blended Learning Theories for Computer Scientists and Educationists. In: Wang, F.L., et al. (eds.) The Handbook for Hybrid Learning. Information Science Reference, HK (2009b) 9. Crisp, V., Ward, C.: The development of a formative scenario-based computer assisted assessment tool in psychology for teachers: The PePCAA project. Computers & Education 50, 1509–1526 (2008) 10. Croft, R.S.: What Is a Computer in the Classroom? A Deweyan Philosophy. Journal of Educational Technology Systems 22(4), 301–308 (1994) 11. Ertmer, P.A.: Addressing first- and second-order barriers to change: Strategies for technology integration. Educational Technology Research and Development 47(4), 47–61 (1999) 12. Holley, D., Oliver, M.: Student engagement and blended learning: Portraits of risk, Computers and Education (2009) (in Press), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.08.035 (retrieved January 26, 2010) 13. GWELLA, Second Gwella Programme Meeting’ event at Gregynog Hall in Wales (November 25-26, 2009), http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/events/detail/2009/ second_gwella_meeting_nov09 (retrieved January 10, 2010)

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14. HEA, The Academy’s work on assessment and feedback (2010), http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/ourwork/teachingandlearning/ assessment (retrieved January 25, 2010) 15. Jelfs, A., Colbourn, C.: Virtual seminars and their impact on the role of the teaching staff. Computers & Education 38, 127–136 (2002) 16. JISC, Study of Environments To Support E-Learning In UK Further and Higher Education: A Supporting Study for the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC), Education for Change Ltd, The Research Partnership Social Informatics Unit, University of Brighton (2005), http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/programmes/ buildmlehefe/elearning_survey_2005.pdf (retrieved January 10, 2009) 17. JISC, Report for JISC, Roadmap for e-Assessment (June 2006), http://www.jisc.ac.uk/whatwedo/programmes/elearningpedagogy/ assessment.aspx (retrieved January 26, 2010) 18. JISC, Effective Practice With E-Assessment: An Overview Of Technologies, Policies And Practice In Further And Higher Education, p. 6 (2007), http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/themes/elearning/ effpraceassess.pdf (retrieved January 10, 2010) 19. Jones, N.: Chapter 13: E-College Wales, A Case Study of Blended Learning. In: Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R. (eds.) Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs. Pfeiffer Publishing, San Francisco (2006) 20. Jones, N., Blackey, H., Fitzgibbon, F., Chew, E.: Get out of MySpace!, Computers and Education (2009) (in Press), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.07.008 (retrieved January 26, 2010) 21. Kay, R.H.: Evaluating strategies used to incorporate technology into preservice education: A review of the literature. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 38(4), 383– 408 (2006) 22. Kozma, R.: Will Media Influence Learning? Reframing the Debate. Educational Technology Research and Design 42(2), 7–19 (1994) 23. Kozma, R.: Reflections on the State of Educational Technology Research and Development. ProQuest Psychology Journals: Educational technology, Research and Development 48(1), 5–16 (2000) 24. L&T Strategy, Learning and Teaching Strategy 2007-2012, University of Glamorgan (2010), http://celt.glam.ac.uk, http://celt.glam.ac.uk/fil_download/316 (retrieved January 26, 2010) 25. Lee, C.S., Suliman, A.: New Mode of Course Delivery for Virtual Classroom. Aslib Proceedings 53(6), 238–242 (2001) 26. Milliken, J., Barnes, P.: Teaching and technology in higher education: student perceptions and personal reflections. Computers & Education 39, 223–235 (2002) 27. Ripley, M.: E-assessment: an overview from the QCA (Qualification and Curriculum Development Agency) (2004), http://www.qcda.gov.uk/5466.aspx (retrieved October 26, 2009) 28. NSS, The National Student Survey (2009), http://www.thestudentsurvey.com/ (retrieved October 26, 2009) 29. Online Submission and Assessment wiki, The University of Glamorgan’s Online Submission and Assessment wiki (2010), http://turnitin.wetpaint.com/ (retrieved January 26, 2010)

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30. Phipps, L.: Keynote Speaker of the GWELLA Event (JISC Programme Manager) (November 25-26, 2009) 31. Sang, G., Valcke, M., Braak, J.V., Tondeur, J.: Student teachers’ thinking processes and ICT integration: Predictors of prospective teaching behaviors with educational technology. Computers & Education 54, 103–112 (2010) 32. Sharpe, R., Benfield, G., Roberts, G., Grancis, R.: The undergraduate experience of blended e-learning: a review of UK literature and practice. The Higher Education Academy (2006) 33. Swan, K., Cook, D., Kratcoski, A., Lin, Y.M., Schenker, J., Hoof, M.: Ubiquitous Computing: Rethinking Teaching, Learning, and Technology Integration. In: Advances in Education and Administration, vol. 8, pp. 231–252 (2006), http://www.emeraldinsight.com/10.1016/S1479-36600508016-9 (retrieved January 26, 2010) 34. UoG, The Official Website of the University of Glamorgan (2009), http://www.glam.ac.uk 35. UoG, The Strategic Vision by the Vice Chancellor (2010), http://profile.glam.ac.uk/strategic/ (retrieved January 26, 2010) 36. Waycott, J., Bennett, S., Kennedy, G., Dalgarno, B., Gray, K.: Digital divides? Student and staff perceptions of information and communication technologies. Computers and Education (2009) (in Press), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.006 (retrieved January 26, 2010) 37. Ziegler, M., Paulus, T., Woodside, M.: Creating a Climate of Engagement in a Blended Learning Environment. Journal of Interactive Learning Research 17(3), 295–318 (2006)

Hybrid Learning: Teaching for Quality Learning at University Elsie Siu King Chan Australian Catholic University, 115 Victoria Parade, Fitzroy, Melbourne, Australia [email protected]

Abstract. Hybrid Learning has been described as a combination of online and face-to-face instruction in flow of knowledge. Combining information and communication technologies (ICT) with face-to-face learning can provide increased flexibility and variety for student interaction; cater for different learning styles and increase the speed and efficiency of interaction between teachers and learners. In this paper I have attempted to establish how ICT can best support student learning. I report on the research methodology and findings from an ICT application of Hybrid Learning (HL) implemented with students at the Australian Catholic University (ACU), Australia. The initial application reported in this paper represents the first step in a longitudinal study investigating outcomes from the hybrid learning approach. Keywords: Hybrid Learning, Blended Learning, information and communication technologies, elearning, online discussion board.

1 Introduction Australian and global evidence indicates that investment in the use of learning technologies for education is growing steadily [1]. In the tertiary sector, the advanced development of ICT offers universities the opportunity to improve their education services by implementing learning technologies for the classroom. By combining online and face-to-face instruction, educators can produce what has been termed “hybrid learning” or “blended learning” [2]-[6]. Sometimes it is also called brick and click [7],[8] and some sort of virtual learning [9]. Universities over the last decade have attempted to combine ICT into all-aspects of face-to-face teaching and learning, as well as into students’ independent learning [10]. The advancement of ICT encourages institutions wide diffusion of e-learning environments [11]. Figure 1 below shows four critical dimensions of interactions that occur in both distributed learning and face to face environments [12]. In the past, distributed learning environments placed emphasis on learner/material interactions while face to face learning environments tended to place priority on the human/human interaction. Hybrid learning represents part of the ongoing convergence of these two exemplary learning environments [12]. According to a recent benchmarking study from the OBHE, Australia is a leader in online provision in all its different forms including face to face classes using elements of online teaching. In this context, I now review current developments in hybrid learning at ACU [13]. P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 465–476, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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Fig. 1. Progressive convergence of traditional face-to-face and distributed environments allowing development of blended learning systems Source: [12]

2 An Overview of Some ICT Teaching and Learning Applications ACU has followed the trend across the Australian tertiary sector of investing a significant proportion of its educational budget into ICT designed to improve the university’s learning and teaching resources and capacity [14]. ICT projects at ACU include Computers on Wheels – a portable computer laboratory – and enhanced wireless access. Students can access the Internet anywhere on campus. Recent installation of fibre optic cable has further increased the speed of network transmission [15]. These ICT investments encourage both students and lecturers to use online technology. While there is a trend to increased usage of ICT technologies in universities, some observers have alerted the sector to a need to consider what steps are required to foster a more expansive and empowered use of computer technology within future cohorts of university students and faculty [10]. Since the use of ICT is generally encouraged and has, to a large extent, become unavoidable in university educational settings, it is important to examine the use of some ICT technologies related to the teaching and learning context, particularly those related to current ACU teaching practice. Blackboard was selected as the Learning Management System (LMS) for ACU well before the author took up her current position in the Melbourne campus in 2004. In 2004, Blackboard (previously named as WebCT) was not widely used by staff. By 2010, however, more than 90% of School lecturers were posting their lecture notes on the Blackboard. Evidently, the norm for online teaching and learning at ACU has changed significantly over the past few years. Blackboard’s acquisition of WebCT was announced in October 2005 [16]. It was not until early 2009 that ACU changed its LMS from WebCT to Blackboard. Despite the change of corporate identity, however, the major features of WebCT and Blackboard remain unchanged. Users who are familiar with WebCT have had no difficulty shifting to Blackboard to deliver their teaching materials. In addition to providing

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facility for posting lecture notes, Blackboard also offers a variety of tools for assessment and communication [17], enabling lecturers to use online quizzes and selftesting as assessment tools. 2.1 Multiple Choice Assessments ICT applications, such as online discussion boards and online multiple choice assessments, are attractive because of their potential to increase the speed and efficiency of the interaction between teachers and learners. The study reported in this paper relates specifically to assessment via online multiple choice assessment. However the existing body of literature reviewing the impact of online multiple-choice assessments has proved to be very limited. Additionally it has not provided us with any established model for online assessment of learning and teaching. Existing literature on the advantages of online versus paper-based tests provides a very mixed picture. There is evidence indicating support for the benefits of online testing. Online tests can deliver randomized variations of a test so that students are presented with different sets of test at the same time. Furthermore, online multiple choice questions can provide immediate feedback [18],[19]. It has also been claimed that the terminology of web-based formative assessment such as ‘repeat the test’ and ‘correct answers are not given’ can serve to increase e-learning effectiveness [20]. However, this claim has been strongly contested with several studies indicating that online multiple choice testing procedures do not provide corrective feedback or facilitate learning or retention [21]. [22] found that first year undergraduate students using online assessment did not perform as well as those using OMR or marked multiple choice questions. These variations between outright support and studies that suggest online multiple choice testing can result in poorer learning outcomes are indicative of the limited and dynamic nature of research on online learning. Several drawbacks of online multiple-choice assessment in teaching and learning contexts have been identified in the literature [21] and hence require recognition. However it is also clear that research on online multiple-choice assessment is still at a growing stage particularly with regards to benefits from the students’ perspective. For example, published research has not really dealt with best practice issues important to learners such as: “How can a student best use this learning tool?” or “Is online multiple-choice assessment best applied to studying or for consolidation at the end of each topic?” 2.2 Online Discussion Board Besides emails, Online Discussion Board is another frequently used communication tool provided by Blackboard. [23] develop a new model of productive online discussion. In their paper, they mention the three major aspects of online discussion: cognitive processes, argumentation, and social knowledge construction. However, they still need empirical data to validate their model. On the other hand, [24] developed a model of teaching and learning based on Action Research, Content Analysis and Focus Groups from online discussion groups conducted at the Open University in United Kingdom. Table 1 sets out the five stages in this model.

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E.S.K. Chan Table 1. Model of teaching and learning through online discussion groups. Source [24].

Stage 1. access and motivation

Learner Evidence Accessed discussion forum and posted their first message 2. online socialization Introduce themselves and share a little of themselves 3. information exchange Exchanges flow related to course content 4. knowledge construction Formulation of ideas through discussion and collaboration 5. development Responsible for own learning and its construction

Online Tutor Role Solve access problems and encourage participation Create an atmosphere of mutual respect and defuse differences of opinion Organising productive discussion Build and sustain the group learning process Supporting and responding as required

During the discussion process, it is interesting to know that pro-active tutors may not lead to a high level of discussion group interaction, but effective student leadership of discussions will improve quantity and quality of online discussion and then the tutor’s intervention role will be reduced [25]. [26] investigated what students learned through discussions both online and face to face. Their research findings also suggested that the design of online and face to face discussion tasks is important in assisting students to achieve deeper understanding of what they can gain through discussion. Study results by Chen and Chiu [27] support the claims that teachers can use and manage online discussions at the message level to promote critical thinking. This is further supported by Hou [28] that peer assessed online discussion can influence students’ knowledge constructions and can improve students’ critical thinking. Salmon’s model [24] is purely for online discussion. Many of contemporary ‘netgeneration’ of students actively use web technologies such as online chat (MSN), facebook and myspace. The author’s ACU students are expected to attend at Melbourne campus for face-to-face learning. In this paper I refer to the combination of face-to-face and online discussion as ‘hybrid learning’. This mixed learning mode – combining face-to-face and online discussion may create space for further studies, particularly in relation to students’ views and experiences with online discussion as a learning tool. ACU students have the opportunity to meet face-to-face as shown in Stages 1 and 2 of Salmon’s model. Consequently requirements by Stage 1 and 2 for access, motivation and socialization activities can be eliminated. This project will therefore focus on information exchange and knowledge construction as priorities. The research methodology set out in Section 3 of this paper follows from the rationale and literature review. The online multiple choice questions and discussion board were prepared for use by the students.

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3 Research Questions The research project explored the following questions: RQ1: How can ICT support the different learning styles of students? RQ2: How can technology offer a learning environment where students and staff feel comfortable to discuss and collaborate? A quantitative interpretive approach was adopted as the research method for this study. MGMT205, Managerial Decision Making students in ACU Melbourne Campus took part in this study, which was conducted through a survey. A survey provides one way of obtaining and validating knowledge, and is a way of going from observations to theory validation, which has three purposes: description, explanation and exploration. The survey data were collected using a questionnaire. A survey is defined by Burchfield [29] as a systematic collection and analysis of data relating to the attitudes, living conditions, usually taken from a representative sample of the latter. Survey research is therefore a very common instrument in Information Systems (IS) research [30],[31]. Surveys cannot provide a rich, deep understanding of learning materials. However, a researcher who wishes to view a phenomenon in its broadest sense over a number of countries and a period of years would gain significant advantage from the use of surveys. In the project described in this paper I aim to identify the value online technologies can offer to support learning from the student’s perspective. The subject MGMT205, Managerial Decision Making taught at the ACU Melbourne campus was selected for a preliminary study in this longitudinal project. Research was carried out from mid-semester (Week 5) to the final teaching session in Week 12. I chose to use a survey as the research methodology because the project was to be used for a small group as a pilot study. Surveys can also be easily re-used and are useful for comparing responses over different groups and at different times [32].

4 Results and Discussion Ninety one students enrolled into MGMT205, Managerial Decision Making. The unit comprised of a two hour lecture and one hour tutorial over 12 weeks. The unit covered decision-making theories and case studies. In order to explore how the technology would support the different learning styles of students and offer a learning environment where students and staff feel comfortable to discuss and collaborate, the lecturer introduced an online discussion board and online multiple choice assessment to this unit. A discussion topic was posted on Blackboard each week after Week Five. Altogether there were five discussion topics. These topics related to the examination and were mainly for revision purposes. The lecturer also prepared online multiple choice questions. Students could attempt the multiple choice questions with no time limit. When students submitted their answers, the results and correct answers would be released to them immediately. Both online discussion board and online multiple choice assessments did not form any part of summative assessments. Students were free to choose not to participate in these activities.

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Questionnaires were distributed to students in the lecture in Week 11 by an independent staff member who had not taught the class. The survey responses were entered into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for data analysis. Since it was close to the end of semester when students were busy with the completion of their assignments, attendance at lectures was low. Only 39 of 91 students attended the lecture in Week 11. There were three parts in the questionnaires. Four items in part one were mainly about students’ experience in the classroom and online learning environments before the introduction of online discussion board and online multiple choice assessment. In Part two, seven items probed their experience of the online discussion board. The final section of the questionnaire covered the online multiple choice assessment in online environments. There were nine items in the final section. The responses were presented on a 5-point Likert scale; 1 meaning “strongly disagree” and 5 indicating students “strongly agree”. The results of the survey are summarized in the tables below. The first section of the questionnaire asked students to rate their experience regarding the classroom and online learning environments before the introduction of online discussion board and online multiple choice assessment. Table 2 below summarizes the results. Table 2. Students’ experience in the classroom and online learning environments before the introduction of technology

Items I found it hard to interact with lecturers and other students I found it hard to maintain interest during the lecture I found it hard to maintain attention during the lecture I have low motivation to participate in a class

Mean 2.79 3.67 3.64 3.13

s. d. 0.95 1.08 1.04 1.20

The survey results indicate that students found it hard to interact with lecturers and other students before the introduction of technology (mean 2.79). Students tended to disagree with the statement that they found it hard to maintain interest and attention during the lecture. However, this need to bear in mind that the response to the questionnaires came from relatively low percentage of students who attended the lectures; only 39 out of 91 were present, i.e., 57.1% of students did not attend the lecture on the day of this survey. So the survey findings may not be representative of the whole class population. Low attendance at lectures suggests that there is a need to help students maintain attention and interest in the class and particularly to encourage students to attend classes. The second part of the questionnaire asked students about their perceptions regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the online discussion board. Out of 39 responses, only 10 students participated in the online discussion board activity. Due to the small size of the sample population these findings are therefore only descriptive. Table 3 below summarizes the results.

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Table 3. Students’ experience with online discussion board

Items The discussion board used in this unit improves my interactivity in lectures The discussion board used in this unit provides me with real-time feedback to evaluate my understanding The discussion board used in this unit provides me feedback to identify areas for further improvement The discussion board used in this unit makes me feel involved The discussion board used in this unit helps me understand the content better I would like the discussion board to be applied in other units in the future Overall I liked the use if the discussion board in studying

Mean s. d. 3.99 1.13 3.08 1.00 3.33 0.89 3.25 1.06 3.58 0.79 3.50 1.17 3.50 1.00

Ten students participated in use of the online discussion board. The reasons given for low or non-use of the technology are listed as follows. • • • • • • • • • • •

I did not know it existed Not yet, planning to do soon in near the exam Didn't know enough about it Didn't have any time with other studies Found it difficult to understand how to use it. No motivation to use it Don't know much about it Because I didn't need to Because I was not being marked on it and did not have the time to fiddle around it. It will be more useful in exam study week Don't really have time to discuss answers with others, shy if the answers might be wrong; prefer to study on my own It is for revision and I am more concerned with assignments etc. No time - have assignments, attendance, sporting, commitment

Most of the responses for not participating in the online discussion were related to lack of time. As it was not assessed as part of the examination, students did not want to do it. One student suggested that the discussion topic should be posted before the lecture so that students could prepare beforehand. Overall the key reasons given for low usage were: lack of time and no assessment. The survey results indicate that the mean of the items ranged from 3.08 to 3.99 or close to “Neutral”. There was room for improvement in areas such as providing students with real-time feedback to evaluate their understanding, helping students understand the content better, and encouraging student to use the discussion board in studying. The third section of the questionnaire reviewed the online multiple choice assessment (OMA). Thirty two out of thirty nine students responded to this section. The results are listed in Table 4 below.

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Items I would like the OMA used more in tests and examinations The OMA tool will save me time in tests and examinations The OMA tool provides me with instant feedback The OMA tool is convenient for answering in tests and examinations I would like the OMA tool to be applied in other units in the future I would like the OMA tool to be used occasionally throughout the semester I would like the OMA tool to be used at the end of each topic for consolidation Questions only in multiple choice format are boring Overall I liked the use of the OMA tool in studying

Mean 3.25 3.38 3.44 3.22

s. d. 1.08 1.04 0.98 1.01

3.25

1.19

3.31

1.03

3.31

1.06

2.63 3.22

1.04 1.07

Responses to most items were close to “neutral”. Students received correct answers to questions immediately after they submitted their answers and so the author found the neutral response to OMA providing students’ instant feedback somewhat surprising. The result suggests that students were not keen to use the online multiple assessment tool either for studying or for consolidation at the end of each topic. 4.1 Discussion RQ1: How can technology support the different learning styles of students? Falling student attendance at lectures is a growing problem across the tertiary sector. However most students will study their textbooks and lecture notes before examinations either on their own or in study groups with friends. I propose hybrid learning or combining face-to-face and online learning together to support a variety of learning styles. Many students find it difficult to respond promptly to questions in large groups. An online discussion board offers students the opportunity to post their views in their own time at their own pace and not confined to lecture hours. Multiple choice questions available online also enables students to answer in their own time and at their own convenience. The results and responses are delivered to them promptly once they have submitted their answers. Students can perform these tasks as many times as they like. Online learning thus provides a tool for students to practise responses and improve their revision of topics. It is worth noting at this point that providing multiple choice questions online whilst a useful tool for assisting students with recall of data is by no means an appropriate means or substitute for deep understanding of Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy [33]. Clearly the survey results in this pilot study did not indicate that students were in favour of online technologies. Only ten students out of ninety one were even aware of the existence of the online discussion board in this unit. Most of those who responded to the survey stated that they did not get involved in the discussion because they did

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not have time to do so. The discussion board used in this unit did not make them feel involved in the unit. There is also not enough evidence to show that the online multiple choice assessment tool and the discussion board can support different learning styles of students. RQ2: How can technology offer a learning environment where students and staff feel comfortable to discuss and collaborate? This study did not provide enough evidence to show that online discussion boards can offer a learning environment where students and staff feel comfortable to engage in discussion. Students agreed that the discussion board improved their interactivity in lectures (mean of 3.99 and 5 as strongly agree). They also responded that the online discussion board did not provide them with real-time feedbacks to evaluate their understanding (mean 3.08, which is close to neutral). Survey results also suggested that students were not eager to apply the discussion board tools in other units in the future nor did they like the use of the discussion board for studying (mean 3.25 and 3.22 respectively).

5 Conclusions and Future Research In a large class, students may not have the opportunity to express their ideas in lectures. Failure to attend lectures and tutorials on a regular basis can and often occur for a variety of reasons. Hence the purpose of this pilot study was to incorporate hybrid learning via some online tools to support students’ different learning styles and also help students discuss and collaborate with other students and their lecturers. Further research is required as the low response rate did not provide enough evidence to show whether students would respond positively to the introduction of an online discussion board and online multiple choice assessment. Based on the findings, adaptations of the study for future work will include • alerting students to the existence of an online discussion board in their unit; • initiating the project earlier in the semester with activities planned before the semester starts, so students can be fully informed about the project and the survey procedures in the unit outline; and • Creating an alternative reward for student participation in the project as there is no assessed component. Online learning tools can assist students with self-paced learning in their own time. Despite the “neutral” response of the results and the extra time and effort of the staff involved, the author believes that this project should continue in coming semesters. Despite their limitations the fact remains that at a time when universities are struggling to meet demand within tight budgetary constraints online learning tools are uniquely suited for customization to preferred learning styles of students [34]. With increasingly rich forms of e-learning, there is a great need for longitudinal studies on forms of collaborative learning [35]. The author therefore plans a project to follow from this initial study. This will require building and evaluations of online tools designed to support and sustain the group learning process. A longitudinal study

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will apply an online MCA tool and an online discussion board. The MCA instrument will assist students with study and consolidation of knowledge at the end of each topic. The online discussion board will assist students with knowledge construction and formulation of ideas through discussion and collaboration. Students within the group will be encouraged to lead and facilitate discussions so reducing the need for intervention by a tutor [25]. In this paper I have attempted to establish how ICT can best support different learning styles. It is now well understood that the effect of any particular technological application depends on the conditions under which that technology was integrated with the educational process. ICT tools can only offer opportunities to learn: ultimately, it is the learner’s central role that determines the success of their own learning.

Acknowledgements The author gratefully acknowledges Professor Paula Swatman’s suggestions for extending the literature review in the preparation of this paper, and Dr Linda Wilkins in distributing the questionnaires to students and offering improvement suggestions to this paper.

References 1. Geiselhart, K.: Teaching Technology to Share. In: Seventh International Literacy and Education Research Network (LERN) Conference on Learning, July 5-9. RMIT University, Melbourne (2004) 2. Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R.: Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs. Pfeiffer Publishing, San Francisco (2005) 3. Boyle, T., Bradley, C., Jones, R., Pickard, P.: Using Blended Learning to Improve Student Success Rates in Learning to Program. Journal of Educational Media 28(2-3), 165–178 (2003) 4. Garrison, D.R., Kanuka, H.: Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education 7(2), 95–105 (2004) 5. Osguthorpe, R.T., Graham, C.R.: Blended Learning Environments: Definitions and Directions. Quarterly Review of Distance Education 4(3), 227–233 (2003) 6. Singh, H.: Building Effective Blended Learning Programs. Issue of Educational Technology 43(6), 51–54 (2003) 7. Bleed, R.: A hybrid campus for a new millennium. Educause Review 36(1), 16–24 (2001) 8. Ackerman, A.S.: Hybrid Learning in Higher Education: Engagement Strategies. Media Review 14, 145–158 (2008) 9. Chen, I.: Examining the factors influencing participants’ knowledge sharing behavior in virtual learning communities (2009) 10. Selwyn, N.: The use of computer technology in university teaching and learning: a critical perspective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (23), 83–94 (2003) 11. Birch, D., Burnett, B.: Bringing academics on board: Encouraging institution wide diffusion of e-learning environments. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 25(1), 117–134 (2009)

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12. Graham, C.R.: Blended Learning System. In: Bonk, C.J., Graham, C.R. (eds.) Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Deigns, p. 6. Pfeiffer Publishing, San Francisco (2005) 13. Becker, R., Jokivirta, L.: Online Learning in Universities: Selected Data from the 2006 Observatory Survey the Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. LDM Editing Services (2007), http://www.obhe.ac.uk/documents/view_details?id=15 14. Monash University: Educational Technology Framework People, pedagogy, places and technology (2007), http://www.calt.monash.edu.au/Quality/ETC/agenda/content/ ETF_FINAL%20DRAFT.pdf 15. Australian Catholic University: ACU Learning Spaces & Emerging Technologies. In: Video Conference, June 2, Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane (2008) 16. Blackboard: Blackboard and WebCT Announce Agreement to Merge website, October 12 (2005) 17. Blackboard: Higher Education Focused on Student Achievement (2008), http://www.blackboard.com/inpractice/highered/ 18. Bush, M.: Alternative Marking Schemes for On-line Multiple Choice Tests. In: The 7th Annual Conference on the Teaching of Computing, Belfast (1999) 19. Maunder, P.: In support of multiple choice questions: evidence from curriculum 2000. In: Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, pp. 12–14. University of Exeter, England (September 2002) 20. Buchanan, T.: Using the World Wide Web for formative assessment. Journal of Educational Technology Systems 27, 71–79 (1999) 21. Epstein, M.L., Lazarus, A.D., Calvano, T.B., Matthews, K.A.: Immediate feedback assessment technique promotes learning and corrects inaccurate first responses. The Psychological Record. Gambier 52(2), 187–202 (2002) 22. Ricketts, C., Wilks, S.J.: Improving Student Performances Through Computer-base Assessment: insights from recent research. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education 27(5) (2002) 23. Gao, F., Wang, C., Sun, Y.: A new model of productive online discussion and its implications for research and instruction. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange 2(1), 65–78 (2009) 24. Salmon, G.: E-Moderating – the key to teaching and learning online. Kogan Page, London (2000) 25. Nisbet, D.: Measuring the Quantity and Quality of Online Discussion Group Interaction. Journal of eLiteracy 1, 122–139 (2004) 26. Ellis, R.A., Goodyear, P., Prosser, M., O’Hara, A.: How and what university students learn through online and face-to-face discussion: conceptions, intentions and approaches. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 22(4), 244–256 (2006) 27. Chen, G., Chiu, M.M.: Online discussion processes: Effects of earlier messages’ evaluations, knowledge content, social cues and personal information on later messages. Computers & Education 50(3), 678–692 (2006) 28. Hou, H.T., Chang, K.E., Sung, Y.T.: An Analysis of Peer Assessment Online Discussions within a Course that uses Project-based Learning. Interactive Learning Environments 15(3), 237–251 (2007) 29. Burchfield, R.W.: A Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary, Se-Z. Clarendons Press, Oxford (1986)

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The Diminishing Influence of Age and Gender on e-Learning Readiness of Teachers in Hong Kong Koon Keung Teddy So1 and Paula Swatman2 1

Caritas Bianchi College of Careers, Hong Kong [email protected] 2 Solution Forrest, Australia [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of this research project is to discover how the factors Gender and Age influence the e-learning readiness of Hong Kong’s primary and secondary school in-service and trainee teachers. Using a combination of existing e-learning assessment tools with experiences gained from business field and the conceptual model developed from the literature, two questionnaires were created to survey in-service and trainee teachers in Hong Kong. Findings of this research show that Gender and Age have significant influence on in-service teachers. However, there is no significant influence on trainee teachers in Hong Kong. More importantly, the survey result of this research shows that the general perception which was true in the past thirty years that males are better at using ICT than females does not hold true any more. Keywords: e-learning, readiness, teacher training, information and communication technology, age difference, gender difference.

1 Introduction Since the 1990s when the Internet becomes more popular worldwide, it is very clear that we are emerging into an information age. Many countries / cities, including Hong Kong, are transforming themselves into knowledge-based, rather than manufacturing-based societies. In the global economy information, distribution and production of knowledge become increasingly important (Cruz et al., 1999). As a consequence, there is a growing demand for continuing education, flexible learning and different forms of professional training delivered by different new technologies. One of the possible ways to achieve these goals is the introduction of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and e-learning into education (Fisser & Geloven, 2000). A significant body of literature (for example, Heinrich, 1995; Fullan, 1994; Wang, 2002) supports the view that the way teachers teach is a product of their own schooling, training, and experiences. In addition, the methods of delivering an online curriculum are new and very different from those used in traditional face-to-face teaching, instructors must be trained to make the most of new or updated teaching methods. Therefore, it is unfair to ask teachers to change their pedagogical approaches if they P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 477–488, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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have not been given sufficient and appropriate training program in integrating ICT and other new teaching technologies into their instruction programs.

2 Goal of This Research Project The goal of this research project is to discover, among other factors, how Gender and Age influence the e-learning readiness of primary and secondary school in-service and pre-service teachers of Hong Kong.

3 Gender Difference In his research of 462 middle and high school students, Young (2000) found significant gender differences in attitudes to computers. His research showed that boys were more likely to claim computers as a male area. A study of Australian teachers undertaken by Russell and Bradley (1997) found that male teachers reported significantly greater confidence with computers than did female teachers. Although training opportunities are provided equally to all teachers, teachers’ attitudes and acceptance of technology are influenced in different ways. In earlier work (see So, 2005a; 2005b, and So & Swatman, 2006) factors influencing the e-learning readiness of a group of Hong Kong primary and secondary school teachers were identified. The results of this pilot research show differences in perceived readiness between: male and female teachers; secondary school and primary school teachers; and teachers of secondary schools in different “bandings”. The findings suggest that only in the higher ‘band’ secondary schools did teachers feel confident they were ready to take on e-learning in the classroom – and, even there, female teachers’ confidence appeared to lag that of their male colleagues. The issue of gender difference is very important to any research project focusing on the use of technology in schools, as teaching is a profession with very unequal gender distribution – there are many more female than male school teachers. This gender imbalance not only affects education today but, in the long run, will also become a national e-competency issue in many (if not all) countries (Teasdale & Lupart, 2001). In Hong Kong the ratio of male to female teachers (primary and secondary schools) was 1: 1.9 for the school year 2004/05, i.e. one male teacher in every three teachers – or about 34.4% (Cheung, 2005), while in the USA the ratio is 1:3 (24.5%) – a 40-year low (National Education Association, 2006). Even worse is that fewer than 9% of US elementary school teachers are men, causing a serious issue of gender imbalance in primary schools, where children receive their first introduction to the education system. Similar to US schools, the overall male:female gender ratio of Australian schools teachers in 2002 was 1:2.1, i.e. there were 2.1 female teachers for every male teacher (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006). In primary school the ratio was 1:3.8, and gender balance was more equal at the secondary school level, with 1.2 female teachers for every male teacher. In one extreme case there was only one single male teacher in a staff of 25 in a South Australian school (Howard & Johnson, 2004, in Timms, Graham, & Caltabiano, 2006).

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Hong Kong primary schools face the same situation as the US elementary schools and Australian schools do. Male:female gender ratios for Hong Kong in both primary and secondary schools are shown in Table 1 (Education Bureau, 2008). Table 1. Gender ratio of Hong Kong Teachers (Male : Female)

School\Year Primary Secondary

2004 1 : 3.6 1 : 1.3

2005 1 : 3.6 1 : 1.3

2006 1 : 3.6 1 : 1.3

2007 1 : 3.6 1 : 1.3

Information in Table 1 shows that gender imbalance exists in Hong Kong for years. Combining the data from the Education Bureau of Hong Kong (2008) and the data from the National Education Association of USA (2006), we might realise that the issue of gender imbalance in the field of education is very common in both Asian and Western cultures. The similarity of the gender ratio imbalance across a number of otherwise very dissimilar countries suggests that teachers’ professional development should to take gender differences into account, allowing for the particular requirements of female teachers (Russell and Bradley, 1997). There is a significant body of research into both the impact of gender per se, as well as the more general issue of technology avoidance due to lack of confidence on the part of teachers (Gilroy & Desai, 1986; Lloyd & Yelland, 2003; Russell & Bradley, 1997; So, 2005a, 2005b; So & Swatman, 2006; Young, 2000; Yuen & Ma, 2002). Since female teachers have been shown to be less confident than male teachers in using technology, both these bodies of research are relevant to this issue. While some studies have shown that gender difference affects technology acceptance by teachers, other studies have found that gender difference is not significant where there are low levels of computer anxiety, but becomes more significant as anxiety levels increase (Anderson, 1996). Russell and Bradley (1997) identify teachers’ computer anxiety as a major cause of resistance to using computers in schools. Therefore, it is worth examining which factors create such anxiety and influence teachers’ acceptance of technology. These factors might include teachers’ attitudes and perceptions, teachers’ computer knowledge, experience, or confidence; and teachers’ age and gender. On-line surveys conducted by the American Association of University Women’s Educational Foundation Commission on Technology with 900 teachers in the USA found that women were at a disadvantage when it comes to computer skills and knowledge (American Association of University Women, 2000). The survey revealed that, on average, female respondents tended to have much greater reservations about the computer culture than males, only used computer tools – rather than using their computer for a wide variety of activities – and tended not to be computer ‘savvy’. Females tended to take more specific computer “tool” courses teaching skills such as page layout, spreadsheet use, PowerPoint, and word processing. The Commission concluded that although using these tools might be helpful, this was probably not the same thing as being truly technologically literate. The way women participate in the

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computer culture puts them at a disadvantage, as they tend to manipulate tools rather than create them. The commission suggested that women should be encouraged to be designers, not just users, of computer applications. A number of authors have found that, on average, males have greater perceived computer ability and lower computer anxiety than females (Whitley, 1997; Ayersman, 1996; Nelson & Watson, 1995). This finding also holds true for male and female students (Teasdale & Lupart, 2001; Nelson & Cooper, 1997; Bannert & Arbinger, 1996; Groundwater-Smith & Crawford, 1992). In general, males are more confident about their computer skills and efficiency. However, with increased support and guided instruction, female computer anxiety could be reduced as exposure and usage is increased (Ayserman, 1996). In a longitudinal research project, Teasdale and Lupart (2001) found that, on average, male students spent more time using computers than did female students. While male students spent their time playing games, female students spent more time on assignments and e-mail. These findings support the idea that that young girls tend to prefer activities related to connectedness, collaboration, and relationships (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Taylor, Gilligan, & Sullivan, 1995). More recently, however, the rise of social networking has begun to change this image: girls spend longer periods of time connecting with their friends on FaceBook or MySpace than do boys (Bulik, 2007); and it may well be that with the move towards a more connected world enabled by Web 2.0, the gender gap in terms of computer confidence will gradually disappear.

4 Research Methodology Using a combination of existing e-learning assessment tools (e.g. Borotis & Poulymenakou, 2004; Chapnick, 2000; and Kaur & Abas, 2004; etc), experiences gained from cases in a variety of countries; and the conceptual model developed from the literature in Section 3, two questionnaires were created to survey in-service and pre-service teachers in Hong Kong. The questionnaire for in-service teachers was sent to 550 primary and secondary school teachers. The questionnaire for pre-service teachers was sent to 120 trainee teachers studying in higher education institutions of Hong Kong, majoring in different subjects. All items were measured on a five-point Likert scale, with 5 meaning “Strongly Agree” and 1 meaning “Strongly Disagree”. 478 usable questionnaires were completed and returned from in-service teachers of 42 local secondary schools and 24 local primary schools, providing a return rate of 87%. 102 usable questionnaires were completed and returned from trainee teachers, providing a return rate of 85%. After all questionnaires had been collected, a variety of statistical analysis tests were applied to the data, including: descriptive statistics, One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Post Hoc tests and Factor Analysis, to identify the accuracy of the models developed in the model building stage. SPSS version 11 was employed for the data analysis. A factor analysis of the 73 items included in the questionnaire given to in-service teachers was performed to enable the formation of factors affecting the e-learning

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readiness of in-service teachers. In parallel, a factor analysis of the 42 items included in the questionnaire given to pre-service teachers was also performed. Factors were extracted by using Principal Axis Factoring with Eigenvalues over 1. Tests of assumptions used the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy and Barlett’s test of sphericity. As factors were assumed to have some degree of inter-relationship, the Oblique (Direct Oblimim) rotation method was selected to do the rotation and determine the structure. The rotation converged in 23 iterations. Absolute factor loadings of less than .30 were not reported. After the factors were formed, Cronbach’s Alpha was applied to check the internal consistency of the newly formed factors. In general, if the reliability coefficient of Cronbach’s Alpha is less than 0.6, reliability is considered poor; if in the 0.6 – 0.7 range, it is acceptable; and if it is over 0.8, the reliability is good (Cavana, Delahaye, & Sekaran, 2000). Finally, nine factors were formed from the data collected from the in-service teachers and all of them satisfied the reliability criterion. Likewise, six factors were formed from the data collected from the pre-service teachers and all of them satisfied the reliability criterion. Table 2 summarised the factors generated from the in-service teachers’ questionnaire and the pre-service teachers’ questionnaire, and their associated internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) values. Table 2. Factors generated from the in-service teachers’ questionnaire and the pre-service teachers’ questionnaire, and their associated internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha) values

Factor

Internal Consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha)

In-service Teachers’ Questionnaire Factor A – Government & Public Support (6 items) Factor B – ICT Infrastructure & Technical Support (10 items) Factor C –Individual Preparedness/ ICT Competency (12 items) Factor D – e-Learning Materials (9 items) Factor E – Training Opportunity (6 items) Factor F – Students Preparedness (6 items) Factor G – Attitude towards e-Learning (6 items) Factor H – Leadership / e-Leadership (6 items) Factor I – Competency of Peers (4 items)

.8930 .9046 .8935 .9072 .9075 .8611 .7927 .8339 .8580

Pre-service Teachers’ Questionnaire Factor A – Government & Public Support (6 items) Factor C –Individual Preparedness/ ICT Competency (12 items) Factor D – e-Learning Materials (7 items) Factor E – Training Opportunity (4 items) Factor G – Attitude towards e-Learning (6 items) Factor I – Competency of Peers (3 items)

.8611 .8503 .8658 .8425 .8299 .8204

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5 Findings 5.1 In-Service Teachers 5.1.1 Gender (Male vs. Female) Section 3 discussed the importance of gender difference in exploring teachers’ e-learning readiness, together with the changing trends. While many researchers agree that gender difference plays an important role in technology acceptance and the use of technology and e-learning (American Association of University Women, 2000; Ayersman, 1996; Gilroy & Desai, 1986; Nelson & Watson, 1995; Russell & Bradley, 1997; So, 2005a; So, 2005b; So & Swatman, 2006; Whitley, 1997; Yuen & Ma, 2002; Young, 2000), other researchers have a different view (for example, Anderson, 1996; Aydin & Tasci, 2005). As teaching is a profession with very unequal gender distribution, there are many more female than male school teachers (Cheung, 2005; National Education Association, 2006), so it is useful to explore whether and how gender difference affects Hong Kong teachers’ e-learning readiness. The results show that in-service teachers of different genders had a statistically significant difference in relation to one factor – Individual Preparedness. The individual preparedness of male in-service teachers was higher (more ready) than the female in-service teachers (see Table 3). This result was consistent with the findings summarised in the literature review on the implications of gender difference for e-learning readiness. Table 3. e-Learning readiness of male vs. female teachers (One-Way ANOVA at 95% confidence level)

Male (n=162) Female (n=313) Dependent Mean SD Mean SD Variable Individual .59085 3.2810 .5614 3.5303 Preparedness (*: p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001).

F Value

20.322

Sig. level

***

5.1.2 Age of Teachers (<= 30 vs. 31 - 40 vs. >= 41) Aydin and Tasci (2005) constructed a two-section “e-Learning Readiness Survey” to assess the e-learning readiness of companies in Turkey. Their study found that there was no significant effect of age groups, education levels, or computer experience on the overall scores. By contrast, Russell and Bradley (1997) identified teachers’ computer anxiety as a major cause of resistance to using computers in schools, which in turn affected teachers’ e-learning readiness. The results, summarised in Table 4, show that teachers in different age groups had statistically significant differences in six aspects – Government & Public Support, Individual Preparedness, e-Learning Materials, Training Opportunities, Attitude to e-Learning, and Competency of Peers. In-service teachers aged 30 or less were statistically significantly different from in-service teachers of other age groups in all these six aspects.

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Table 4. e-Learning readiness of teachers with different age groups (Post Hoc Tests by Bonferroni) Dependent Variable

(I) Age

(J) Age

Government & Public Support

<= 30

Individual Preparedness

<= 30

e-Learning Materials

<= 30

Training Opportunities

<= 30

Attitude to e-Learning

<= 30

Competency of Peers

<= 30

31 – 40 >= 41 31 – 40 >= 41 31 – 40 >= 41 31 – 40 >= 41 31 – 40 >= 41 31 – 40 >= 41

Mean Significance Difference (I-J) Level .1757 * .1333 .310 .1870 ** .1462 .139 .2054 ** .1879 * .2456 ** .1612 .133 .1772 ** .1036 .317 .1993 ** .0315 1.000

(*: p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001).

In summary, teachers of 30 years of age or less had better/more positive images of themselves and society than did teachers from the two older age groups. Teachers of 30 or less perceived that: the government and the public were ready for e-learning; they themselves were ready for e-learning; there were sufficient e-learning materials available for use; training opportunities to use e-learning were adequate; they had a positive attitude towards e-learning; and they felt that their peers/colleagues were competent to use e-learning. 5.1.3 Teaching Experience (<= 10 vs. 11 - 20 vs. >= 21) The results, summarised in Table 5, show that in-service teachers with less than 10 years’ teaching experience had a statistically significant difference in one aspect – Attitude to e-Learning. Teachers with teaching experience <=10 years had a more positive attitude towards e-learning than did teachers with more teaching experience. It is, of course, likely that teachers with fewer years’ teaching experience will also be younger than their colleagues who have been teaching longer – so that distinguishing between the impact of teaching experience vs. the impact of age is very difficult. In order to find out how age and teaching experience were related, a correlation test was done and the results are presented at the end of this sub-section. Table 5. e-Learning readiness of teachers with different teaching experience (Post Hoc Tests by Bonferroni) Dependent Variable Attitude to e-Learning

(I) Teaching Experience <= 10

(*: p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001).

(J) Teaching Mean Significance Experience Difference (I-J) Level 11 – 20 .1402 * >= 21 .0691 1.000

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In order to find out how age was related to teaching experience, a correlation test was done. The result is presented below in Table 6. Table 6. Correlation between age (grouped) and teaching experience (grouped) Age (grouped) Age (grouped)

Teaching experience (grouped)

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

1 . 468 .801 ** .000 468

Teaching experience (grouped) .801 ** .000 468 1 . 477

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). The Pearson Correlation is .801, indicating that age and teaching experience of in-service teachers were highly correlated: younger teachers had less teaching experience, and older teachers had more teaching experience. This made it all but impossible to distinguish between the impact of age and the impact of teaching experience. Or, looking at the problem from a different perspective, it might be sensible to merge these two demographic variables into one because of their very high correlation. 5.2 Pre-service Teachers The procedure of organising and finding pre-service teachers’ data is the same as the procedure applied to the in-service teachers’ data. In summary, the questionnaire for pre-service teachers was an “extracted” version of the questionnaire for in-service teachers, which excluded some questions focused on the school environment. 5.2.1 Gender (Male vs. Female) The results show that there was no statistically significant difference between male pre-service teachers and female pre-service teachers – a result which is in total contrast to the findings from the in-service teachers. 5.2.2 Age of Pre-service Teachers (<= 25 vs. 26 – 30 vs. >= 31) As the sample sizes are three categories were not effective (<=25: n=82; 26-30: n=11; >=31: n=4), we could not draw any significant difference from the data. 5.3 Summary of the Findings In summarizing the findings from the survey data on Hong Kong in-service teachers, an in-service teacher in Hong Kong would be more ready for e-learning if he were: • a male • young • with less teaching experience.

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Table 7. Consolidated summary of the findings of using ANOVA and Post Hoc tests

Variable In-service Teachers Gender (Male vs. Female) Age (<= 30 vs. 31 – 40 vs. >= 41) Teaching Experience (<= 10 vs. 11 – 20 vs. >= 21)

Factor A – Government & Public Support B – ICT Infrastructure & Technical Support C – Individual Preparedness D – e-Learning Materials E – Training Opportunity F – Students Preparedness G – Attitude towards e-Learning H – Leadership/e- Leadership I – Competency of Peers (*: p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; ***: p < 0.001) A B C D E F G H

*

*** **

**

**

** *

I

**

Pre-service Teachers Gender (Male vs. Female) Age (<= 30 vs. >= 31)

In the in-service teacher survey questionnaire, respondents indicated that their preparedness and ICT competency were influenced by: 1) their age: younger in-service teachers remarked that they were more ICT competent; and 2) gender: male in-service teachers indicated that they were more prepared and competent in using ICT then female in-service teachers. There is a general perception that males are better at using ICT than females. This might have been true in the past, but it is only partially true now; and seems likely to be completely untrue in the future. While the survey results from in-service teachers on gender difference presented in Section 5.1.1 confirmed the ‘conventional’ view of gender difference, survey results of (younger) pre-service teachers presented in Section 5.2.1 do not support this perception. There is no statistically significant difference on gender shown among the pre-service teacher participants. What was true in the past thirty years does not hold true any more.

6 Conclusion According to the survey questionnaire findings, some (but not all) teachers in Hong Kong schools are ready for using e-learning. Among the in-service teachers, younger male teachers are more ready than other in-service teachers. However, given Hong Kong’s significant teacher gender imbalance, this group of younger male teachers is only a small proportion of the entire teacher population. Therefore, in general, Hong Kong teachers are not so ready for e-learning. As gender imbalance is a very common phenomenon in many other countries as well, we may come to a conclusion that

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teachers in other countries, such as the USA and Australia, a typical highly developed country, are also less than completely ready for e-learning as yet. At an individual level, both pre-service teachers and those in-service teachers who are young male, in Hong Kong are clearly ready to use e-learning. In future planning for teachers’ professional development programs, it would seem logical to focus on helping other teachers who are less ready to understand and adopt ICT and e-learning to change their attitudes towards modern teaching methods. Of course, this kind of change takes time. This study also finds that two important variables, namely Age and Gender, have different effects on in-service and pre-service teachers in Hong Kong. While age and gender differences have played an important role in technology acceptance over the past few decades, their influence is becoming less important for the group of pre-service teachers who are digital natives. Being surrounded by many different ICT technologies when they are bought up, young people are already familiar with a range of digital technologies and are thus already prepared for e-learning when they are students in primary / secondary schools and tertiary institutions. In fact using ICT is part of their life. Therefore, it is logical to anticipate that as more and more young people join the teaching force over the coming years, acceptance of e-learning will increase significantly from its present fairly low level of uptake.

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28. So, K.K.T., Swatman, P.: e-Learning Readiness of Hong Kong Teachers. In: Hong Kong IT in Education Conference 2006, Capacity Building for Learning through IT (HKITEC 2006), February 6-8. Hong Kong Exhibition and Convention Centre, Hong Kong (2006) 29. Taylor, J.M., Gilligan, C., Sullivan, A.M.: Between voice and silence: Women and girls, race and relationships. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (1995) 30. Teasdale, S., Lupart, J.: Gender differences in computer attitudes, skills, and perceived ability. Presented at the Canadian Society for Studies in Education, Quebec, Canada (2001), http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=zh-TW&lr=&q=cache:TeS81i vL5VIJ:www.geomatics.ucalgary.ca/cwse/CompAtt.pdf+Ayersman +1996 (retrieved January 20, 2007) 31. Timms, C., Graham, D., Caltabiano, M.: Gender implication of perceptions of trustworthiness of school administration and teacher burnout/job stress. Australian Journal of Social Issues (2006), http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/ summary_0286-28879158_ITM (retrieved August 6, 2008) 32. Wang, Y.M.: When technology meets beliefs: Preservice teachers’ perception of the teacher’s role in the classroom with computer. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 35(1), 150–161 (2002) 33. Whitley, B.: Gender differences in computer related attitudes and behaviour: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior 13(1), 1–22 (1997) 34. Young, B.: Gender differences in student attitudes toward computers. Journal of Research on Computing in Education 33(2), 204–217 (2000) 35. Yuen, H.K., Ma, W.K.: Gender differences in teacher computer acceptance. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 10(3), 365–382 (2002)

Effectiveness of E-Learning at Secondary Schools in Hong Kong Fu Lee Wang1, Reggie Kwan1, and Tak-Lam Wong2 1

Caritas Institute of Higher Education, 18 Chui Ling Road, Tseung Kwan O, Hong Kong {pwang,rkwan}@cihe.edu.hk 2 Department of Computer Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong [email protected] Abstract. E-learning has become a global trend in education recently. We have measured the effectiveness of e-learning program at university level. We found that the e-learning programs are effective in university courses at fundamental level. This paper shall extend our investigation to secondary schools in Hong Kong. Similarly, we have implemented Kirkpatrick’s model to measure the effectiveness of e-learning in secondary schools. The quantitative measurements in the study shall provide baseline data for secondary schools in Hong Kong to set its strategic direction of e-learning.

1 Introduction Recent advances in information technology enable the development of e-learning, which becomes a global trend in education recently. A lot of resources are required to develop and deliver an e-learning program. To ensure better utilization of resources, it is important to measure the effectiveness of individual e-learning program. Initial methodology has been proposed to measure the effectiveness of e-learning [4]. We have implemented the Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model [2] to evaluate the elearning programs at universities in Hong Kong. In our related study [9], we found that the e-learning programs are more effective in fundamental level courses at universities. We also found that e-learning program fail to stimulate students’ learning interests. The previous study focuses at e-learning programs at universities. The result from the study is very limited. It cannot be generalized to e-learning programs at secondary schools. The population at secondary school is much larger than the population at universities. Moreover, the secondary school education provides a foundation to university education. A student cannot get success in their university education, without a good foundation. This study will examine the effectiveness of e-learning at secondary schools in Hong Kong based on the Kirkpatrick’s model. The quantitative measurements in the study shall provide baseline data for the secondary school in Hong Kong to set its strategic direction of e-learning.

2 E-Learning at Secondary Schools in Hong Kong The e-learning in Hong Kong is not only limited to higher education. A lot of elearning programs are available for secondary school students [10], primary school and kindergarten students [1]. P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 489–500, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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In this study, we measure the effectiveness of e-learning programs in secondary schools. We have visited two secondary schools. Both schools are government subsidized schools. They have similar backgrounds, and the schools admitted students with similar admission scores. Besides, the historical records of students’ entrance rates to university are also similar. The first secondary school actively participates in e-learning education. Besides, the first school invests a lot at computing equipments. Each instructor is equipped with a notebook computer. When they deliver the courses, they will bring the notebook to the class, and connect the notebook computer to projectors. The use of notebook computer provides a great flexibility to teacher’s teaching. For example, they can show some movie clips to the students. Moreover, the campus is fully covered by wireless computer network, and the computers are connected to a central server. When the instructors give assignments to the students, they will upload the assignments and related materials to the server. The students and their parents can login to the intranet to check assignments as well as announcements. This campus-wide intranet also provides an important communication channel between instructors and students’ parents. The parents can know the most up-to-date progress of their children’s study.

Fig. 1. E-learning in English [8]

In addition to a campus wide e-learning platform, some courses are taught in traditional mode with supplement of e-learning programs. Take the English course as first example, the instructor follows the syllabus, which is set by the Education Bureau, to teach English course, such as grammar, vocabulary, phoenix, etc. In addition to the coursework assigned by the instructor, the students are required to do some additional exercises on the Internet. Those exercises provide them with some extra training in English (Fig. 1), which is not directly related to the course materials taught at classes. In some other courses, the students may use some e-learning tools to do some integrated projects.

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As the primary schools and secondary schools do not have sufficient resources to develop their e-learning systems, they usually subscribe services from third party organizations. Those organizations provide services to a large number of schools in Hong Kong (Fig. 2). It is difficult for them to provide customized service to specific school. As a result, they usually provide some generic e-learning programs to the students.

Fig. 2. English Campus from HKEdCity.net

HKEdCity.net [1] is one of the organizations which provide e-learning services to secondary schools. As the Hong Kong government consider e-learning as one of it strategies in education, HKEdCity.net is established with financial support of Hong Kong government. Currently, HKEdCity.net provides various e-learning programs to the secondary schools, for example, the English Campus. The English Campus (Fig. 3) is a typical example. It provides a large number of exercises on English Languages. Although the exercises are classified into few levels according to their levels of difficulty, the e-learning program is not personalized. For example, a student in Secondary 3 can only do exercises designed for Secondary 3, even he may consider those exercises are too difficult or too easy for him. On the other hand, those systems can only give a general grade upon on student’s submission of a set of exercises. However, no comment is provided to point out the exact mistake for student’s improvement.

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Fig. 3. List of Schools in English Campus from HKEdCity.net

The second school is totally different from the first one. They use computers only in the course of computer studies. The instructors use only marker pen and whiteboard in other courses. When an instructor gives assignments, they write down in the whiteboard, and the students copy to their handbooks. If the student’s parents want to know the progress of their children, they need to make an appointment with the instructors to have a face-to-face discussion. These two schools are some extreme examples in Hong Kong. The first school takes a leading position in e-learning education, while the second one does not take any action. Students are randomly selected in different years from the two schools to participate in the study. Their experiences shall give us some good examples to study effectiveness of e-learning.

3 Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model Many training program fail to achieve the objectives of the organization due to different reasons. It is very important to develop a model to evaluate the effectives of the training program. Evaluation is a systematic approach to measure the effectiveness of a training program [6]. A number of models have been proposed for evaluation of training programs [7]. Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model is currently the most well-known and most widelyused model for measurement of effectiveness of training programs. It is first proposed by Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959 [3]. The Kirkpatrick’s model contains 4 levels (Fig. 4), which are disjoint from each others. The four levels of Kirkpatrick’s model are defined as [2, 3]: Level 1 Evaluation – Reactions Level 1 evaluation measures how participants in a training program react to the training program. Typically, participants evaluate the training program in different aspects, such as trainer, training environment, and training contents, etc. It will provide some

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feedbacks for improvement of the program. According to Kirkpatrick, every training program must at least be evaluated at this level [2]. Level 2 Evaluation – Learning Level 2 evaluation measures the extent trainees have advanced in their skills, knowledge, or attitudes. Nowadays, the level two evaluation often conducts a test before the training (pre-training-test / pre-test) and a test after the training (post-training-test / post-test). The evaluation method can be formal or informal testing. The knowledge gained can be measured by comparing the results in the two tests. Level 3 Evaluation – Transfer Level 3 evaluation measures how the trainee’s behavior is changed by the training program. It attempts to study how the knowledge gained can be applied to the daily operations. Level 3 measurement is more difficult, as the behavior is intangible. Level 4 Evaluation- Results Level 4 evaluation measures the overall effectiveness of the training program to the business objectives of the organization. In the commercial case, we can measure the change in sales volume or profit gained, etc. Level 4 measure the value added to the organization by a training program.

Level 1: Reaction Level 2: Learning Level 3: Behavior Level 4: Result

How did the participants react to the training program? To what extents do the participants improve their knowledge, skills and change their attitudes as a result of the training program? To what extents do the participants change their behavior when they return to the workplace as a result of the training program? What benefit does the organization get as a result of the training program? Fig. 4. Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model

According to the model, evaluation must start with level one. If resources allow, the evaluation can be further extended to other levels sequentially. Information collected from prior levels will serve as a base for next level. The individual level provides a checkpoint in a training problem. For example, if a trainee is unsatisfied (which is measured in Level 1), he will slow down his learning process (which is measured in Level 2). If a trainee learns slowly, it will be a barrier for him to apply knowledge in his daily operations (which is measured in Level 3). Hence the overall business objectives cannot be achieved (which is measured in Level 4). They are equally important in the model. Level 4 cannot be measured alone without other levels. As the evaluation moves down the levels, we will able to measure the effectiveness of training program more precisely. However, the design of the experiments and analysis of data collected will get more complicated. Nowadays, Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model has been widely used in evaluation of effectiveness for a wide range of training programs in the industry. However, the Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model remains as an industry standard for evaluation of

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training programs. There are only few literatures to show the implementation of Kirkpatrick’s model in evaluation of learning programs in academic. Traditionally, the educational institutes do not measure the impact of learning programs have on the overall objectives of the school.

4 Implementation of Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels We have followed the Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model to design the evaluation of elearning programs. Similar to pervious study, the four levels are modified to evaluate the e-learning programs at two secondary schools in our study. Level 1 Evaluation (In Our Study) – Reactions Level 1 measures the participants’ reaction towards e-learning. In our study, we investigate the students’ satisfaction to e-learning by questionnaires. Students are asked to evaluate the programs in multiple dimensions, i.e., ease of operation in the elearning system, appropriateness of workload, adequacy of materials, satisfaction of program, etc. The scores are indicated in a 0 to 5 scale, where a score of 0 means strongly dissatisfied and a score of 5 means strongly satisfied. The students’ satisfaction score are summarized by year of study (Table 1). Surprisingly, the mean score of overall satisfaction in both secondary schools are equal (both are 2.9 out of 6.0). There is no evidence to show students in secondary schools received e-learning together with classroom education demonstrate a greater satisfaction than students receiving classroom education only. The paired two-tailed Student’s t-test also confirms that the mean of two schools are equal. Table 1. Students’ Satisfaction of Courses in Secondary Schools Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean

Traditional Mode 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.2 2.9 2.7 2.6 2.9

Classroom + E-learning Mode 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.4 3.1 2.8 2.5 2.9

As shown in Table 1, we found that the secondary school students in the junior years are more satisfactory with classroom education supplemented with e-learning. However, we fail to construct a linear relationship between year of study and the satisfactions. The student’s satisfactory cannot be simply modeled by year of study. The correlation coefficient between the satisfactions of same year students in two schools is 0.81. In other words, the students’ satisfactions are similar for the same year. We had conducted an in-depth interview with the students. We found that the students believe that the e-learning programs are less relevant to their course materials.

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Because secondary school students in senior years experience great pressures from public examinations, they would like to spend more time on their course materials. They think that the e-learning programs are too time-consuming. As they consider the e-learning activities as a burden to their studies, therefore, they are less satisfied with their courses. The first year students are also less satisfied with their courses, as they are new to their schools, they need some time to adopt the new environment. In the Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model, the evaluation in one level is based on the results of prior levels. As we find that there is no relationship between the year and the students’ behaviors, we will not repeat the linear regression test in the following evaluations. On the contrary, we know that the behaviors of students in the same year are similar; we will pay attention to this in the following evaluations. In other words, we will not try to find a trend against year. Instead, we will analyze the behavior in individual years. Level 2 Evaluation (In Our Study) - Learning Level 2 evaluates the effectiveness of learning. Usually, we conduct test before and after the course to determine the knowledge gained in the course. However, it is not feasible to conduct a test on the course before delivery of the course. Therefore, we adopt an alternative approach. We compare the assessment result of students of these two schools. Table 2. Number of A-Grade Students in Secondary Schools Year Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Mean

Traditional Mode 21.20% 20.80% 24.50% 18.90% 21.30% 19.40% 22.10% 21.17%

Classroom + E-learning Mode 23.40% 19.80% 20.50% 23.40% 18.55% 21.45% 19.90% 21.00%

As shown in the Table 2, the average numbers of A-grade students in the two teaching modes are similar. The paired two-tailed student’s t-test confirms that there is no evidence to show e-learning programs can improve students’ academic results. However, it is important to point out that the examination papers in two secondary schools are not identical. Moreover, the instructors in secondary schools set a curve of grade boundaries. Therefore, it may not be a fair comparison in our study. Ideally, we should measure the students’ results in some public examinations. However, it is not feasible in this study due to the time constraints. We will leave it for future studies. The related study shows that the effectiveness of e-learning program is affected by the relevance of the e-learning program to students’ studies [9]. We ask students to rate the relevancies of their e-learning programs to their studies. Table 3 shows that the e-learning programs in secondary school are far less relevant to students’ learning program, in comparison with e-learning programs in the university.

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Mean Standard Deviation No. of student

University 4.3 0.41 100

Secondary School 2.5 0.53 100

Level 3 Evaluation (In Our Study) - Behavior Level 3 measures the transfer of students’ behavior due to the program. We focus on how students’ attitude been changed by e-learning programs. We have conducted precourse questionnaire survey and post-course questionnaire survey. We mainly want to investigate if the e-learning program can stimulate students’ learning interests, i.e., the students are more self-motivated to their studies. As the learning interest is intangible, we measure some more subjective measurements, such as time spent and attendance rates. On the other hand, we would like to investigate whether the e-learning program can improve their time management skills. Table 4. Number of Hours Spent Per Week in the Courses for Secondary School Students Year Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Mean

Traditional courses (A) 7.8 7.5 8.4 9.6 9.8 8.4 9.6 8.7

Courses with E-learning (B) 8.4 9.2 8.6 9.5 9.4 8.9 9.7 9.1

Hours increased for E-learning (B)-(A) 0.6 1.7 0.2 -0.1 -0.4 0.5 0.1 0.4

The secondary school students spent an average of 8.7 hours per week in courses with traditional education mode, while they spent an average of 9.1 hours per week in courses which were taught in classroom education with supplement of e-learning program (Table 4). There is an insignificant increase of 0.4 hours per week. The paired one-tailed student’s t-test find weak evidence to show that the secondary school students spent more time in the courses with e-learning than the courses without e-learning. The results in level 1 suggest that the behaviors of secondary school students in different years are different. As a result, we interview students in secondary schools. The Year 4 and Year 5 students are studying the materials towards the HKCEE which is equivalent to GCSE, and Year 6 and Year 7 students are studying the materials towards the HKAL which is equivalent to GCE A-Level. They are facing a great pressure from public examinations. As the secondary school students believe that the e-learning programs are less relevant to their studies, they don’t spend much time on e-learning activities. Sometimes, they will strategically select few courses to spend

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more time, therefore, the average time spent on one course with e-learning program may be even less than other courses. The largest increase comes from Year 2 students. Because Year 1 students are new to the school, they are adapting to the new environment, therefore, they cannot afford to spend too much time on e-learning activities. Year 3 students are also facing some potential pressure for stream selection. In Hong Kong, the Secondary 4 students are divided into different streams, including, science, arts, and business studies. The selection priority is based on their academic result in Secondary 3. Therefore, students in Year 3 also spend little time on e-learning activities. Relatively, the students in Year 2 experience the least pressure. Hence, they can spend more time on elearning. This explains why the largest increase comes from Year 2. Table 5. Attendance Rate in Courses for Secondary School Students Year Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Mean

Traditional courses (A) 97.8% 96.4% 98.4% 98.8% 96.6% 97.8% 96.4% 97.5%

Courses with E-learning (B) 98.1% 97.2% 98.5% 97.3% 96.8% 96.5% 98.2% 97.5%

Percentage increased for E-learning (B)-(A) 0.3% 0.8% 0.1% -1.5% 0.2% -1.3% 1.8% 0.1%

We have also analyzed the attendance rate for secondary school students (Table 5). The average attendance rates for secondary school students in courses in both teaching modes were 97.5%. The paired two-tailed student’s t-test also confirms that the elearning system fails to improve the attendance rates. Unlike university students, the secondary school student has no freedom to choose which class to attend based on their needs. The secondary school students are bounded by very strict school rules. Therefore, they have a high attendance rate regardless of the teaching modes. At the same time, they have a much higher overall attendance rates than university students. The university students enjoy more freedom. Moreover, they are less self-disciplined. Hence, they yield much lower attendance rates. Finally, we would like to investigate students’ learning interests in different courses. We asked the students to rate their interests about the courses before and after the courses. The results are shown in Table 6. Surprisingly, we find that the students’ learning interests drop after they complete the courses in general. Therefore, the e-learning program fails to stimulate students’ learning interest. We have conducted focus group study with students. The students tell us that the course materials are not exactly the same as what they expect at the beginning. As a result, their learning interests decrease. To improve the students’ learning interests, it is important to keep the students well informed about the course design and contents.

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Course Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Mean

Course with e-learning Pre-course Post-course Difference (A) (B) (B-A) 2.1 2.3 0.2 2.3 2.4 0.1 2.4 2.2 -0.2 2.6 2.7 0.1 2.8 2.7 -0.1 3.3 3.1 -0.2 3.4 3.2 -0.2 2.70 2.66 -0.04

Course without e-learning Pre-course Post-course Difference (C) (D) (D-C) 2.1 2.2 0.1 2.4 2.3 -0.1 2.2 2.3 0.1 2.9 2.8 -0.1 2.7 2.6 -0.1 3.2 3.2 0 3.3 3.1 -0.2 2.69 2.64 -0.04

The learning interests of the students in the different years can be summarized as Fig. 5. This rank can be explained by the results got in the focus group study. In year 1 to year 3, the secondary students are forced to study same set of courses. Therefore, their learning interests are the lowest. In year 4 to year 5, they are allowed to choose their own stream. Therefore, their learning interests increase a little bit. In year 6 to year 7, the students can choose their courses. Moreover, they can select the courses based on their experiences during year 4 to 5. Therefore, it further increases the learning interests.

Highest Year 6~7

>

Year 4~5

>

Lowest Year 1~3

Fig. 5. Ranking of Student’s Learning Interest

If the students can choose which course to study, they have higher learning interests. As a result, provision of selection to students can increase their learning interests. However, this may not be feasible for all the cases. The choices of courses may be limited by resources. Level 4 Evaluation (In Our Study) - Results Level four evaluation attempts to assess training in terms of business results. This level measures the success of training program by some common indicators, such as, market shares increase, sales increase, cost reduced, quality improved, etc. Education in Hong Kong is planned Economic. The government has the absolute control on education policy, for example, number of students to be admitted by a school, the rate of school fee etc. Therefore, these figures cannot reflect the success of a school in Hong Kong. On the other hand, we cannot get some sensitive figures of the schools, for example, the admission score, cost, etc. Summing up the above, the level 4 evaluation is extremely difficult to be implemented, because of insufficiency of data. We can also measure the success of e-learning programs by purely comparing of their academic results. The academic result for individual course has been studied in Level 2. The overall academic results for the school are difficult to be measured. We

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can also measure the success of their graduates of the universities. However, it takes a long time period to conduct the study. Due to the time constraint, we cannot conduct this study in our project. At last, we decide to interview the instructors. As the number of instructors is small, we can afford to conduct an in-depth interview. The results are summarized in Table 7. Unfortunately, the number of observations is too little, we do no conduct any statistical analysis in level 4. Nevertheless, the questionnaire is able to tell us some preliminary results. Table 7. Responses from Instructors Question 1. Rate students’ attitudes to the course. 2. Rate students’ time management skill in the course. 3. Rate students’ learning interests in the course. 4. Rate students’ academic results in the course. 5. Rate your workload in the course. 6. Rate the utilization of e-learning in the course. 7. Rate the operation of the e-learning system. 8. Rate the flexibility of the e-learning system. 9. Rate students’ involvement in e-learning in the course. 10. Rate effectiveness of e-learning in the course.

With elearning 3.2 2.5 3.6 3.7 4.3 1.4 3.2 1.7 1.3 1.6

Score Without elearning 3.1 2.6 3.5 3.9 3.5 / / / / /

As shown in Table 7, the instructors consider that the e-learning is not flexible enough. The systems were unable to be customized for their courses. On the other hand, the instructors do not observe significant improvement in some indicators, such as, students’ attitudes, time management skill, learning interests and academic results. Therefore, the utilization of e-learning in the courses is still low, and students are not actively involved in e-learning. Moreover, the instructors are not satisfied with the effectiveness of e-learning programs in their courses on the whole. The sample size in current study is small. The level 4 evaluation required a large scale quantitative study in the future.

5 Conclusions Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels Model has been widely employed for measurement of effectiveness of training programs. We have implemented the Kirkpatrick model to measure the effectiveness of the e-learning programs at secondary schools in Hong Kong. We find that there is no significant statistical difference in their academic results for the secondary school students who received e-learning together with classroom education than the students receiving classroom education only. The current elearning programs fail to change students’ attitudes towards learning, i.e., time management and attendance rates. They also fail to stimulate student’s learning interests. Students are more satisfied with the relevant e-learning programs. The design of elearning programs at secondary schools is too generic, it is less relevant to the student learning, and hence it is not effective. To solve the problem, we must conduct some

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studies to understand students’ need. The students must be involved at the early stage, so that it can save a lot of effort in development. On the other hand, the elearning tools at the secondary school aim at providing more exercises to the students. The range of benefits is limited. The ideal e-learning program should provide instant feedback, which is important in students’ learning. In the current stage, e-learning is used to supplement the traditional education in Hong Kong. In the long run, the e-learning courses may replace the classroom education. By that time, the students will enjoy more flexibility in the course selection. We expect the students’ learning interests may be increased by e-learning, as e-learning has great potential to provide more choices to the students.

References 1. HKEdCity (2010), http://www.hkedcity.net/ (last access on May 1, 2010) 2. Kirkpatrick, D.L.: Evaluating Training Programs: The Four levels. Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco (1994) 3. Kirkpatrick, D.L.: Evaluating Training Programs, 2nd edn. Berrett-Koehler, San Francisco (1959) 4. Leung, H.K.N.: Evaluating the Effectiveness of e-Learning. Computer Science Education 13(2), 123–136 (2003) 5. Prof. Ho (2010), http://www.prof-ho.com/reading/ (last access on May1, 2010) 6. Russ-Eft, D., Preskill, H.: Evaluation in organization: A systematic approach to enhancing learning, performance and change. Perseus Publishing, Cambridge (2001) 7. Stokking, K.: Levels of evaluation: Kirkpatrick, Kaufman and Keller, and beyond. Human Resource Development Quarterly 7(2), 179–183 (1990) 8. Support Pack (2010), http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/supportpack/ (last access on May 1, 2010) 9. Wang, F.L., Kwan, R., Lau, R.: A Study of Effectiveness of E-learning in Hong Kong. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Hybrid Learning, pp. 198–210. City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong (2009) 10. Young Writer (2010), http://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/youngwriter/ (last access on May 1, 2010)

Competency Model for Chinese Distance Education in Higher Education Shuang Li1, Li Chen1, Bob Fox2, and Philip Tsang3 1

Beijing Normal University [email protected], [email protected] 2 The University of Hong Kong [email protected] 3 Caritas Institute of Higher Education [email protected]

Abstract. This paper presents the responses to two research questions that formed the core of a distance education study undertaken by the authors: 1) according to Chinese experts what are the roles and competencies necessary to achieve success in high-level distance education; and 2) how do distance education experts rate the importance of these competencies. This Chinese study modified the traditional approach to developing competency models for tertiary distance education in that it employed a Delphi face-to-face group discussion and a questionnaire survey. 13 roles and 17 general and role-specific competencies were identified. Some comparisons to the study conducted at Texas A & M University were made and considerable differences were identified. Differences were largely limited to training and cultural matters. Dissemination of findings will be used to provide base line information to staff delivering distance education programs and as a key input into the design of training curricula for staff and graduate students. Keywords: Competency model, Distance Education, Delphi Survey.

1 Introduction The role of distance learning and teaching continues to grow in importance. Ongoing staff training is needed to ensure staff are competent in teaching at a distance. Even those with high levels of education, including doctorates, require special competency training in the art of teaching at a distance (Bates, 2004). Research to identify and clarify the professional competencies that underpin successful distance education has been ongoing since the early 1990s, and valuable findings have been reported. For example: role analysis by Landstrom (2000), competency analysis by Cyrs (1997), Ally (2000); Marcus (2004), and Shelley (2006); competency analysis for specialty curricula development by Ally and Coldeway (1999); and competency models for distance education by Thach and Murphy (1995), Williams (2003) & Trioathi et al (2010). There is an urgent need to train staff in Chinese tertiary institutions about distance education. This training would benefit from adopting a competency model that was P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 501–512, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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tailor made for Chinese distance education professionals. According to the literature, previous relevant Chinese studies have focused on the analysis of distance instructor roles and competencies (Zhao, 1998; Li, 2000; Ying, 2003; Yingqin, 2008). These issues are important but they do not address the full raft of issues. Previous studies focused upon distance teachers and tutors. However, it is recognized that the competencies needed by these two differ from their corresponding roles in traditional education. Furthermore the delivery of instruction and the creation of a learning environment are highly dependent upon the technology employed. Additionally, studies on the competency model are considered more influential because results provide more systematic reference for staff training and human resource management. Then need for a competency model is a core concept of human resource management, which enables effective work analysis. Mclagan (1983) points out that the competency model is a tool for making decisions about what are the essential competencies to carry out work. Dubois (1993) emphasizes that the use of the competency model shows a high correlation with performance and states those competencies in the model can demonstrate skills required, related to the role, function and the environment of the organization. O'Rourke (1993) was one of the first academics to analyze the functions and competencies needed by an entire distance education program. By analyzing functions and relevant posts required in running a distance education program he was able to define six essential competency categories: leadership, administrative skills, teaching and course development, teaching/tutoring/student support, logistics coordination, research and evaluation. Several studies undertaken at the Texas A & M University have taken this research a step further and followed the popular competency model initiated by the American Society for Training and Development as the research paradigm (McLagan, 1983). This paradigm assumes professional competencies should be divided into two categories: general and role-specific competencies. Following this paradigm, Thach (1995) employed the Delphi technique to define the competency model for distance education in higher education using. Ten general competencies and eleven roles for distance education were defined in this study. Williams (2003) following Thach’s methodology was able to identify 13 roles and 30 general competencies necessary to underpin effective distance education higher education. Egan and Akdere (2005) modified the methodology by the inclusion of student-practitioner perspectives, instead of expert opinion, to define the competency model. They noted that the highest rated competencies gave technical expertise a higher ranking that had the previous studies by Williams (2003). Considering the imperative for establishing a whole of country training system for Chinese distance education professionals, this study focused on competency models to identify more systematic competencies needed and to provide a foundation for follow-up research on the competency of the distance education professional. It is recognized that the competency model may differ from region to region as a result of difference in culture and management models. The intention was to design a competency model that would fit distance education in Chinese higher education. The research questions were: 1. What roles and competencies are necessary in distance higher education according to Chinese experts? 2. How do experts in distance education rank the importance of these competencies?

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2 Method The Delphi method has been widely applied in the research on distance education competency models (Thach 1994; Dooley & Linder 2002, Williams 2003; Egan 2005, Nelson 2006). Delphi provides a reasonable means to achieve consensus across vast distances when time and funding are limited. The literature has defined the Delphi method as: involvement of a relatively small group of participants; anonymity of participants; multiple rounds of survey; and reporting of group results to individual participants. The literature indicates that the Delphi method avoids some disadvantages of face-to-face group discussions (Isaac & Michael, 1995). Delphi is “aimed at producing critical examinations and discussion, not at forcing a quick compromise” (Turoff & Hiltz, 1996, Cantù 2010). However, the duration of Delphi rounds will influence levels of deep involvement. Experts with some specific opinions may tend to agree with the statement accepted by most, instead of insisting on their own idea. In some cases individual beliefs may be maintained but for the sake of progress an expert may take on the consensus statement. In addition, the basic requirement for defining the competency model is to have a macro understanding of the field. This is often interpreted as a reason to include a high percentage of academics. There is some likelihood that academics may tend to gloss over some elements that practitioners may identify as important. The researchers addressed this issue by facilitating a face to face group discussion among practice expert as a way to verify the results of the Delphi. The researchers designed a three stage study: Stage 1: A Delphi process, largely consisting of academics, to define the model Stage 2: Face to face group discussion to verify and refine the model Stage 3: Questionnaire survey to explore the structure of general competency Stage 1: Delphi 22 experts were invited to form a Delphi. The three criteria were that participants must: z Have considerable experience or have made a notable contribution to the field; z Hold a relevant position within a famous organization in the field; and z Be willing to participate. A candidate list of potential panelists was identified by way of a review of the pertinent research and professional literature and by way of recommendation. 19 experts from the expert panel took part in all four rounds of the Delphi process. In the round-one survey, we provided the expert panel with fourteen roles with concrete descriptions which had been derived from the distance education literature and from interviews with thirty-three practitioners. The experts were asked to define the necessary roles that will define tertiary distance education over next five years. They could support or reject the roles provided or to make modifications to each role description. Roles could also have been added. During round two, panelists revised the thirteen roles, and nominated competences they thought would be necessary for each role over the ensuing five years. Nominations were selected from a menu of seventy-four competencies. If required panelists were free to add competencies not on the menu. General competencies were

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generated by ranking the number of times each competency was nominated. In round three, following the Williams’ study, experts were instructed to rate the competencies on scales of criticality and frequency. Round four required the participants to review their rating of each item in comparison with the group median. The final two rounds achieved the selection and ranking of role-specific competencies. Stage 2: Face to Face Group Discussion Members of the panel were selected according to three criteria, namely that the candidate: z Plays any one of six key roles in an influential distance teaching university or school in China; z Is highly regarded within the profession; and z Is willing to participate. Stage 2 provided the opportunity for practitioners to confirm the results achieved via the Delphi. Confirmation was sought for the following roles: decision-maker, senior manager, course manager, instructor, tutor and researcher. Though technology expert are also defined as the key role, but it is a pity that we didn’t invite appropriate person. The final participants are selected by three criteria: 14 excellent practitioners from China Central Radio and TV University, School of Distance Learning in Beijing Normal University, School of Distance Learning in Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Cyber Educational College of The People's University of China, and including 2 decision-makers, 3 senior managers, 3 course managers, 1 instructor, 2 tutors and 3 researchers, formed the panel. The first task was to familiarize the panel with the Delphi results. Once they had digested those they were required to verify, or to suggest changes to, the competency model. Following the reaching of a consensus the panel moved to a deep discussion of the definition, functions, tasks, competencies and trends of six roles using the DACUM method. The panel defined the DACUM work analysis chart attached to each role. The DACUM was then used to review the model itself. Stage 3: Questionnaire Survey The online questionnaire survey, based on the competency model as revised in stage two, was administered so as to investigate the competency requirements and levels of practice of tertiary distance education in China. The institutions involved included: China Central Radio and TV University, Radio and TV University, Shanghai Radio and TV University, Xiamen Radio and TV University, School of Distance Learning in Beijing Normal University, Cyber Educational College of The People's University of China, School of Distance Learning in Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing Normal University, and Shanghai Normal University. The respondents were selected according to three criteria. Namely that the respondent: z Was employed in a post related to any one of roles defined in the competency model; Had been employed in that relevant post for at least two years: and z Was willing to participate. 254 respondents, including 37 decision-makers, 49 senior managers, 38 course managers, 30 instructors, 48 tutors, 40 researchers and 12 teaching administrators,

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completed the survey. The data was analyzed HOW WAS THIS DONE???? to inform the structure of general competency in the model.

3 Results Research Question 1: What Roles and Competencies are Necessary in Distance Education in Higher Education According to Chinese Experts? In the first round of the Delphi, the categories of roles in distance education were analyzed. The expert panel was instructed to review a preliminary list of fourteen roles based on the literature and the interview results related to role description. As in the Williams (2003) and Egan (2005) studies, the role of administrator was split into two distinct roles: decision-maker and senior manager. For the purposes of this study instructor was divided into two concrete roles: instructor and tutor. The roles of site facilitator, trainer and evaluation specialist mentioned in those studies were revoked and integrated into other roles in this study. Furthermore the relevant description and name of some roles were altered. Finally, thirteen roles were defined after the second round. These were: decision-maker, senior manager, instruction designer, instructor, tutor, researcher technology expert, technology developer, learning resource manager, teaching administrator, art designer, technology supporter, and product publisher. When the competency model was reviewed by the practice experts, the definition of instruction was altered to course manager, emphasizing the function of project management as well as instruction design. Additionally, minor revisions were integrated into the model. The final definitions are given in Table 1. In round two of Delphi, experts were required to distribute 74 competencies by judging whether the competency would be necessary to the role over a five year period. The nomination multiples were recorded as one criterion of general competency and specific competency. If the nomination multiples of some competency exceeded half of the whole and panel agreed it is necessary for every role, then it was defined as a general competency. The nomination multiples of each competency of each role were noted. If the nomination multiple of one competency was over 78% and it did not belong to general competency, it was regarded as the specific competency of the role. In this way competencies were divided into two categories. These were the general competency, which was an essential part of each role, and the role-specific competency, which was decided by the definition and function of that role. The Delphi expert panel finally produced sixteen general competencies. These general competencies were increased to seventeen by way of the face to face group discussion. Seventeen general competencies were sorted into five categories, namely: instruction design (D), learning support (L), technology (T), professional research (R), and cooperation and communication (C). Furthermore, factor analysis of fixed number was employed. This was based on the online questionnaire, which was designed according to the above seventeen general competencies. The result showed that when four factors are needed, the factor matrix resulting from orthogonal rotation match with the assumption very well. Further factor analysis resulted in the merger of T and C. This result shows that technology competency (T) and collaboration and

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communication competency (C) are the essential core competency required by professionals in distance education. This category was defined as a soft competency. The factor analysis divided general competencies into four categories as shown in Table 2. A pattern of loadings on each factor was employed and the rotation result showed the loadings on the above four competency factors were respectively 25.849%, 22.985%, 14.957%, and 12.818%. Table 1. Essential Role in Distance Higher Education in China

Roles

Role Description

Being in charge of planning and decision for the whole organization, leading and facilitating the plan implementing, making policy and system for organization or a great project. Senior Being in charge of organizing, managing, quality ensuring of a sector or a manager project, including planning and organizing the necessary staff training. Being in charge of program planning, making course syllabus supporting by Course course team, organizing course design and development, supervising and manager managing the teaching process. Being responsible for the design and development of course, also giving Instructor suggestions on syllabus making as a subject expert. Being in charge of supporting learner’s course learning, such as correcting Tutor students’ homework, answering the questions, connecting students to make sure they are keeping up with the course learning process, and so on. Be in charge of performing relevant research for improvement and innovation of distance education practice, including studying on the basic principle and Researcher practice method, exploring new media application, evaluating projects and systems, and making corresponding action plan for improvement, etc. It also giving training to staffs if needed. Technology Being in charge of developing, training, consulting service, evaluation and Expert problem resolving about technology. Being in charge of developing the media materials, tools and technology Technology environment required by courses, supporting technology problem-solving Developer sometimes. Learning Being in charge of managing all kinds of learning resources provided by Resource distance teaching institution, and supporting students to search and use Manager resources for their learning. Being in charge of administering teaching affairs and students affairs, such as Teaching recruiting students, arranging exams, dealing with scholarship and financial Administrator aid things, and so on. Being in charge of art design of all the learning materials and medias used in Art Designer course according to the teaching goals. Being in charge of providing technology support for instructors and students, Technology especially problem-solving of equipment and software. It also provides Supporter students training on technology using if needed. Being in charge of the products publication of distance education programs, Product courses as well as other works, say textbook and courseware, developed by Publisher courses team. Decisionmaker

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Table 2. General Competencies Necessary in Distance Higher Education in China

Category Instruction Design Learner Support Professional Research Soft Skills

Competencies General educational concept and theory, knowledge of current distance teaching technology and resource, pedagogy knowledge and learning theory Knowledge of distance teaching and learning, knowledge of distance learners, knowledge of support services, adult learning theory Basic concepts and theories about distance education, knowledge of the history and practice of distance education, resource accessing skills Collaboration / Teamwork skills, team spirit, writing skills, technology sense, Office technology using skills, Learning skills, Problem-solving skills

The results enabled the design of a competency model of distance education in China. (Figure 1)

Product Publisher Technology Supporter

Decisionmaker

Senior

manager Specific Competency Course manager

S Art Designer Teaching Administrator

Instructor

General Competency D

L

R

Tutor

Learning Researcher

Resource

Manager Technology Technology Developer Expert

Fig. 1. Competency Model of Distance Higher Education in China

Note: The loadings of each category for general competency had been taken into consideration when developing this figure.

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Research Question 2: How Do Experts in Distance Education Rate the Importance of the Competencies? In round three of Delphi, experts were invited to evaluate general competencies and role-specific competencies according to the scales of criticality and frequency. In order to move toward consensus, panelists were asked to review their ratings in the fourth round. If the ratings were greatly different, the panelists were given the opportunity to either change their rating or support their position with comments. This technique is central to Delphi and results in movement toward consensus and a clarification of minority viewpoints. Table 3. Key Competencies for Role of Distance Higher Education in China

Role

Key Role-specific Competency

Decisionmakers Senior manager

Policy decision-making skills, action planning making skills, policy understanding skills, interpersonal communication skills

Course manager Instructor Tutor Researcher Teaching administrator Technology expert Technology developer Technology supporter Learning resource manager Art designer Product publisher

Managing skills, project managing skills, organizing skills Project managing skills, needs analysis skills, knowledge of instructional design, courseware designing skills, learning environment designing skills, interactivity technology designing skills, online teaching system designing skills, subject matter knowledge Subject matter knowledge, knowledge of instruction design, questioning skills, feedback skills, instruction evaluation skills Consulting skill, feedback skills, facilitating discuss skills, questioning skill, subject matter knowledge Research methodology, generalization skills, statistical analysis skills, innovation skills, valuation skills, cognitive psychology theory, technology researching and developing skills Managing skills Technology integration skills, knowledge about technology standards, courseware developing skills , computer hardware skills Web program skill, multimedia material developing skills, knowledge about technology standards, net pages developing skills, database skills, knowledge about computer hardware, multimedia material acquisition skills, knowledge about software engineering Knowledge about computer hardware, equipment maintenance skills Knowledge about knowledge management, library management skills Graph designing skills. format designing skills, multimedia material acquisition skills Marketing skills, social skills, knowledge on knowledge property

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The professional research category won the highest points from among the general competencies, and collaboration skills, from the soft competencies, was second. The second ranking that was given to knowledge of supporting service in the category of learner support provided a strong indication that distance education was regarded by Chinese as some kind of service business. Those soft competencies related to technology ranked towards the middle, indicating its importance to the field of distance education. Ratings of learner support and instructional design were lower on the evaluation results than was expected. This study revealed new competency items and different rankings from that found by Williams (2003). This study added the professional research category and defined soft competencies including some competencies from communication/interaction and the technology category from the Williams’ study. In addition competencies in management were not nominated as a general competency by the Chinese experts, yet these were emphasized in the US study. Among the thirty competencies in Williams’ study, there are nine competencies related to management, taking 30% of the whole. These differences can be attributed to differences in practice but also relate to different research design. The results obtained in Delphi are also reviewed and modified in our face to face group discussion. As a result of our analysis, the key competencies for each role, is summarized in Table 3. Compared with the corresponding results of Williams, we found there are not too many notable differences in the role-specific competency of most similar roles except three roles, namely instructor, tutor and technology expert.

4 Conclusions This study is the first comprehensive research project about the professional competencies for Chinese professionals in distance higher education and explored the competency model though analyzing the whole field instead of focusing on some specific roles. The competency model developed from the study includes thirteen professional roles, seventeen general competencies, key role-specific competencies and includes ranking of competencies. The study employed a modified form of the classic method for competency model determination. In particular, Chinese academics and expert practitioners, were harnessed to define the competency model of distance education in higher education. Whereas earlier US studies had relied on a Delphi methodology, this study added face to face group discussion and a questionnaire survey to examine and improve the competency model established by the Delphi panel. The researchers believe that the competency model provides an all-around description of competency requirements for a professional field which can be a foundation of staff training and human management. Additionally, the researchers support the claim by Thach and Murphy (1995) and Williams (2003) that the requirement for the professional roles and competencies are influenced by changes in new technology and management applied in distance education. This means that the articulation of

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professional roles and competencies, and indeed the competency model itself, need to be verified and adjusted regularly. In recent years, there have been two trends in technology application within tertiary distance education in China. One is the use of technology to construct individual and flexible learning environment. Technology applications, such as intelligent learning agents, automated response systems, instant mobile messaging, and virtual world construction and use. All applications are beginning to be used to support the distance learning process, especially for providing administrative and academic support to the distance learner. Second is to use of technologies to promote and facilitate the social construction of knowledge and meaning. Web2.0 technologies including YouTube, FaceBook, Twitter, blog, tagging, RSS, social bookmarking, wiki, and SNS, are receiving more and more attention (Lampe 2006) (Gabor 2007) (Duffy 2008) (Yong 2008) (Hart 2008) (Walther 2009) (Makevich 2010). Considering all these above changes, the roles and competencies related to technology or influenced by technology need further review. The related roles’ role-specific competency and the rank of those competencies may have changed. Roles that rely heavily on technology to teaching and to support learning should to be reviewed since they have to adapt and master new technologies and probably new pedagogies. Changes in technological application have not influenced the basic structure of the competency model defined by this study. Most new technologies are not widely used and most are just at the research stage in tertiary distance education in China. Notwithstanding that the fact is that these technologies are creeping into informal learning and traditional education systems in China (Glenn 2008). Print, radio and TV continue to dominate distance education. The model defined by this research describes the macro and middle-level requirement for professionals, which will keep it more stable. Regular micro-level research on each role’s specific competencies is needed to complement this research. It is argued that the competency model defined in this study provides a useful reference for current practice. Further research is also needed to examine the suitability of this model to the other distance education systems, including secondary education and company distance training.

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Hybrid Learning and New Development of “IT in Education” Theory Kekang He Modern Educational technology institute, Beijing normal university [email protected]

Abstract. This article describes a new meaning of the Hybrid Learning (also known as the Blending Learning or Blended Learning), pointing out that the new meaning to be proposed and be widely recognized shows that the educational ideas of current international educational circles is undergoing a profound change, but also is an important symbol for further development of the “IT in Education” theory. Author from the following four aspects: reflecting the main theoretical basis of “IT in Education” theory, deepening of understanding on “IT in Education”, constructing the theory of “integrating IT into the curriculum”, and expansion of instructional design theory in the informationization’s environment, analyzed the significant impact to the “IT in Education” theory development in-depth, which impact is generated by this profound change of educational idea caused by Hybrid Learning. Keywords: Hybrid Learning; IT in Education; Constructivism; Integrating IT in to the Curriculum; Instructional design.

1 The Popular Background of Hybrid-Learning’s New Meaning Since the 21st century, with the E-Learning-related international conferences and with “IT in Education” related publications, a concept called Hybrid Learning (also known as Blending Learning, Blended Learning or abbreviated it as a B-Learning) is increasingly popular. Strictly speaking, Hybrid Learning (or B-Learning) cannot be regarded as a new concept, because this statement had been made years ago. However, the reason why the concept be concerned in recent years, and be growing popularity, was because it was given a new meaning (this new meaning is closely related to the “IT in Education” theory’s development in-depth), so we may see it as a “new wine in old bottles” a new concept. As we all know, “Hybrid” meaning of the word is a blending or mixture, Original Hybrid Learning (or Blending Learning) import is a hybrid of learning ways or a combination of learning ways, that is, a combination of two or more learning ways. For example, the use of audio-visual media (slide projector, audio and video recording) combined with the application of traditional chalk blackboard learning ways; computer-assisted learning way combined with traditional learning modes; selflearning style combined with collaborative learning approach; and so on. Into the 21st century, with the popularity of the Internet and E-Learning development, based on summing-up the practical experience of network education nearly a P. Tsang et al. (Eds.): ICHL 2010, LNCS 6248, pp. 513–531, 2010. © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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decade, the international educational circles use the original basic concept of Hybrid Learning (or Blending Learning) , but give it a new kinds of meaning: The so-called Hybrid Learning (or Blending Learning) is to combine the advantage of traditional learning ways with the advantage of E-Learning (i.e. digital or Webbased Learning) ways; In other words, it is necessary to bring teacher into play the leading role of guiding, enlightening, and monitoring in teaching process, but also fully to embody the activity, enthusiasm and creativity of students as the main body in learning process. The consensus of current international educational circles is that only these two is combined so that the two complement each other, we can get the best possible learning effects. From this new meaning of Hybrid Learning can be seen that, this concept has been re-submit, not only have reflected the international educational circles turn around to the view of learning way, and have reflected international educational circles’ big change on educational idea and teaching concept. On the surface, this change seems to indicate that the current educational circles’ educational idea and teaching concept is returning to previous, is a nostalgic; But to be rising according to the screw type in substance, indicating people’s cognition is deepening , is raising, and indicating that the “IT in Education” theory is developing unceasingly forward. In short, currently international educational circles are experiencing a great historic change from thought to concept. Clear understanding of this great change in the implications and influence for accomplishing our current and future research work has an extremely important guiding significance. For this purpose, We need to do a brief retrospect the history of the past decade so as to through the historical background of forming the new meaning of Hybrid Learning to really understand the social basis and its inevitability of generating this great change in education field, and get a deeper understanding of the significance and its far-reaching influence about this great change in educational ideas, so that we can more consciously and actively engage in the contemporary floods of educational revolution and make our useful contribution. Otherwise, if we look at this great change in the meaning and impact of unclear, still handle affairs according to outworn concept , old rule and regulation , it may less effective or even counterproductive——you subjectively want to change and objectively has become a stumbling block on the current educational revolution. As we all know, in the early nineties, the educational circles of United States had “whether the universities having campus will be replaced by the universities without campus (i.e. network academy)?” this issue of intense debate. In the mid-nineties before, the sides of the debate (the “replace’s theorists” and the “anti-replace’s theorists”) each sticks to his own viewpoint, who is also persuaded without end who. This field debate is arousing very big echo not only in USA, there are also a number of responders in the international arena (including China), forming two different views, and long at loggerheads. But after international educational circles (especially educational circles of USA) engaged in the practice on network education nearly a decade, go deep to summing up the beneficial experience establishing the network academy also absorbing the lesson in this process carefully, finally know that “replacing theory” is one kind of excessively extreme single-faceted viewpoint, and thus gradually to achieve a new common view.

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By December 2000 , in the “White Paper on Educational Technology in the United States” [1] [2] drafted by the contemporary well-known education experts and educational informationization experts from the United States, the following viewpoints, “E-Learning can achieve some educational goals very good, but cannot replace the tradition classroom teaching”, and “E-Learning be able not to replace traditional school education, but it will dramatically change the purpose and function of classroom teaching”, have occupied the dominant position. Such has established a basis for putting forward the new meaning of Hybrid Learning in American (even in the whole world range).

2 Hybrid Learning——An Important Symbol of the “IT in Education” Theory Development in Depth From the popular background of Hybrid Learning’s new meaning we can see that this concept has been re-submit and its new meaning is gaining popularity, does not only reflect the international education circles has changed their views on the learning ways ,more reflected international education circles’ major change on the educational ideas and teaching concepts. As mentioned above, On the surface, this change seems to indicate that the current educational circles’ educational idea and teaching concept is returning to previous, is a nostalgic; But to be rising according to the screw type in substance, indicating people’s cognition is deepening , is raising, and indicating that the “IT in Education” theory is developing unceasingly forward. That is to say, this phenomenon——Hybrid Learning uses a whole new meaning and has been renewed attention to again, on the one hand indicates international education circles is experiencing another great historic change from thought to concept; on the other hand is also an important symbol of that the “ICT in Education” theory is developing in depth. Due to the development and change marked by the new meaning of Hybrid Learning is first embodied in the educational idea and teaching concept of change, while the educational idea and teaching concept are the foundation stone on which everything educational theory , teaching method and tactics, instructional design, teaching practice rely for forming and developing. Therefore, the all aspects of development about the contemporary theory and practice on “IT in Education”, including the theoretical basis of the “IT in Education”, right understanding the connotation of “IT in Education”, integrating IT into the curriculum, and instructional design in the informationization environment and so on, are all marked with the stamps of Hybrid Learning. Here we will from the following four aspects: “reflecting on constructivism, the main theoretical basis of IT in education”, “deepening comprehension of IT in Education”, “constructing the theory of integrating IT into curriculum” and “expanding the theory of instructional design in the informationization environment”, analysis the significant impact produced by the big change of educational idea and teaching concept, which is caused by Hybrid Learning.

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2.1 Reflecting on Constructivism, the Main Theoretical Basis of IT in Education Is generally believed that constructivism theory has been over half a century ago by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky and other scholars laid, but this theory began a worldwide epidemic and have a growing influence, is the 20th century, after the nineties things. And generally accepted that the reason of the constructivism rising in the present age is closely related to the gradual spread of multimedia and network (particularly Internet). It is multimedia and network technology provide a strong material support to the ideal learning environment advocated by constructivism, makes it possible to achieve, then constructivism theory walks out of the psychologist's “ivory tower”, has begun to enter the classroom at all levels, types of schools as a support for multimedia and network teaching and as an important theoretical basis of integrating IT into curriculum. Can be said that constructivism has today's brilliant, which is inseparable from the multimedia and network technology (especially Internet) for their support. Conversely, the contemporary “multimedia teaching”, “network education” and “integrating IT into the curriculum” the reason why there is such a huge global impact, but also it is inseparable from the constructivism theory’s guidance. Especially in informationization teaching environment (i.e. using multimedia or network technology to support teaching environment), through the constructivism theory’s correct guidance, indeed can effectively cultivate an innovative spirit, innovative ability and cooperative spirit, cooperative ability of adolescent; The innovative spirit, innovative ability and cooperative spirit, cooperative ability is precisely the requisite talented persons in the 21st century should have the most important qualities ——It has become a basic consensus of the international education circles. Because of this, therefore, from the early nineties to the mid and late nineties, i.e. from constructivism began to rise to it to reach its peak, Western scholars (including some Chinese scholars) on the constructivism are generally actively promoted, widely praised and strongly supported. It should be said, this attitude is not wrong, at least their starting point is to enable innovative talents to better and more effective training. But with the change of international education circles’ ideas, and the new meaning of Hybrid Learning has been widely recognized, in the West (particularly in the United States) the education circles, from senior executives of educational administration department to general scholars and teachers in recent years, sent a discord voice about constructivism (before that, for constructivism, we are from the West, especially from the United States often hear a word of praise): At the beginning there is a bit different views or some critical words, later on developing into increasingly sharp criticism. For this change, Chinese scholars also quickly respond: Someone was agreed, someone was confused, and more scholars to take this opportunity conduct a more sober observation and a deeper level of thinking about the development of IT in education at home and abroad over the past decade. We believe that this latter approach is more correct. Indeed, we should take advantage of the opportunity of current domestic and international educational circles’ ideas great change, with Hybrid Learning’s new meaning to the broad popular, contact the reality of educational informationization theory and application in recent years, make a serious reflection on constructivism in order to sober mind, raise awareness, so as to more consciously engaged in the educational reform practice, more active and take the initiative to push on the current process of educational informationization.

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For the purpose of reflection on constructivism, at least should consider the following two aspects (these issues both are related with the Hybrid Learning): 2.1.1 The Constructivism’s Educational Idea in the End Is “Student Centered” or “Combination of Teacher-led and Student-Autonomy”? Constructivist in West are often talked about his idea in the teaching process is “student centered”, namely, It is the same strain with Dewey's “child-centered” educational idea. In traditional teaching, teachers play a leading role, at the same time often overlooked embodiment of the students’ main body position in the learning process. The more a teacher-led, the more passive students, it is a “teacher centered” educational idea. Just the reverse, western constructivism only the emphasis on student-centered, often ignores the teacher's leading role, towards the other extreme. We think that the right educational idea should be to put the two ideas together, that is not a “teacher-centered”, or “student-centered”, but it is necessary to bring into fully play the leading role of teachers, but also to embody fully the students’ main body position in the learning process. In other words, we should be to combine the leading role of teachers and students’ main body position, and referred to as “combination of teacher-led and student-autonomy” educational ideas (this is a “Hybrid”). In fact, when we introduce the West constructivism into China, it is not to blindly follow in this issue, but the combination of China's national conditions to creatively develop and apply. I had visited several good primary and secondary schools in California, the United States. Listening to them a second-grade math class. Teachers rarely talk about; mainly let the students themselves to learn on computer. There are many computing example of four arithmetic operations in computer, and computer can automatically score. The teacher conducts counseling only when a student questioned. I think this classroom teaching is not necessarily the most advantageous to students because such a student-centered, and did not play the leading role of the teacher. In fact, the constructivism’s instructional design has two parts: One part is the design of learning environment, and another part is the design of self-learning strategy. Learning environmental design requires designed to provide an environment conducive to the students construct their own knowledge. A good environment, for example, to create the learning situation related to the subject matter, to provide the necessary information resources and organize the cooperative learning, etc. Can be seen, the learning environment is to promote the external conditions of learning, is an external factor. On the other hand, as the core of constructivism theory is learners’ “self-construction”, which requires learners should have a high degree of initiative and enthusiasm to learn. How to mobilize the initiative and enthusiasm? This depends on self-learning strategies, including scaffolding, anchored, random access, heuristics, self-feedback and so on. These self-learning strategies can effectively stimulate the initiative and enthusiasm of students, so they are the internal factors for inducing students to self-study, and self-construction. Constructivism instructional design (also known as student-centered or learningbased instructional design), in short, is to seize two parts of the internal and external factors. In fact, any one aspect of these two parts if want to be implemented, are

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inseparable from the leading role of teachers. Such as learning environment design usually consists of “creation of learning situation”, “provision of information resources”, “organization of cooperative learning” and other links. The study of poetry, for example, require students to understand the poem's meaning, artistic conception, this requires to create the environment and atmosphere related to the poems, so that students with immersive feeling, in order to communicate with the author's soul. Who rely on the creation of such a situation? Cannot be created by the students themselves, must be completed by teachers. The same is true of the provision of information resources, there are tremendous amount of information on Internet, garbage and obscene content are also many. The teacher in advance if do not go to carefully selected, not to lead his students into the related disciplines site on Internet , it will certainly waste a lot of time, and did not learn anything useful to many. Another example is the cooperative learning (constructivism has been emphasizing cooperative learning). Cooperative Learning has many ways: discussion, debate, competition, role-playing, etc. To discuss, as an example, around what themes to discuss, how to propose the initial problem, how to raise the follow-up questions in order to deepen the discussion a step by step, and not be entangled in irrelevant question wasting time, etc., which have to rely on teachers to go design, that is, teachers should play a leading role. As for the design of self-learning strategy, because strategy must be suitable for the learner's cognitive characteristics and the existing level of knowledge, that is, to consider the teaching according to the student's ability, so it cannot do without the leading role of teachers. Can be seen, despite the West constructivists claim the student-centered’s educational idea, but every aspect of constructivism instructional design to truly implement, the leading role of teachers is indispensable. Therefore, “to play fully the leading role of teachers” and “to embody fully the students’ main body position in the learning process” are not contradictory. They wholly can be unified in the constructivism learning environment and can be unified under the guidance of the new educational idea. Under the guidance of this new educational idea (namely, “combination of teacherled and student-autonomy” educational idea), teachers play the leading role in how well? Was enough to play? Verification depending on what? Depends on the embodiment of students’ main body position—— due to now the leading role of the teachers is not only refers to the content of explanation, inspiration to students and guide, but also including the creation of situations, provision of information resources, organization of cooperative learning, and guidance of problembased learning as well as the design of self-learning strategies, etc. therefore, in this case, if teachers play a leading role in the more fully, the students’ main body position in the learning process will be also embodied in the more full. This is the ideal state to be pursued by the new educational idea of “combination of teacher-led and studentautonomy” 2.1.2 The Epistemology as a Philosophical Foundation of Constructivism in the End is “the Subjectivism” or “the Unity of Subjectivism and Objectivism”? The western constructivism, in order to seek anti-tradition, has always claimed that the epistemology as a philosophical foundation of constructivism is purely subjectivism. Is well known that cognitive learning theory suggests that people's knowledge is

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not simply the product of external stimuli, but external stimuli and internal mental process result of the interaction; while the internal mental process refers to interest, hobbies, attitudes, needs of the cognitive subject, as well as the original cognitive structure of the cognitive subject. This shows that cognitivism’s epistemology is to emphasize the unity of subjectivity (internal mental process) and objectivity (external stimulus). Western constructionists in order to draw a dividing line between the constructivism’s learning theory and the cognitive learning theory, so as to create a separate flag, they have clearly declared their epistemology belongs to a subjectivism. For example, in 1992 David H.Jonassen, the main representative of the contemporary constructionists had drawn a two-dimensional graphic shown in Figure 1 [3], it is used to illustrate that the different ways of teaching and learning are supported by the different kinds of learning theory and epistemology.

Constructivism Motor skills

Cognitive tools

Behavioris

Cognitivism Programmed instruction teaching

Intelligent Tutoring Systems

Objectivism Fig. 1.

Abscissa axis in Figure1 expresses the learning theory, cognitivism and behaviorism represent the two extremes (one emphasizes to study internal mental process, another emphasizes to study the Apparent behavior; Vertical axis expresses epistemology, constructivism and objectivism represents the two extremes of epistemology. According to Jonassen’s view point [4], “we construct meaning for objects and events by interpreting our perceptions of them in terms of our past experiences, beliefs, and biases, then each of us mentally represents our own personal reality.…… because each person's experiences and resulting apperceptions are different”, so each person's reality is different. Our personal world is created by the mind, so no one world is any more real than any other. People's thinking is only a tool, whose basic role is to explain things and events, these explanations constitute their different knowledge base of each cognitive subject. In other words, knowledge is in the process of interaction between learners and the environment to rely on personal experience of self-construction, is a purely subjective and individualized thing, it cannot be taught by teachers, so students in the learning process must be in the center position. Jonassen believes that this is the basic connotation of constructivism’s epistemology, which is developing toward the direction of opposed to the objectivism [3]. We all know, the objectivism of philosophy is a basic category of epistemology, the objectivists argue that the world is real, structured, and this structure can be recognized, so exists a reliable knowledge about the objective world. The role of the

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human thinking is to reflect the objective reality and its structure, and thus to obtain the meaning (i.e., knowledge) is relatively stable, and there are objective criteria to judge the authenticity of knowledge. Because of this, knowledge is possible through teacher's “teaching” passed to the students. As in the teaching process the teacher hold the standard of knowledge, and is the transmitter of knowledge, so objectivist think that teacher should be in the center position of the teaching process. Jonassen using two-dimensional graphic in Figure 1 is to show: The epistemology of programmed instruction is objectivism, and its learning theory is behaviorism; The epistemology of ITS (intelligent tutoring system) is also objectivism, while its learning theory is cognitivism; The epistemology of motor skill learning is constructivism, and its learning theory is behaviorism; The epistemology of using cognitive tools to learn is constructivism, while its learning theory is cognitivism. From the two-dimensional graphic (constructivism and objectivism located in the opposite ends), combined with the basic connotation of an objectivism’s epistemology, and the viewpoint of Jonassen , we can clearly see that: The so-called constructivism’s epistemology is pure subjectivism’s epistemology (The reason why it was “pure”, because it is located in another extreme relative to the objectivism); And objectivism is the epistemological foundation of all the “teacher-centered” teaching ways, while constructivism (its epistemology is subjectivism) is the epistemological foundation of all “student-centered” teaching ways. Represented by Jonassen, through two-dimensional graphic shown in Figure 1 reflected the Western constructivism viewpoint, in the early nineties (1992), the time has just been proposed in the international community had been a smash hit, in our country also has a big impact——“student-centered” to become an international and Chinese education circles the most advanced and fashionable slogan is a proof. Due to students are the main body of learning process, the purpose of “teaching” is to promote “learning”, teacher should be the organizer, director of teaching process, the helper, facilitator of students’ self-constructing meaning process; Teachers should not be pulling students’ nose walk, but should inspire and guide students to selflearning so that students truly become the masters of learning, instead of “passive recipients of external stimuli” .From this sense, the emphasis on “student-centered” and there is nothing wrong. However, as shown in Figure 1, the two-dimensional graphic, as well as the above analysis, we can see that, represented by Jonassen the West constructivists, they emphasized student-centered is not this meaning. As mentioned above, their student-centered is based on pure subjectivism’s epistemological foundation, namely, believe that “knowledge is in the process of interaction between learners and the environment rely on personal experience, selfconstruction, is purely subjective and individualized things, it cannot be taught by teachers, so students in the learning process must be located in the center position.” Because of this subjectivism’s epistemology completely deny the objectivity of knowledge, denial of knowledge that can be taught, therefore, a complete denial of the teacher's role —— not only denied the teacher’s leading role in the teaching process, even the most basic “preaching, imparting, disabusing” function also be denied. But, as the last section of the argument, and even advocated by constructivists instructional design (also known as student-centered instructional design) itself, each aspect of implementation of student-centered instructional design are inseparable from the teachers to play leading role (otherwise This instructional design would be

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meaningless), not to mention the “preaching, imparting, disabusing”, the teaching of these basic functions. In fact, constructivism is originally a branch of cognitivism, its philosophical foundation and cognitivism should be the same —— both emphasized the combination of subjectivity (internal mental processing process) and objectivity (external stimulation), that is “the unity of subjectivism and objectivism” epistemology (which is another kind of Hybrid). The mentioned here subjectivity or objectivity, as noted, does not mean the constructing meaning process of knowledge by the learners (this process is subjective, of course), but refers to the constructed knowledge in learner’s brain (i.e., learner's knowledge and experience system which is stored in learner’s brain to form the cognitive structure) in the end is a subjective or objective. Internal mental processing process and the existing cognitive structure is important, and vary with each individual; but the being determines consciousness, after all, the external stimulation is a source of knowledge, a purely subjective construction of leaving objective things, will fall into the trap of idealism’s agnosticism. Constructivism and Cognitivism, of course, there is a difference, this difference is mainly reflected in the way of mental processing process: Cognitivism emphasis on the way of “information processing”, but do not ignore the role of the existing cognitive structures; Constructivism is concerned about the way of “constructing meaning”—— more emphasis on selfexploration, self-discovery in the role of cognitive processes. Although the understanding of the meaning of objective things (i.e., personal knowledge) and individual experience are related to original cognitive structure, that is subjective; But the meaning of things refers to the nature of things, and the intrinsic link between things, which is an objective, non-transfer of following man's will. Therefore, the individual's knowledge is necessarily a product of the combining subjectivity with the objectivity. This shows that the Western constructivists publicise the subjectivism’s epistemology, and dramatize it as the essential characteristic of constructivism (as the clean break with cognitivism) is completely wrong——not only did not conform to objective facts, but also will lead constructivism to the denial of “lectures, examinations” the basic teaching process, and even lead to a weakening or even deny the role of teachers. This is very dangerous! Because it will lead to the quality of basic education or even the quality of a whole education a significant reduction!! This is not an alarmist. The United States in the late nineties and early 21st century, under the premise of rapid implementation of the educational informationization process, not only failed to enhance the quality of basic education, its education sector's top executives also recognized that there is a greater degree of weakening. Why? of course there is a lot of the reason, but I think the U.S. educational circles has always been thought to the extreme idea of Jonassen and others (That is a subjective epistemology as a philosophical foundation of constructivism such an extreme idea) regarded as a classic, and not only in the United States but also in the whole the world wide spread is to blame. Today, with the new meaning of the Hybrid Learning widely recognized, for the constructivism’s epistemology also went to re- examine the time——Discard pure subjectivism, adhere to “the unity of subjectivism and objectivism” epistemology as own philosophical foundation (in fact, also provide philosophical foundation for the educational idea of “combination of teacher-led and student-autonomy”). This is our conclusion, but also is the only way out to enable the healthy development of constructivism.

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2.2 The Deepening of Understanding on “Information Technology in Education” Educational applications of information technology (IT in Education) or educational applications of information and communication technology (ICT in Education) since 1960's roughly experienced the following three development stages: 2.2.1 The Stage of CAI(computer-assisted instruction) This stage is about from the early 60s to the 80s in mid-and late. Its main feature is the using computer’s fast computing, graphics, animation and simulation functions to assist teachers solving some of the key and difficult in teaching process, and these applications are mostly to demonstrate the CAI courseware. This is the first development stage of IT in Education. At this stage, generally talk about computer education; yet not put forward the concept of information technology education. 2.2.2 The Stage of CAL(computer-assisted learning) This stage is about from the mid-and late 80s to the mid-and late 90s. Its main feature is the gradual shift from the computer-assisted instruction to the computer-assisted learning, namely emphasizes how to use the computer as a tool for assisting students to conduct self-learning. For instance, to help students gather information, arrange learning programs, counseling Q & A, as an equal partner with you to discuss, heartto-heart talk, etc. namely, not only concerned about the use of computer-assisted teaching of teachers, more emphasis on the use of computer-assisted learning of students. This is the second development stage of IT in education. At this stage, computer education and information technology education, two concepts co-exist. 2.2.3 The Stage of IITC(Integrating IT into the Curriculum) This stage is about starting from the mid-and late 90s to the present. Its main feature is that not only a computer as the core of information technology would be used for supporting CAI or CAL, but more emphasis on through integrating information technology into the curriculum (IITC) to create an ideal teaching and learning environment, and new teaching ways and learning ways, thereby completely change the traditional teaching model and teaching structure. This is the third development stage of IT in education. 2.2.4 Deepening Our Understanding on “IT in Education” From the perspective of international trends, the current educational applications of information technology are gradually entering the third development stage. After entering this stage, it stands to reason, information technology is no longer merely a supplementary tool for teaching or learning, but through the effective integration of information technology and the curriculum to create an ideal teaching and learning environment and new teaching ways and learning ways, thus changing the traditional teaching model and teaching structure, truly deepen the reform of school education, to achieve the goal of cultivating innovative talents. However, due to two reasons, whether it is on our domestic or international situation, these requirements and objectives of integrating information technology into the curriculum are currently far from being reached. These two reasons are:

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First, on “integrating information technology into the curriculum” this relates to whether education can deepen the reform of the very important issue, so far the international community has not really developed a relatively scientific, systematic theory to elaborate. This makes teachers no methodicalness to follow, can only be understood by the individual to practice, to explore, resulting in considerable blindness. The majority of teachers’ understanding on the “integrating information technology into the curriculum” still remains in the CAI (computer-assisted instruction) stage, think that as long as the use of computers, with the courseware, or on the Internet is “integrating”. Do not understand the goal, connotation and effective methods of IITC (“Integrating Information Technology into the Curriculum”). Under the guidance in such a confused ideology, the educational applications of information technology not only fail to reach the IITC’s requirements and goals, even the minimum requirement to improve the quality of teaching is also difficult to achieve. Second, the mid to late nineties in the West (especially in the United States) along with the increasing popularity of Internet applications, the WebQuest was in vogue, people mistakenly believe that this is the application of the Internet age of information technology in education, the main mode or the best mode. WebQuest such a learning mode encourages students to revolve around the practical issues of natural world or social life to conduct the independent inquiry, self-discovery; which is a based on problem-solving learning, a based on collaboration and interaction learning, a based on the sharing resources learning. Therefore, it is very beneficial to cultivating students’ innovative spirit and innovative ability. At present, this type of learning as the WebQuest mode, highly respected in the United States and the West, has been regarded as the best mode of the application of information technology in education, so increasingly popular. In the United States’ “National Educational Technology Standards (Third Edition)” revised by the International Association for Educational Technology (ISTE) in 2000, for the effective training of secondary school teachers in information technology and the ability to integrate IT into the curriculum, and the recommended six outstanding teaching cases, there are five belong to the WebQuest this mode [5]. In addition, by well-known magazine “Teaching and Learning” selected out the 10 best educational technology application projects in the United States 2003, also entirely belong to the WebQuest this category [6]. It can be seen that this application mode has a huge influence in the U.S. and West. As the WebQuest emphasize interdisciplinary learning, and is mainly extracurricular research activities, so it may take more time, plus is targeted to a specific practical problems, and thus the grasp of systemic science knowledge is not necessarily superior to classroom teaching; However, if we can take the WebQuest learning mode as a supplement to classroom teaching, and combine the grasp of systemic science knowledge with the cultivation of innovative spirit and innovative ability, it would be great news. Unfortunately, whether domestic or foreign, so far able to do so are not yet many teachers and scholars. The existence of this bias is mainly because people have one-sided understanding in this aspect. For a long time, Chinese and foreign educational circles on the educational applications of information technology, more attention to administration application and information technology education courses itself. Even if there are

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some classroom teaching applications (i.e., to conduct the exploration of IITC), are often focused on information technology in the before class or after school application. (These two kinds of applications can be collectively called the “extra-curricular integration mode” —— WebQuest is a typical and very effective “extra-curricular integration mode”), while the application of information technology in the classroom teaching process (also known as the “Classroom integration mode”) were concerned about the less. It is encouraging that more and more Chinese and foreign educational circles of insight recognize such bias and defects, and began to call for the educational application focus of information technology from other aspects of school education as soon as possible transfer to the main front of the school education —— classroom teaching various subjects, transfer to promote the deepening of school education reform. On the ICCE (International Conference on Computers in Education) held in Hong Kong 2003, we can see that from the general assembly procedures to the proceedings, its prominent theme is The “Second Wave” of ICT in Education: from facilitating teaching and learning to engendering education reform , which is a visible symbol of these changes. In fact, Whether can use IT (or ICT) to optimize education and teaching process, promote education and teaching reform, effectively raise teaching quality of various disciplines and students' ability quality, not only is the attention focus of the international education circles, but also a “bottleneck” of restricting the China's current educational informationization can be sustained and healthy development. Only from the present development state of China's basic educational informationization, in recent years, the hardware facilities, high-speed growth: The number of primary and secondary school campus has increased by nine years, almost 20 times (according to the statistics of Ministry of Education, in October 2000 for the first time held a national working conference on information technology education in primary and secondary schools, had been the establishment of primary and secondary school campus network only about 3000; to by the end of 2009, established the campus network of primary and secondary school, according to incomplete statistics, has reached nearly 60000); And the bandwidth, the speed rate of current primary and secondary schools campus network, has significantly improved, is quite different from ten years ago. But the application status is cause for concern, only from the sampling investigation in the higher level district of the educational informationization development in China in recent years:

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• Among the primary and secondary schools which has been established campus network, 80% of these schools are only used to set up the compulsory course on information technology, there is no other education and teaching application. • Of the remaining 20% of these schools which have been undertaken outside of the application to set up the compulsory course on information technology, in part, is in educational administration (such as the principal office system, electronic library, financial statements, student achievement statistics, etc.); and another part is used for computer-assisted instruction (is basically the use of the multimedia courseware plus PowerPoint).

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• Can really teaching in various disciplines, often carry out integrating information technology into the curriculum to achieve educational reform, thus realize effective improve teaching quality school only about 5% (in fact, in many areas is far below this percentage). Schools’ campus network-building needs a larger investment, “large input should have large output, high investment should have high benefit”. The schools’ output is high-quality talents, the schools’ benefits should be reflected in that the teaching quality of various disciplines and the ability quality of students have increased significantly. At present, the actual situation has a greater distance from this goal—— “large input has no large output, high investment has no high benefit”. The construction of information technology environment (especially the network environment) in many schools failed to promote the deepening education reform, failed to result in the upgrading of various disciplines teaching quality and students’ ability quality in primary and secondary schools (not to mention a significant upgrading). This is currently prevalent problem in the process of educational informationization, is a “bottleneck” which restricts in-depth development of China's educational informationization, is also the key of current various countries’ educational informationization healthy and in-depth development. Classroom teaching is the main front of school education; educational informationization cannot always fight at the periphery, but must face this main front of classroom teaching and make a tenacious assault. In other words, it is necessary to pay attention to the cultivation of students’ innovative spirit and innovative ability (so similar to the WebQuest of these “extra-curricular integration mode” is still active use in the future), but also attach importance to the learning and mastery of systemic science knowledge, to enable students can lay a solid and necessary theoretical foundation (this goal will have to through the “deeplevel integration” of information technology and the classroom teaching of various disciplines, that is, through “classroom integration mode” to complete). Combining these two modes (i.e., “extra-curricular integration mode” and “classroom integration mode”), is the fundamental way for realizing creative talents cultivation. Be also the international education circles in the field of educational informationization to achieve a new consensus——this is another kind of Hybrid. 2.3 Regarding the Construction of IITC Theory Recognizing that the application of information technology in education should face the main front of classroom teaching, should combine “the cultivation of students’ innovative spirit and innovative ability” and “the learning and mastery of systemic science-knowledge” these two sides, which is from an important aspect to show that the international education circles’ education idea and teaching concept is in changing, in enhancing. But if want to carry out this recognition, we have to go through the effective integration of information technology and various disciplines teaching, and this depends on the scientific theory of “integrating information technology into the curriculum” as the guidance. However, as stated in the previous section, so far, on “integrating information technology into the curriculum” this affect the education reform whether can deepen of extremely important issues, the international education circles has not really developed a relatively scientific and systematic theory to elaborate.

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We have look up a large number of Chinese and foreign literature on “integrating information technology into the curriculum”, in an attempt to derive the theory that we need. But, regrettably, the vast majority of such theory is based on lack of argument, that is, unable to grasp the most core issues of “integrating information technology into the curriculum”. So, in the end what is the most core issues of “integrating information technology into the curriculum”? On this issue, as long as to do a questionnaire survey to some primary and secondary school teachers, is not hard to get the answer. The questionnaire is very simple, only need to understand what is the teachers’ greatest concern about the “integrating information technology into the curriculum”. The result is often one of the following three questions: • How should we understand the goal and meaning of “integrating”? (That is, why should we conduct the “integrating”?) • What are the connotation and essence of the “integrating”? (That is, what is the “integrating”?) • Which kind of method and approach should be used to the “integrating”? (That is, how do we effectively conduct the “integrating”?) In other words, “Why?”, “What is this?” and “How to do?” these three issues related to the integrating’s goal and meaning, connotation and essence, method and approach, are most concerned issues by teachers ——These are also the most core issues of “integrating information technology into the curriculum”. Real scientific theory of “integrating information technology into the curriculum” must be able to answer these three issues satisfactorily. 2.3.1 The Theory Exploration about IITC in United States From the present have had access to a large number of the literature on “integrating information technology into the curriculum”, we found that really has a certain reference value, that is, relatively speaking, can make a better answer to the above three core issues, is the third year (2000) report of CEO Forum on Education & Technology in the United States [7]. Since the participants of the Forum members are the CEO of a large IT company or the United States first-rate educational and technical experts, authors of the report are well-known scholars, so the viewpoint of the report should have a greater authority and representation. The CEO Forum on Education & Technology in the United States began by the end of 1997, held once every one to two years, and published an annual report, each annual report related to the field’s hot issues of global education technology. The third year (2000) report is devoted to the issue of “integrating information technology into the curriculum” and made relatively systematic in-depth discussion, the report states: “The key to creating the best possible educational environments in the21st century is the seamless integration of technology, connectivity, content and people throughout the curriculum. ……When integrated effectively into the curriculum by skilled teachers, digital content enables students to seek and manipulate digital information in collaborative, creative and engaging ways that make digital learning possible. ……to create the engaging digital learning

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environments that develop 21st century skills, schools must integrate digital content into the curriculum to promote student learning.” This is the current most authoritative exposition about “integrating information technology into the curriculum” in the United States (also in the world). This exposition involves the goal and connotation of “integrating”: The goal is to develop 21st century skills, i.e. to cultivate the talented person having 21 centuries abilities quality——Can be seen that the exposition is right on the goal, but also very clear; The connotation is to create an engaging digital learning environment——It is also relatively profound, integration is indeed to create an ideal digital teaching and learning environment, to achieve a new way of teaching and learning, but for the specific content of digital learning environment is not to be described in the report. In addition, in order to help school teachers to be more specific implementation of integrating information technology into the curriculum, On the basis of elucidating the goal and connotation of “integrating”, the above-mentioned report also gives the effective method and steps of integration: Step 1——Identify educational goals and link digital content to those objectives; Step 2——Select the student outcomes and performance standards that will be achieved by digital content; Step 3——Measure and evaluate outcomes against standards and adjust accordingly. However, these matter-specific steps, methods, neither involved in the guiding idea, the instruction design, nor do not involve the teaching resources and other important factors in the teaching process. The practice has proved that is not able to help teachers really know and master how to implement the integrating information technology into the curriculum. Through the above description can be seen that, today's world's most authoritative “integrating” theory cannot completely answer the core issues of “integrating information technology into the curriculum” raised above ——The goal of integrating to be achieved is relatively clear; the exposition on integrating’s connotation although the direction is right, but it is vague and is not yet unrolled, even more is not overall, and profound. On this basis, it is certainly impossible to propose the effective method and approach of carrying out “integrating information technology into the curriculum” (Effective method can only come from a scientific theory, from a profound understanding of the connotation of things; there is no scientific theory cannot find the correct and effective method). The key here is that the above theories have not been able to clearly expound the connotation and essence of the “integrating”; and therein cause is obviously that their ideology is lack of the guidance of Hybrid Learning’s idea (Because they only emphasize the “student-centered”, but neglect the leading role of teachers in the teaching process). Is there a more authoritative academic organization can give a more profound exposition on the integrating’s connotation and method? More authoritative academic organization is there, but the exposition on “integrating” might not be a profound. For example, the International Society for Technology in Education (referred to as ISTE) is a rather academic reputation of the organization, but in the United States’ “National Educational Technology Standards (third edition)” which was revised by ISTE in 2000, with regard to what is the “integrating information technology into the curriculum”, it is so described [5]:

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K. He

Curriculum integration is the technology as a tool to melt into the curriculum, use technology as digital tools to collect and analyze data, interpret results, and communicate findings to improve instructional practice and maximize student learning; apply technology to support learner-centered strategies that address the diverse needs of students; and use technology to develop students’ higher order skills and creativity. Technology should, like all other classroom teaching aids may be obtained, to become an inherent ingredient of the classroom. The above paragraph is only emphasized the need to technology as a tool to melt into the curriculum. Still only the information technology as a tool or teaching aids, but entirely does not involve building an ideal teaching and learning environment, not involve creating new teaching and learning ways such a deeper problem. Can be seen that comparing with the above mentioned third annual report of the CEO Forum on Education & Technology, the exposition of this paragraph is not a more profound, but more superficial, even retrogression. How to do? China's educational informationization process is rapidly developing; the demand for scientific theory of “integrating information technology into the curriculum” is extremely urgent, cannot wait. The theory which can guide practice, after all, comes from practice, and we have plentiful experience on integrating information technology into the curriculum, based on the learning and drawing from foreign experience it is completely able to form a new theory. Our “deep-level integration theory of information technology and curriculum” is forms like this, which is trying to the three core issues of “integrating” above mentioned, to make a scientific answer of meet objective reality. On this basis, we have also formed a set of effective approach and method for carrying out the “deep-level integration”, and after hundreds of primary and secondary pilot schools more than five years of teaching practice’s verification. The following we will focus on the connotation and essence of the “deep-level integration”, to do a brief introduction. 2.3.2 The Theory Exploration about IITC in China After serious and in-depth study, we believe that the definition or connotation of “integrating information technology into the curriculum” can be described as follows: The so-called integrating information technology into the curriculum (or integrating information technology into the disciplines teaching), is through the effective melting of information technology and teaching process in various disciplines to create an informationization’s teaching and learning environment. In this environment can play fully leading role of teachers, but also able fully to embody the main body position of students, and to achieve a brand new teaching and learning way with “self-determination , exploration, and cooperation” as characteristics. Thus bringing the students’ initiative, enthusiasm and creativity more fully play out. Let the traditional teacher-centered classroom teaching structure occur fundamental change——from teacher-centered teaching structure change into “combination of teacher-led and student-autonomy” teaching structure. Can be seen from this definition, which includes three basic attributes: to create an informationization’s teaching and learning environment, to achieve a brand new teaching and learning way, to change the traditional teaching structure. It should

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be noted that the relationship of these three attributes is not parallel, but rather step by step progressive relation ——to create an informationization’s teaching and learning environment is to support a brand new teaching and learning way; the brand new teaching and learning way is in order to change the traditional teaching structure; to change traditional teaching structure is in order to ultimately achieve the cultivation goal of the innovative spirit and practice ability (i.e., cultivation goal of innovative talents). So-called teaching structure is refer to the stabilizing structure form of the teaching activities process, unrolling in certain environment , under the guidance of certain educational ideas ,teaching theory and learning theory. This is the four elements of teaching system (i.e., teachers, students, teaching content, and teaching media) interaction and interconnected concrete manifestation. Obviously, the main symbol of teaching structural change is the teacher-student relationship and teacher-student status and role changes. Only the change occurred is conducive to embody the main body position of students, can make students' innovative spirit and practice ability training be truly implemented. Can be seen that, the essence and foothold of the “integrating” is to change the traditional teaching structure——change “teacher-centered” teaching structure, creating new, both to play the teacher’s leading role and to embody the main body position of students, i.e., “combination of teacher-led and student-autonomy” teaching structure. We believe that only from above mentioned three basic attributes, especially from this one attribute of changing traditional teaching structure to understand the connotation of “integrating”, can truly grasp the essence of “integrating information technology into the curriculum” . The traditional teaching structure which dominates our all levels and types of schools over the years can be summarized as the teacher centered teaching structure. In this teaching structure, the relationship between the four elements of teaching system (teachers, students, teaching content, and teaching media) is that: Teachers are active teaching, or even the absolute authority of the teaching process The teachers through verbal teaching, writing on the blackboard to transfer knowledge to students; Students as main body of a learning process, in the whole teaching process are mainly using ears to listen and take notes by hand, in a passive acceptance of state. They are the external stimulus receptors (equivalent to radio or TV set); Teaching content (in this teaching structure, teaching content namely textbook) is the only source of acquiring knowledge, the teachers explain this textbook, and review and examinations are based on this textbook; Teaching media in the teaching process is mainly assisting teacher to teach, which is used as intuitional teaching aids to demonstrate the focus and difficult point of teaching content (traditional CAI is to play such a role). The advantages of “teacher centered teaching structure” is beneficial to play the leading role of teachers, to help teachers monitoring the whole teaching process, and to accomplish the teaching objectives, in short, is beneficial to imparting and mastery of systemic scientific knowledge; The disadvantage is to limit students’ initiative and pioneering spirit, to constrain students’ divergent thinking and imagination, easy to make students superstitious books, teachers, and authority, in short, is not conducive to the cultivation of innovative spirit and innovative ability. But the 21st century

530

K. He

needs talents are with both innovative sprit and systematic rich scientific knowledge of creative talents. Therefore, in order to meet the needs of cultivating creative talents, Required to change the traditional teacher-centered teaching structure, creating a new type of both playing fully the leading role of teacher, but also fully embodying the main body position of students in the learning process, that is “combination of teacher-led and student-autonomy” teaching structure ——This is yet another Hybrid). If want to achieve such a reforms of teaching structure, we should thoroughly change the status, role of the four elements in teaching system, and the relationship between them, while its core is to change the status, role of teachers and students, and the relationship between teachers and students. Let the teachers from the classroom’s dominator, change into the organizer, director of classroom teaching, and the helper, promoter of student-autonomy constructing knowledge significance; students from passive receivers of external stimulus change into the main body of information processing and the active constructor of knowledge significance; In addition to this, teaching content should from the textbook(only knowledge source of students) change into the multiple learning resources (of course, the textbook is the most important one), so as not to enable students superstitious the textbook, superstitious teachers; Teaching media also have to be from only as an intuitional teaching aids for assisting teacher to teach, change into not only be able to assist teaching of teachers, but also be able to promote autonomously learning of students, which means they become a cognitive tool for students to self-exploration, a collaborative communication tool and emotional incentive tool. For many years, because of we neglect the teaching structure reform at all levels and types of schools, Thus make the traditional educational ideas (one-sided pursuit of knowledge transmission and “emphasis on teaching, contempt learning”), teaching theory (too much emphasis on transitive receptive teaching), learning theory (only concerned about “stimulus – response - strengthening”, neglect the internal mental process), which are the important theoretical foundation of traditional teaching structure, had not been under attack. Its serious consequences, is to curb a large number of (or even generations) the growth of creative talents. It can be seen that to change the traditional teacher-centered teaching structure is how the importance and urgency. As noted above, the change of such teaching structure depends on the ideal teaching and learning environment, which is created through integrating information technology into the curriculum, and depends on the resulting a brand new way of teaching and learning. This is the fundamental significance, the essence of “integrating information technology into the curriculum”. 2.4 Regarding the Expansion of Instructional Design Theory in the Informationization’s Environment Mid-and late nineties, with the growing popularity of Western constructivism, the international education circles more emphasis on the constructivism instructional design (i.e., “student-centered” instructional design, also known as the “learningbased” instructional design), This instructional design emphasizes on the learning strategies’ design, namely, emphasizes on the creation of situation, providing of information resources, supporting collaborative learning and self-exploration, affording

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531

self-learning strategies and so on; But neglect the teaching objectives analysis, ignore the characteristics analysis of learners, ignore the teacher to play a leading role. In short, exclude the traditional “teaching- based” instructional design. In recent years, with the new meaning of Hybrid Learning being gradually accepted by the international education circles, more and more teachers realize that “learning-based” instructional design has its own outstanding advantages (conducive to promoting student’s self-exploration and cultivation of innovative spirit), but also has its own flaws (not conducive to learning and mastery of systematic scientific knowledge); And “teaching-based” instructional design is just the opposite. These two is just right able to have complementary advantages. Therefore, the current educational technology circles tend to combine the “learning-based” instructional design and the “teaching-based” instructional design, to form a new, more perfect instructional design theory (This is also another Hybrid). After combined instructional design can be called as the “combining learning and teaching” instructional design. This is a more effective instructional design, and is a more applicable to the multimedia and network teaching environment (namely, informationization’s teaching and learning environment). This “combining learning and teaching” instructional design is not only favorable to learning knowledge, skills and to training innovative ability of students, but also is a large beneficial for the students to develop healthy emotions and values(the interesting reader to this kind of instructional design, may refer to literature [8]).

References 1. http://www.ed.gov/technology 2. Institute for Intellectual Development of Shanghai Educational Sciences Academy (translation). White Paper on Educational Technology in the United States (April 2001) 3. Jonassen, D.H.: What is cognitive tools? In: Kommers, P., Jonssen, D., Mayes, J. (eds.) Cognitive Tools for Learning. Springer, Berlin (1992) 4. Jonassen, D.H.: Objectivism versus constructivisms: Do we need as new philosophical paradigm? ETR & D 39(3), 5–14 (1991) 5. National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers (2000), http://www.cnets.org 6. Xianghui, M. (translation): 2003 U.S. 10 best application projects of teaching technology, vol. 12. Computer Teaching and Learning, Beijing (2003) 7. http://www.ceoforum.org 8. Kekang, H.E., Junfeng, L., Wenlan, Z.: Instructional system design. Higher Education Press, Beijing (May 2006)

Author Index

Barr´ on-Estrada, M.L. Blackey, Haydn 453

229

Cai, Zhiqiang 316 Chan, Cheuk Lin 296 Chan, Elsie Siu King 465 Chan, Manhoe 149 Chan, Ngaihong 427 Chen, Li 501 Chen, Pinde 49, 71 Chen, Qing 339 Chen, XiangDong 407 Cheung, Simon K.S. 306, 352 Chew, Esyin 453 Choy, Steven 326 Chu, Yilin 427 Devedˇzi´c, Mirjana Devedˇzi´c, Vladan

106 106

Fong, Joseph 59 Fox, Bob 326, 501 Fu, Fong-Ling 415 Gao, DanDan 407 Guo, Wenge 249 Hall Jr., Owen P. He, Kekang 513 Henrich, Andreas Hirata, Yoko 127 Hirata, Yoshihiro Hou, Jianjun 249 Huang, Ronghuai Hung, Patrick C.K.

Lau, Norris 352 Launer, Rebecca 9 Leung, Kat 23, 149 Li, Emil Ka Leung 171 Li, Minghua 362 Li, Shuang 501 Li, Xiaojuan 49 Li, Xin 362 Li, Yanyan 217 Li, Yongna 439 Lin, Chongde 137 Lin, Defeng 49 Lip, Paul Chi Hong 171 Liu, Yuanyuan 217 Ma, Will Wai Kit Maxwell, Gordon Mooney, John G. Niu, Qingyun

239 149 35

137

Pang, Ya-jun 94, 270 Poon, Teresa 149 Pouyioutas, Philippos 160 Reyes Garc´ıa, Carlos A.

35 82 127 370 186

Jiang, Yinjian 395 Jones, Norah 453 Kong, Siu Cheung 296 Koong, Kai 326 Kwan, Reggie 23, 326, 489 Kwok, Paul 326 Lam, Jeanne 59, 306, 352 Lam, Lui 205 Lau, Nga-Sin 205

Shen, Jiliang 137 Shiu, Herbert 59 Sieber, Stefanie 82 Si, Shubin 316 So, Koon Keung Teddy Su, Ming-Hsiang 259 Sun, Shudong 316 Swatman, Paula 477

229

477

Tam, Vincent 326 Tan, Lennon 117 Tashiro, Jayshiro 186 Trausan-Matu, Stefan 383 Tsang, Jonathan 326 Tsang, Philip 23, 326, 501 Vargas Martin, Miguel Wang, Bo-Yen Wang, Fu Lee

259 296, 489

186

534

Author Index

Wang, Junqiang 316 Wang, Minjuan 117 White, Bebo 1 Wong, Kenneth 23 Wong, Tak-Lam 489 Wu, John 326 Xiao, Jun Xia, Zhao

117 137

Yang, Bin 439 Yang, Harrison Hao 49, 71 Yan, Wen 249 Yau, Jane 306, 352 Yuan, Shuai 282

Yu, Pao-Ta 259 Yuen, Allan Hoi Kau

239

Zatarain-Cabada, Ram´ on 229 Zatarain-Cabada, Rosal´ıo 229 Zeng, Liren 362 Zhang, Haisen 370 Zhang, Ji-Ping 16 Zhang, Liming 427 Zhang, Shuai 316 Zhang, Xuemin 137, 439 Zhao, Guodong 282 Zhao, Jianhua 395 Zhou, Bo 205

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