Lifelong Learning: Interpretations of an Education Policy in Europe

Andrea Óhidy Lifelong Learning

VS RESEARCH

Andrea Óhidy

Lifelong Learning Interpretations of an Education Policy in Europe

With a foreword by Prof. Dr. Ursula Sauer-Schiffer

Translated by Eniko“ Györffy, Christiane Kober-Tomasek, Matthias Eickhoff, Kerstin Wedekämper, Andrea Óhidy

VS RESEARCH

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

1st Edition 2008 All rights reserved © VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften | GWV Fachverlage GmbH, Wiesbaden 2008 Editorial Office: Christina M. Brian / Anita Wilke VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften is part of the specialist publishing group Springer Science+Business Media. www.vs-verlag.de No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. Registered and/or industrial names, trade names, trade descriptions etc. cited in this publication are part of the law for trade-mark protection and may not be used free in any form or by any means even if this is not specifically marked. Cover design: KünkelLopka Medienentwicklung, Heidelberg Translation: Eniko“ Györffy (Basic), Christiane Kober-Tomasek, Matthias Eickhoff, Kerstin Wedekämper, Andrea Óhidy Layout: Kerstin Wedekämper Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany ISBN 978-3-531-15954-6

This book is dedicated to my husband, Matthias Eickhoff.

Contents List of Tables..................................................................................11 Foreword ....................................................................................... 13 1. Lifelong Learning: the two main ideas of an educational policy concept in Europe ........................ 17 The Lifelong Learning Programme as an educational policy concept....................................................................17 Lifelong Learning and the idea of democracy education......................19 Lifelong Learning and the development of Human Resources.............22 Summary ..............................................................................................26

2. Lifelong Learning – from the educational policy concept to the pedagogic paradigm.......................... 29 The evolution of the educational policy concept ..................................29 From the educational policy concept to the pedagogical paradigm......33 The similarities and differences of the most important European Lifelong Learning concepts...........................................................35 The common elements of the concepts: the educational paradigm ......36 The most important differences of the concepts...................................39 The categories within the Lifelong Learning concepts.........................41 Summary ..............................................................................................43

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3. Lifelong Learning and school education............................. 45 The social function and role of school..................................................45 The Lifelong Learning concept and what is expected from school ......48 Competences and key competences......................................................49 The present practices and deficiencies of school education .................58 What should be done? ..........................................................................60 Summary ..............................................................................................63

4. Lifelong Learning and adult education............................... 67 The concept of adult education.............................................................67 The goal and function of adult education .............................................69 Adult education and the Lifelong Learning concept ............................73 The constructivist learning theory and adult education ........................76 Competences development in adult education......................................79 The learning adult.................................................................................80 Summary ..............................................................................................87

5. Preparing for Lifelong Learning in practice: cooperative learning.............................................................. 89 Why are cooperative learning methods needed? ..................................89 What are „cooperative learning methods”? ..........................................90 The new role of teachers.......................................................................91 Cooperative learning forms ..................................................................93 Nametag Activity .................................................................................94 Opinion Grid (Think-Pare-Share).........................................................95 Mindmap ..............................................................................................97 Graffiti Steps ......................................................................................100 The Jigsaw Method.............................................................................101 8

The outside circle – inside circle method ...........................................103 Essay Writing .....................................................................................104 Summary ............................................................................................104

Bibliography................................................................................ 107 Deutsche Zusammenfassung (German Summary)...................... 115

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List of Tables

1.1

Relationship between Lifelong Learning and the development of human resources...............................................................................24

2.1

The common elements of the most important European Lifelong Learning concepts (The educational paradigm of LLL) .....................................................36

2.2

The most important relationship between democracy education/human resources development and the

3.1 3.2

The conceptual frame of key competence selection..............................50 The expected characteristics of the EU’s education system by 2010....54

3.3 3.4

Key competences).................................................................................57 The most important preconditions for the preparation of LLL

3.5

in schools ..............................................................................................61 The basis for creating the modern idea of education ............................65

4.1

Trends in Adult Education ....................................................................72

4.2 4.3

Current Questions of Lifelong Learning ...............................................73 Differences of the teaching and learning paradigms .............................78

4.4 4.5

Learner and non-learner adults .............................................................83 Participation in adult education ............................................................87

5.1

Differences between cooperative group learning and

5.2

traditional group work ..........................................................................93 Opinion grid for groups of 3 and 4 people............................................96

5.3 5.4

Mindmap for the „Efficient teaching lesson”........................................98 Hilbert Meyer: The ten most important parameters of the

5.5

efficient teaching lesson........................................................................99 The Jigsaw Method .............................................................................102

minimalist/maximalist variations of the European LLL concepts ........43

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Foreword The most important educational paradigm of our time is the idea of Lifelong Learning. According to this statement, Andrea Óhidy reflects the major trends in the European discussion on Lifelong Learning. The author’s main focus is the pedagogic view of the idea. She gives an overview of the development and the main points of the European discussion (chapter 1 and 2), analyses concepts of Lifelong Learning in school (3) and in the field of adult education (4) and also presents an interesting description of training-programmes in university education (5). These five chapters present some of the first results of a research study on Lifelong Learning in Germany and Hungary. (The doctoral thesis of Andrea Óhidy is on the “Adaptation of the idea of Lifelong Learning in German and Hungarian education and education policy”). Andrea Óhidy reflects the growing interest in and acceptance of concepts of Lifelong Learning in modern Europe. The most interesting point in the presented work is the Eastern European view. Hungary is one of the new Eastern European countries in which concepts of Lifelong Learning are getting popular. Above all one interesting result of her comparative research shows the similarities of German and Hungarian concepts of Lifelong Learning. For the first time in a European educational discussion readers find an excellent analysis of Hungarian papers on Lifelong Learning. In the first chapter Andrea Óhidy reflects the Lifelong Learning programme as a European educational policy concept. She discusses the two main ideas connected with this concept which are the idea of democracy education and the development of human resources. The focus of the second chapter is the development of the presented educational policy concept into the pedagogic paradigm of Lifelong Learning. In this chapter the author gives a very precise overview of the most important documents on Lifelong Learning. As a profound expert on European programmes she gives a 13

very good analysis of important topics such as the similarities and differences or the common elements of the concepts. In the third chapter Andrea Óhidy analyses the relationship between Lifelong Learning and school concepts. This chapter gives a very good idea on the function and social role of school concepts and points out the expectations in connection with Lifelong Learning which are the development of basic social and personal skills and the motivation to learn which should be the basis of Lifelong Learning concepts. In her fourth chapter Andrea Óhidy describes some important topics of Lifelong Learning in the field of adult education. In adult education – according to the author – the acceptance of the idea of Lifelong Learning is much more popular and has been accepted much earlier than in other areas of the educational system (for example primary education, family education). Andrea Óhidy develops her arguments about Lifelong Learning in adult education in contrast to school education. This focus of argumentation may refer to a more European state of view – which is more pragmatic. Chapter five discusses the importance of cooperative methods. Cooperative methods are seen as a preparation for Lifelong Learning. In presenting concrete examples of cooperative methods in university teaching and learning the author shows how Lifelong Learning can be learned. According to Andrea Óhidy, these methods can also be used in higher education and in grammar or comprehensive schools as well. She also reflects the teacher’s role and the advantages of cooperative learning forms. The given examples of cooperative learning forms are a very good selection of methods which can be easily transferred by professional staff.

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This book reflects the intensive involvement with the European concept of Lifelong Learning. The examples in the last chapters show how Andrea Óhidy's teaching at university is influenced by the ideas of lifelong learning. This may invite the reader to get inspired by the ideas of cooperative learning methods to a more democratic view of relations in education. Prof. Dr. Ursula Sauer-Schiffer University of Muenster

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1. Lifelong Learning: the two main ideas of an educational policy concept in Europe

Lifelong Learning (LLL) has become a universal education policy paradigm all over Europe. A multitude of aims and hopes, often contradictory, exist in connection with its practical implementation. The connotations of the LLL concept, according to its current interpretation, are economic, social and political. The two most important goals connected with the concept are democracy education, and the development of human resources, or human capital.

The Lifelong Learning Programme as an educational policy concept As the most important educational paradigm of our times the idea of Lifelong Learning has evolved from the educational concepts of different supranational organizations, such as the European Council, UNESCO, the OECD and the European Committee, to name only the most important. It was developed by Philip H. Coombs in 1969 as the international answer to a perceived global education crisis (Coombs 1969). Since the proclamation of the European Year of Lifelong Learning in 1996, the programme has been considered the only possible answer to the political and economic changes in modern times in Europe.

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László Harangi defines Lifelong Learning as „a cognitive process which starts in early childhood and ends in late old age. It includes formal or school education and non-formal learning (in self-organized, non-formal organizations, which do not award degrees, such as voluntary cultural organizations in Hungary) and informal learning, such as learning in one’s family, at one’s workplace, or in the wider social environment” (Harangi 2003: 225). According to the European Report on Quality Indicators of Lifelong Learning it „comprises the continuous directed formal and informal activities whose aim is the development of knowledge and skills” (Setényi 2004: 21). Thus, Lifelong Learning means „the acquisition, discovery, interpretation and organization of different pieces of information, impressions, and experiences throughout one’s whole life” (Dohmen 2001). Lifelong Learning is the precondition for the sensitive, peaceful and democratic solution to the difficulties arising from the political, social, and economic changes. As an educational policy concept, Lifelong Learning, through the extension of the socially mandatory learning period throughout people’s whole life, aims at changes in the individuals' subjective biographies on the one hand, and at political and structural changes in the whole society on the other hand. As the concept is the result of international political search for consensus, it shows a theoretical character while endeavouring to harmonize different ideas at the same time. It allows a variety of interpretations, especially regarding its goals, and, together with the „generalizing” character of the educational ideas, provides a multi-functionally applicable paradigm, and so it is no wonder that the Lifelong Learning concept has had so many different interpretations and several definitions: from the anthropological approach through the development of human resources to the social application of equal opportunities.

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When the concept appeared, a biological evolutionist and a philosophical anthropologist interpretation were at the centre of the programme, which looked at Lifelong Learning as the most important characteristic of Homo Sapiens (Csoma 2004: 3). At the beginning of the 20th century this interpretation was amended by a new aspect: The acquisition of high quality qualification which could respond to the new working conditions created by the technical and technological improvement became pivotal. As a consequence, the concepts that consider learning as an end in itself have been superseded by the interpretations of Lifelong Learning as an important tool for attaining economic and socialpolitical goals (Jarvis 2001). The most important aspect of the latter is the need for democracy education.

Lifelong Learning and the idea of democracy education In Europe the idea of learning has been strongly connected to the idea of democracy education. Democracy as a universal and expansionary idea presupposes that individuals always strive for freedom and are free at least in their desires, affirms György Konrád (Konrád 1995: 229). According to Wilhelm Flitner, the idea of freedom has always been the most important political goal of European civilization and the part of European cultural history that was deliberately formed. Thus, the triad „learning – democracy education – freedom” can be regarded as one of the basic pillars of European Pedagogy (Óhidy 2006a). In his work The State Plato emphasizes the idea that people should be helped to escape from the state of ignorance. Therefore this work can be viewed as the oldest herald of the LLL concept (Gerlach 2000). The famous cave-metaphor describes how the lives of ignorant people can be compared to those who, from early childhood, have been living in a dark underground cave. 19

Their feet and neck shackled and facing the wall they cannot perceive reality, only the world of shadows. In contrast, people who have acquired knowledge are presented as having already escaped from their hobbles, and as members of a community; they have stepped on to the road leading to reality, thus truth. All this by being able to perceive, experience and recognize, in one word, to learn (Wehnes 2001: 280). The goal of pedagogy is leading people out of the state of ignorance and directing them to the „road of virtue”, i. e. endowing them with the ability to think and act in a way which is worthy of human beings. All this can be accomplished only as the result of a painful learning process. During the Enlightenment, special weight was put on the importance of freedom through learning and „self-liberation”, i. e. quoting Immanuel Kant, „the emergence of human beings from their self-inflicted infancy”. In his public education outline presented to the French Convent in 1792 M. J. A. Concorcet intended to put an end to the differences that existed between social classes by creating a standard national education. To him we attributed the earliest programmatic concept of Lifelong Learning, which at that time appeared as an amendment to the youth education programme. „Education does not need to end when one finishes school and it must cover all age groups. There is no age group where education or learning are useless or impossible. This second type of education is needed even more, since the first is constrained to a narrow circle” (Maróti 2002). The importance of freedom (self-liberation) was by then been connected to the concept of learning not only on the philosophycal and the anthropological, but also on the social level. This interpretation has reached its summit in the 20th century, when the idea of equal social opportunity ensured by education became 20

a generally acknowledged political goal worldwide. Although there seems to exist an abyss between theory and practice, this goalsetting has not lost any of its importance, not solely because of the Concorcet heritage but also because of the society changes in the last decades. The following expectation or, if you like, hope has been voiced in connection with the Lifelong Learning concept: „The acceptance and practical application of the LLL concept could contribute to the reduction of inequalities of opportunity and the prevailing of the principle of social justice” (Mayer 2003: 10). As the Memorandum of the European Committe affirms „Lifelong learning is no longer just one aspect of education and training; it must become the guiding principle for provision and participation across the full continuum of the learning context. The coming decade must see the implementation of this vision. All those living in Europe, without expection, should have equal opportunities to adjust to the demands of social and economic change and to participate actively in the shaping of Europe´s future” (European Committee 2000: 2). Based on the PISA surveys, the most important criticism of the German and Hungarian education policy is that the above goal has not been attained, the education systems conserve and reproduce social inequalities instead of decreasing them (Junkers 2002; Harangi 2004). Consequently, the concept and principle of Lifelong Learning is closely connected to the endeavour of establishing and preserving democracy. As Konrád states, modern democracy in Europe, which is built on the basic principle of political equality, has evolved to be the good or bad conscience of Europe. Today’s governments may treat democratic values in different ways, even with hypocrisy or a sense of guilt; however, they can not do one thing: they cannot disregard them.

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According to Konrád, there exists in Europe, and is constantly being recreated, a so-called „democratic and humanist transnationalism” (Konrád 1995: 229). According to this, the achievement of personal freedom by learning and education can be interpreted as an escape from the social class and from the limitations of country borders.

Lifelong Learning and the development of Human Resources As the result of the social and economic changes of the preceding decades the interpretation of Lifelong Learning as a theory which could improve human resources came into focus at the end of the 20th century. In contrast to democracy education, which emphasizes personality and self-definition, this interpretation of the LLL theory stresses the process of adaptation to different social, economic and political changes. The need for Lifelong Learning is explained by the economic and technical development and the changed needs on the market of human resources. „Under the conditions of market economy, in order to create and maintain full social employment, there is need for human resources of adequate quality. The quality of the work force needs to be evaluated and developed continuously according to the demands of the economic system” (Zachár 2005: 1-2). „Human Resources” means „the characteristics, abilities and the potential performances which together create for the individual work and the ability to perform” (BMBF 2002:169). The creation of a learning society on which a knowledge-based society can be built is the indispensable condition of the exploitation of the reserves residing in human resources. These goals can be achieved only by the realization of lifelong learning (Zachár 2005: 1).

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The role of knowledge as an important means in economic development has become incontestable by now. According to Hotz-Hart and Küchler, this role will become even more important in future, and knowledge is the factor that will become the most important one in production at the expense of the classical work and capital (Hotz-Hart/Küchler 1999). A multitude of analyses assessing economic growth (i.e. Bodenhöfer/Riedel 1998; Braun 2000; Zachár 2005) empirically attest the importance of investing in human capital for the sake of social prosperity. This intensifying tendency is persuasively demonstrated by Collin Griffin, starting with the simple statement that „The most important form of capital on the global market is human capital” and continuing with the assertion that „The only important manifestation of capital today is human capital” (Griffin 2001: 44). The idea of Lifelong Learning was first outlined in 1973 by the OECD in the concept Recurrent Education. A Strategy for Lifelong Learning as the most important factor of social well being. In this work learning and education are said to play a double role: on the one hand they are the driving force of economic growth, on the other hand they are the tools for achieving it as well. In both cases, they are the guarantee for social prosperity (Gerlach 2000: 61). This interpretation has received high priority in every education policy concept that followed. „By increasing employment levels LLL has a positive impact on the rate of development of the economy, mostly in the industries which create and spread knowledge. Thus, national economies that are human capital intensive are more competitive, because they can invest the majority of their GDP in the creation of new knowledge. Through this, the development value of human capital increases further, which has a positive effect on the development of the whole economy” (BMBF 2002: 37).

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In Europe this view of Lifelong Learning is connected to the question of employment and employability on the one hand and to the economic competition on the global market, especially concerning the American and Japanese competitors, on the other hand. This reasoning has received even more importance in the last decades because of the budgetary deficits and huge debts accumulated by some countries. The relationship between Lifelong Learning and the development of human resources is presented in Table 1, which is based on the summary compiled by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF 2002: 34): 1.

The investments in human resources play an increasing role as opposed to leveraged investments.

2.

Thereby, the proportion of knowledge-intensive products and production processes increases continuously.

3.

The demand for a highly educated workforce increases.

4.

The ability to actively and independently gather and process information becomes a key competence.

5.

LLL becomes indispensable in the individual’s participation in society.

Table 1.1: Relationship between Lifelong Learning and the development of human resources

Based on the above, Lifelong Learning leads to new knowledge, which in an innovative way leads to an increased level of prosperity in the whole society. This will result in a new, increased demand for highly educated manpower, which in turn will make constant education/learning/schooling necessary, even indispensable. Hence, one can expect that in a knowledge-based society more and more only highly educated individuals, and those who are ready to learn and possess good learning abilities will be able to remain competitive. 24

Unqualified people, or those with low qualification or a lack of motivation to learn are threatened by economic and social descent and discrimination. So the basic question of the theory that interprets Lifelong Learning as a human capital developer is: How can the education system foster Lifelong Learning? The answer is: „The education system must ensure that those who graduate from its institutions (at any level) acquire the basic knowledge and competence before leaving the institution. All the graduates should be motivated (and able) to maintain Lifelong Learning” (Allemann-Ghionda 2004: 40). According to the concept of Lifelong Learning as a human resource developer, individuals will be able to adequately react to the social, political and economic changes through continuous learning. „Lifelong Learning seems to consolidate further the trend of adaptation to the social conditions” Ursula Giere affirms (Giere 1996:154). From this very narrow economic point of view it is without doubt that the most significant task of education systems is assisting individuals in the adaptation to economic changes (Allemann-Ghionda 2004). However, education policy concepts promoting Lifelong Learning have set as their objective not only the development of the individuals’ ability to accommodate themselves to change, but the active formation of economic and political changes, and the preparation for influencing their direction and speed. But the theory of the LLL concept as a human resource developer is also strongly disputed in German Pedagogy. Frank Achtenhagen and Wolfgang Lempers emphatically warn of the dangers of ocumenism: Not only does this view of Lifelong Learning reduce individuals to their work only, but it takes only economic aspects into consideration. By neglecting the essence of human work, Lifelong Learning is deprived of its most important motivating factor.

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The authors also warn of social-darwinism, according to which Lifelong Learning is a preparation for hard competition; they also caution against falling into the mistake of modernism, according to which Lifelong Learning is an uncritical hunt for the new, degrading it to superficiality and constant stress. These (mis)interpretations not only leave out of account the completeness, unity and continuous development of personality, but they also destroy the social trustworthiness and moral accountability of the individual. Successful learning processes in every period of a person’s life can only be achieved if „learning individuals perceive the learning process as one during which their selfawareness and acting independence are intensified” (Achtenhagen/Lempert 2000: 16-17). As society as a whole cannot be restricted to the economic system the LLL concept should not be reduced to satisfying the demands of the labour market and other economic claims either.

Summary Similarly to the European Union, which aspires to political, cultural and conceptual unification of the old Continent, the European paradigm of Lifelong Learning wants to be more than an idea at the service of different economic needs. According to this, the LLL concept applied by the European Union has set itself the objective (apart from creating full employment and creating and sustaining market competitiveness as the most important economic endeavours) of building a „European identity” in both the political and cultural sense (Kraus 2001: 111). „Our shared aim is to build a Europe in which everyone has the opportunity to develop their potential to the full, to feel that they can contribute and that they belong” (European Committee 2000, 5). 26

Since the turn of the century the number of concepts which from the social point of view regard freedom and self-liberation as important have increased. Apart form accentuating the social aspect, these have become more important from the philosophical/anthropological point of view, so that there is a return to the initial interpretation of the LLL concept. The German andragogists’ point of view can be counted among these, since they teach that learning individuals cannot be subordinated to the goals or education concepts of different social or educational organizations. On the contrary: The goal is to guarantee learning possibilities throughout one’s life, and to facilitate the development of self-teaching and selfeducation abilities (Künzel/Böse 1995: 101). To summarize, it can be asserted that the education policy concepts of Lifelong Learning in Europe are aiming at two targets: On the one hand they intend to assist the development and self-realization of personality and on the other, to reach social, political and economic goals. Based on the above mentioned interpretations of the LLL concept and despite the frequent misinterpretations, this theory seems to be rooted in the traditions of the old triad „learning – democracy education – freedom” of European pedagogy.

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2. Lifelong Learning – from the educational policy concept to the pedagogic paradigm

The LLL Programme was elaborated in 1969 by Philip H. Coombs as the international answer to a worldwide education crisis. Since the proclamation of the European Year of Lifelong Learning in 1996 it has been considered the only possible answer to the political and economic changes in modern times in Europe. The following chapter presents the creation process of the most important European educational policy concepts and their development into pedagogic paradigms, whilst showing and analyzing their common elements and differences. Finally, it categorizes the presented Lifelong Learning concepts according to two points of view: firstly, the so-called minimalist and maximalist approach, secondly, the two most important goals connected to the concept: democracy education and human resources development.

The evolution of the educational policy concept As a result of the social, political, economic, scientific and technological progress in the 20th century, the speed of the social and economic changes increased. The knowledge acquired in school has become less and less satisfactory and needed improvement. In the 1960s Philip H. Coombs diagnosed a worldwide crisis in education, and he saw its cause in the contradiction between the changed social environment and the unchanged education system. 29

In his analysis, he indicates that the increased demand for a qualified workforce, the limited tools and opportunities to satisfy this new demand, and the rigidity of the education system and society were at the basis of the crisis. The most important shortcomings of the latter two were obsolete methods of teaching and learning. As a solution he advises to activate society and the education system: „Thus, the heart of the matter is how to get sluggish educational systems to take such an initiative and to start changing themselves more rapidly and in the right direction”. That is how Coombs summed up the ideas of the education world conference held with the participation of 50 countries in Williamsburg (Virginia, USA) in 1967 (Coombs 1969: 167). His analysis and solution proposals started a worldwide debate and found their way into the international educational policy concepts as well. The bibliography of LLL dates the concept back to its “birth” at a UNESCO conference in 1970 in Paul Lengrad’s report Introduction to lifelong learning. The idea of Lifelong Learning has evolved from the education concepts of different supranational organizations, such as the European Council, UNESCO, the OECD, and the European Committee, to name only the most significant, to become the most important pedagogical paradigm of our times. Although there exists not only one, but several education policy concepts of Lifelong Learning, the international LLL literature considers these as variations of one concept. In the following, the European context will be dealt with exclusively, although the idea of Lifelong Learning is doubtlessly a world-wide phenomenon, which cannot be restricted to one continent. The presentation will be narrowed to the concepts developed before 1996, since after this the evolution of Lifelong Learning from an educational policy concept into a pedagogical paradigm can be considered complete. The documents devised after this time have not dealt with the elaboration of theoretical concepts, but have investigated the possibilities of putting the LLL concept into practice. 30

The following documents can be regarded as the most important LLL concepts formed before 1996: the European Council’s programme about permanent education (1970); the concepts of UNESCO (1972 and 1996); the views of the OECD (1973 and 1996); and the so-called white books of the European Union (1994/95) (Gerlach 2000; Kraus 2001; Medel-Anonuevo/Ohsako/Mauch 2001).1 These are outlined below. European Council 1970: Permanent education In 1970, when the international education year was proclaimed by UNESCO, the European Council elaborated the permanent education concept, the central methodological principle promoting the idea of selfdirected learning. The concrete learning content is seen as less important as the result of the methodological openness.2 This concept was challenged by Ivan Illich, who in protest, published his work claiming the „deschooling” of society. In this, school is presented as the place of recreation and consolidation of social inequalities and the power instrument for controlling social belonging. According to him, through school education in the general sense cannot be reached. For this reason no schools need to be built, but learning opportunities that everyone can have access to should be created (Illich 1972: 7). His criticism has played an important role in the Lifelong Learning concepts that followed: Both in the UNESCOdocuments and the later OECD studies there are elements which doubtlessly originate in the Deschooling Society by Illich. Among these, the endeavours to ease the rigid structures of the education system and achieve accessibility and openness for the underprivileged are worth mentioning.

1 There are further studies which consider other concepts as other important: Mária Szokoly Kraiciné for example mentions the publications of the Club of Rome. In her comparison she does not mention the documents of the European Committee (Kraiciné 2004). 2 „[…] the medium is relatively unimportant. What matters is the depth reached and the mounting difficulty of the problems identified, analysed and solved” (European Council 1971, 36).

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UNESCO 1972: Learning to be In 1972 UNESCO published the Faure Report, in which for the first time the work of a pedagogue is presented as an activity which prepares individuals for a social form hitherto unknown: the learning society. The concept promoted the formation of a new type of human beings who are able to direct their own future with the help of a continuous, lifelong learning process, and who can improve throughout their lives their personality first as an individual and then as a member of society. „Learning to live, learning to learn, so as to be able to absorb new knowledge all through life; learning to think freely and critically; learning to love the world and make it more human; learning to develop in and through creative work” (UNESCO 1972: 69). OECD 1973: Recurrent education One year later, in 1973, the idea of “permanent education” was changed into “recurrent education”, a term elaborated by the OECD. The programme Recurrent Education: a Strategy for Lifelong Learning was built on the demands of competitiveness and the global economy and dealt with the relationship between employment and learning. Hence, it focused on the questions of adult education. To sum up, it can be concluded that in the 1970s the concept of Lifelong Learning was gradually narrowed: the philosophical/anthropological questions were gradually superseded by economic considerations, and reform concepts expanding over the whole education system were replaced by questions reaching beyond the issues of mandatory schooling. All of this had a negative influence on the popularity of the LLL concept.

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From the educational policy concept to the pedagogical paradigm In the 1990s the global view of Lifelong Learning, according to which it is a comprehensive concept comprising formal, nonformal, and informative learning, was (again) accepted. Lifelong Learning expands over a person’s whole life assuring the most complete progress in private, professional and social life. It tries to interpret learning in its entirety; for this reason, it tries to include every type of learning: in the parental house, at school, in communities, and at workplaces. Lifelong Learning is not only a preparation for life, but it is an important part of it (Giere 1996: 152). This wider interpretation comprises the ideas of equal opportunity, internationalism, efficiency, and the quality of qualification. The LLL concept has become a pedagogical paradigm, and this global view made a significant contribution to the process. European Committee 1994/95: Growth, Competitiveness and Employment /Teaching and Learning The European Union has contributed two „white books” to the international educational policy debate on Lifelong Learning. In 1994 Growth, Competitiveness and Employment – The challenges and ways forward into the 21st century and in 1995 Teaching and Learning – Towards the learning society. These two documents are highly connected: both the second white book and the proclamation of the European Year of Lifelong Learning in 1996 can be traced back to the first white book, whose title suggests that there are economic and employment policy questions at the centre of the concept. In contrast, the second book presents the model of a cognitive society as the social model for Lifelong Learning. Its most important characteristic is that role and place of individuals in society are determined by their knowledge and competence.

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Although the debate is still dominated by the arguments of the labour market and the economy, other issues, like questions of democracy, progress, equal social opportunities and European identity are also given a role. OECD 1996: Lifelong Learning for All In 1996 the OECD published the programme Lifelong Learning for All, which advanced the LLL concept into a comprehensive pedagogical paradigm. In this approach the previous type of learning which ran parallel to the life of the individual and reoccurred periodically evolved into learning that has an impact on the entirety of life. This concept names as the three most important goals of Lifelong Learning the development of personality, social cohesion, and economic progress (OECD 1996: 87). In contrast to the concept of recurrent education, in which the periods of learning and work appear intermittently one after the other and separated from one another, the above are expounded in this document as inseparable fields.3 Learning is the primordial tool for social participation in the learning society, which is built on the priority of post-modern (post-material) possessions, and is created with the help of an education system founded on the idea of equal opportunities, transparency, permeability, cooperation, flexibility and efficiency (OECD 1996:100). UNESCO 1996: Learning: the treasure within The UNESCO-report Learning: the treasure within, which became known as The Delors-Report, appeared in 1996, too. The document claims „the concept of learning throughout life thus emerges as one of the keys to the twenty-first century. […] For all these reasons, it seems to us that the concept of an education

3 „The notion that work ought to be alternated on a sporadic basis with formal education has been replaced by strategies to promote learning while working and working while learning” (OECD 1996, S. 89).

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pursued throughout life, with all its advantages in terms of flexibility, diversity and availability at different times and in different places, should command wide support. There is a need to rethink and broaden the notion of lifelong education. Not only must it adapt to changes in the nature of work, but it must also constitute a continuous process of forming whole human beings – their knowledge and aptitudes, as well as the critical faculty and the ability to act. It should enable people to develop awareness of themselves and their environment and encourage them to play their social role at work and in the community” (UNESCO 1996: 21-22). With the proclamation of the European Year of Lifelong Learning in 1996, the concept became the most important educational paradigm in Europe. A multitude of different publications appeared on the subject, all followed by special national and international debates. Many of these concepts have since materialized, and others are being realized today.

The similarities and differences of the most important European Lifelong Learning concepts As the concept of Lifelong Learning is the result of a search for international political consensus, it has both a theoretical and harmonizing character. It allows for a variety of interpretations, especially concerning its goals (Kraus 2001). If we add the “generalizing” character of the educational ideas, we obtain a multifunctionally applicable paradigm. No wonder that there are a series of different interpretations of Lifelong Learning with a large variety of definitions, from the anthropological approach through the development of human resources to the social application of equal opportunities. In the following, I intend to discuss the similarities and differences of the previously mentioned LLL concepts.

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The common elements of the concepts: the educational paradigm Despite the diversity there is a central core to the Lifelong Learning concept, which consists of the educational elements of the education policy terms. This core concept creates the educational paradigm of the concept (Kraus 2001: 106). However, this common core concept is interpreted in different ways by the organizations which developed it. The common educational elements of the paradigm are presented in the following table:

Goal: a better future Fokusing on the learning process The self-directed organization of the learning process is a central methodological postulate The role of the teacher has changed The most important content of the learning process is the improvement of learning abilities The openness and interlinking of the institutions of the education system The interpretation of paid work as a central part of personality Table 2.1: The common elements of the most important European Lifelong Learning concepts (The educational paradigm of LLL)

Goal: a better future All the international LLL concepts promote a better future for every person. Selfdefinition, individual development, social equality are promised in case Lifelong Learning comes into effect. The idea of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized learning is connected to the realization of the best possible work market (Giere 1996: 153; Gerlach 2000: 101). 36

Focusing on the learning process The concept of LLL starts with the assumption that it is impossible to fully finish the learning process of a human being; this idea is explained on the one hand, by the biological/evolutionist theory of the human being as a „creature who always misses something” and by the necessity to give answers to the social, political and economic changes of the 20th century on the other hand. The learning process in its complexity is presented firstly as knowledge acquisition, skill and ability development, motivation, virtue and other personality trait creation and development; secondly as a possibility for building social relationships and a connection with the objective world; further, as a possibility for communication and cooperation, and last but not least, as the key competence for the ability and motivation to learn. The self-directed organization of the learning process is a central methodological postulate The methodological core of the concept is the self-directed organization of the learning process. In the centre of the learning process stands the individual who, as the subject of this activity, is the active operator in charge of its success. „As a matter of fact, every kind of learning is the personal issue of the learning individual. Nobody can be forced into learning. The task of the learning individual is to manage his/her own learning process” (Achtenhagen/Lempert 2000:14). This can be supported from the outside, i.e. with the help of recommendations and explanations. The support can be indirect, with the suitable configuration of the learning environment (which facilitates learning), or direct, through the help of parents, teachers, and pedagogues working in adult education. The direct guidance (control) of the learning process is more characteristic of childhood and school education.

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The role of the teacher has changed The main feature of the changed role of the teacher is that the teacher is „the attendant of the learning process, and the motivator-supporter of it, presenting a problem-solving model, systematically developing, confirming and extending students’ problem solving and knowledge-gaining abilities” (Behrmann/Schwarz 2003: 33). The teacher is liberated from the traditional role of knowledge conveyor and as an assistant-supporter „work-mate”, who works together with the students, takes part in their work while coordinating it (Benda 2002). The most important content of the learning process is the improvement of learning abilities In this concept, learning ability appears as the most important learning content. It needs to be acquired in childhood and early adulthood, but it is necessary to develop it later in adulthood as well. The basic elements of the learning ability are metacognitions. Among these, there are the competence of managing the learning process and the knowledge of learning strategies, and the reflective handling and conscious controlling of the learning process (i.e. the storage techniques for knowledge and memorization). Even more important than these are perhaps the subjective preconditions of learning as a process: motivation, interest and values (Achtenhagen/Lempert 2000: 12). The openness and interlinking of the institutions of the education system To reach the above goals the openness and permeability of the institutions of the education system need to be assured. Both in school and in the institutions of adult education the individual and self-efficient definition and acquisition of the learning contents require a new attitude to the changed learning process. In the 1970s the central question in education was the extent to which school didactic methods can be used in adult education. The subject of debates nowadays is how school can capitalize on the didactic and methodological principles of adult 38

education. The key concepts are: heterogeneous learning groups, customer- and learner-orientation. Building adult education on school education the permeability between institutions in the education system, and the attending to individuals in disadvantageous learning situations all assume and need an intensive dialogue between school and adult education (Nittel/Schöll 2003: 5). The interpretation of paid work as a central part of personality A further important characteristic of all these concepts is that they consider (explicitly or implicitly) paid work to be the most important precondition of social participation and at the same time the most important part of one’s personality. Working adults are the prototypes for Lifelong Learning (Brödel 1998, Kraus 2001, Faulstich 2003, Hamacher/Wittmann 2005).

The most important differences of the concepts The most important differences of the European Lifelong Learning concepts stem from the different goals of the respective organizations. These can be divided into two groups: cultural-political and economic (Kraus 2001). Cultural-political organizations With the help of the LLL concept, cultural and political organizations wish to achieve social changes. Examples are UNESCO and the European Council. The first wishes to accomplish world peace and humanistic aims with international cooperation between education, research and culture organizations.4

4 „More fundamentally, however, UNESCO will serve peace and mutual understanding by emphasizing the value of education as a manifestation of the spirit of concord, stemming from the will to live together, as active members of our global village, thinking and organizing it for the good of future generations. It is the way that UNESCO will contribute to a culture of peace” (UNESCO 1996: 34-35).

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Based on these aims, UNESCO combines social and political goals through the application of LLL, like creating and developing democracy and humanistic attitudes. Another important aim is to help personality development, the creation of a “complete man” (Faure Report), and the “world citizen” (Delors Report), and the realization of the vision of the learning society.5 The European Council has also set itself the goal to create democracy and ensure human rights. Consequently, by applying the pedagogic paradigm of the Lifelong Learning concept it combines the ideas of equal opportunities and the development of the whole of human personality. Economic organizations In the centre of the argumentation of the economic organizations is the human resources (human capital) market, while the achievement of social and cultural goals is also connected to this priority. A good example is the European Union, which, apart from supporting cooperation between its member states, also strives to accomplish social and cultural unity. The emphasis is on assuring the competitiveness of the Continent, for which the LLL concept serves as a good tool. The hopes attached are about the employability of the individuals but also the creation of a European identity.6 The OECD also primarily follows economic goals (quick economic development, financial stability and prosperity), which it also wishes to achieve by emphasizing social aspects. In this way LLL is also the means for individual well-being by realizing widescale employability.7

5 „The idea of lifelong education is the master key to the education society” (vgl. UNESCO 1996:11). 6 „The importance of lifelong learning in Europe cannot be underestimated. Our economic performance increasingly depends on a highly skilled workforce, capable of adapting to new technologies and new ways of working. Our capacity to function as a democratic, tolerant society requires the active promotion of citizenship and equality of opportunity” (European Communities 2002: 1). 7 „Investment in education and training in pursuit of lifelong learning strategies serves to address these social and economic objectives simultaneously by providing long-term benefits for the individual, the enterprise, the economy and the society more generally” (OECD 1996: 15).

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The categories within the Lifelong Learning concepts In the following the LLL concepts presented above will be grouped based on two criteria: firstly, whether the given organization prefers the minimalist or maximalist view (variation of the concept). Secondly, if the Lifelong Learning concept is presented as a means of serving democracy education or developing human resources (table 2.2). Minimalist and maximalist variations of the concept As an educational policy concept, LLL has a maximalist and a minimalist dimension (Cropley 1979). According to the first, Lifelong Learning is an anthropological necessity and at the same time the most important task of (the learning) society. This interpretation evolved around the sixties as a response to the worldwide education crisis. Emphasis is placed on comprehensive values, based on which Lifelong Learning as a concept invests society with the responsibility of public education (Gerlach 2000: 179). Typical examples are the UNESCO concepts and the OECD Lifelong Learning for All programme. The minimalist interpretation of Lifelong Learning concentrates on learning within educational organizations with special emphasis on adult education. The central question is the observation and development of the structure and institutions of the education system, i.e. the questions of coordination, didactics, and methodological aspects. A good example is the OECD’s concept Recurrent Education. Democracy education/human resources development Based on its current interpretation, the primary mission of the LLL concept is the attainment of economic and social-political goals. The two most important goals connected with the concept are: democracy education and the development of human resources or human capital. 41

In Europe, the idea of learning has from its beginnings been strongly connected to the idea of democracy education. Learning has always comprised the idea of freedom (self-liberation), not only on the philosophical and anthropological level, but also from the point of view of society. This interpretation reached the peak of its popularity when the idea that equal opportunities would be ensured by education became a universally accepted political goal. Although there seems to exist an abyss between theory and practice, this goal has not lost any of its importance in the 21st century. As the result of the social and economic changes of the previous decades, the interpretation of Lifelong Learning as a theory which could improve human resources came to the prominence at the end of the 20th century. In contrast to democracy education, which accentuates personality and self-definition, this view focuses on the process of adaptating to different social, political and economic changes. The need for Lifelong Learning is explained by the economic and technical progress and the changed needs on the market of human resources. The idea of Lifelong Learning as the most important factor for social prosperity was first outlined by the OECD in 1973 in the concept of Recurrent Education. A Strategy for Lifelong Learning. In this, learning and education receive a dual role: On the one hand, they are the driving force of economic growth, and on the other they are also the tools for achieving it (Gerlach 2000: 61). In Europe this view is connected to the question of employment and employability, but also to the issue of economic competition on the global market, especially concerning the Japanese and American and in recent years, also the Chinese competitors. This reasoning became even more important in the last few decades because of the large budgetary deficits and huge debts accumulated by some countries.

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The interpretation of the LLL concept

Minimalist variation

Democracy education

Maximalist variation European Council 1970 UNESCO 1996

1972

and

OECD 1996a Human resources development

OECD 1973

EU 1994 and 1995b OECD 1996a

a The OECD concept Lifelong Learning for All mentions three goals of LLL: Apart from economic progress, personality development and social togetherness also play an important role; because of this, the concept can be placed in both categories. b Although there are economic reasons at the centre of the argument about the importance of LLL in the EU’s concepts, democracy education, equal opportunity, technological development and the formation of a European identity also play an important role. Table 2.2: The most important relationship between democracy education / human resources development and the minimalist/maximalist variations of the European Lifelong Learning concepts

Summary In summary it can be stated that the European educational policy concepts of LLL are striving to attain two different goals, although they presuppose and complement each other at the same time. Firstly, LLL serves the development and fulfillment of personality; secondly, it assists in the accomplishment of social, political and economic goals. Examined in detail, the majority of the educational policy concepts represent the maximalist view, i. e. they see LLL as an activity which extends over every area of life.

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3.

Lifelong Learning and school education

This chapter examines the relationship between Lifelong Learning and school. First it analyzes the function and social role of school. Then it presents the expectations in connection with Lifelong Learning: the opportunities of acquiring and developing basic skills and the motivation to learn. Finally, it presents the shortcomings of the practice applied in today’s schools and presents a short summary of two selected school development proposals from the international educational science literature.

The social function and role of school „School is good if one can learn really necessary things there. This is something we don’t own yet, which we hadn’t done well originally, and we hadn’t known previously” affirmed Hartmut von Hentig when his nephew Tobias went to first grade and asked why children have to go to school (Hentig 2006: 28). Traditionally, the role of school depends on the dialectic links between individual development and the preparation for social life. As Humboldt put it, the goal of every educational activity is „the harmonious, versatile development of individuals which leads to the creation of an independent and self-determined personality enriching humanity through his/her ideals and uniqueness” (see Hentig 1996: 40). Ipfling distinguishes between three important roles of school: personality development, the conveying of social norms, and selection, through 45

which the social integration of the individual is accomplished; in short: school serves the socialization of individuals and their selection process (Ipfling 1998), i. e. the regulation of social position, which also happens with the help of the education system. Of necessity, this last function may contradict the first two: the development of individuals' personality may run contrary to the integration process into social life. Today's school has to prepare individuals for living in a society which does not yet exist. Resulting from the accelerating technical, social and economic progress, hitherto known socio-cultural orientation changes or loses some of its importance, e. g. the changed role of the church. There are varions decision and choice possibilities in the way individuals lead their lives. Thereby, the world around us becomes more and more complex. The individual is given the task to decide for themselves and in a responsible way about the offered possibilities. For these reasons, people in the 21st century need knowledge, general education, professional expertise, with the help of which they can actively participate, to their own and society’s benefit, in the building of this changing world, may it be work or social life. „In this world, when something new is discovered or invented almost daily, when computers answer all existing questions, when big corporations and international companies control politics, there is need, first of all, for brave and trustworthy, curious and friendly, attentive and reflective people, for people who can see through things, and are self-aware” (Hentig 2006: 77). How can this be accomplished? To answer this question and thereby to define the tasks that will help to accomplish the above goals modern European pedagogy and pedagogic thinking acknowledges two basic school models: 1.) the reductionist (restraining) model 2.) the complex (expansive) model (Bábosik 2000). 46

The reductionist model is based on the perception that society does not only expect school to solve too many problems but that these problems are unsolvable for school alone, the problem of drug consumption for example. Being overloaded with tasks, school, as a result, ignores systematic education, which is its number one goal (it was established for this) and which no other organization can offer. As a solution, this model advises school to become once again the place for teaching-learning, while other tasks should in future be taken on by other institutions and individuals. Thus, education and social learning should be put back into the hands of families and other educators.8 Accordingly, the scope of duties for schools should be reduced to teaching. In Germany, Hermann Giesecke represents this line. The complex, or expansive model claims that apart from teaching, school should also tackle other training and socialization tasks. It argues that students are obliged to spend the majority of their lives in school, so that in this way it becomes not only the place of learning but also a stage of their lives. Students’ problems originating outside school will sooner or later result in learning disorders, so school cannot connive at these. The most renowned representative of this model in Germany is Hartmut von Hentig, who tried to put the theory of „school as a stage of life” (Schule als Lebensraum) into practice in the Bielefelder Laborschule. The success of the model was proved in the PISAsurveys: the social competence of the school’s students was far above the German average, whilst their learning results were not any worse than the country´s average.

8 In contrast to other European countries, in Germany half-day schooling and fulltime motherhood has become the standard. Outside school versatile, culturally varied educational programmes have developed, i.e. municipal institutions, sports clubs and religious organizations offer their programmes.

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In Europe, the education policy trend today is toward the expansive model: i. e. that the time span and scope of tasks of school should be broadened. This is supported by both the success of the expansive model, which can be proved empirically, and the shortcomings of the reductionist model.

The Lifelong Learning concept and what is expected from school Since the proclamation of the European Year of Lifelong Learning in 1996, the LLL concept has been considered the only possible answer to the current political and economic changes (not only) in Europe (Óhidy 2006a). Through the extension of the socially desirable learning period throughout one’s whole life, Lifelong Learning is setting two goals: firstly, to change individuals’ subjective biographies and secondly, to implement political and structural changes in society as a whole. Within this concept the role of school is creating the basis for LLL. As the European Committee’s Memorandum affirms: „Lifelong Learning sees all learning as a seamless continuum `from cradle to grave`. High quality basic education for all, from a child´s youngest day forward, is the essential foundation. Basic education, followed by initial vocational education and training, should equip all young people with the new basic skills required in a knowledge-based economy. It should also ensure that they have to `learn to learn` and that they have a positive attitude towards learning” (European Committee 2000: 6-7).

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„Non scholae, sed vitae discimus”8 Seneca stated. This is especially valid for Lifelong Learning as the most important educational task: „One of the criteria of Lifelong Learning is the degree to which educational institutions are able to effectively endow people with knowledge, which will help them to overcome the difficulties arising throughout their lifetime, and to solve new tasks” (Harangi 2004: 77). Two things are needed for the accomplishment of Lifelong Learning: firstly, motivation to learn and interest that stem from the conviction that erudition and learning are important values; secondly, different competences that help in the realization of the motivation to learn (Achtenhagen/Lempert 2000). Consequently, one of the most important tasks of school is the training of the competences that make Lifelong Learning possible. The different techniques and skills that allow the search for and the reception and evaluation of information, create the ability to cooperate with others (Svecnik 2004: 202).

Competences and key competences By now there has been consensus in the education system that factual knowledge should be replaced by the training of different key competences. Although the notion of competence is not defined unanimously, for the purpose of this study we define „competence” as aquired requirement-specific cognitive performance dispositions, which also include meta-competences and most of the motivational attitudes. So knowledge, attitudes, skills and abilities are all part of it, while it also encompasses the cognitive and emotional components. The emphasis is not on the collection and reproduction of factual knowledge but on its successful application.

9

„We learn for life, not for school.”

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The definition of key competences is, first of all, not a scientific, but a social question, which is influenced by the idea of „ideal of man” as at the basis of education, the political goals of education, and the socio-cultural context (table 3.1).

Theoretical models and concepts

Social and individual perspectives

KEY COMPETENCES

Socio-cultural and biographical variable

Social/political consensus

Table 3.1: Selecting key competences Source: OECD/DeSeCo (2002)

The most important requirement of the key competences is that they should be usable in versatile multifunctionally ways, i. e. that they should help in the solution of many various tasks. Teaching them is the task of school. Their impact can be detected in three mutually intertwined fields:

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1.) in the field of individual personality development, where they help everyday and family life and the organization of spare time. They assist in the creation of a way of life to the satisfaction of the individual; 2.) in the world of work, where they support people to keep and to boost their ability to work, to achieve the highest possible salary, and to reach personal satisfaction; and finally 3.) in social life, where they beneficially influence the individual´s active participation in the community: By helping the individual to get to know the most important social norms and the functioning of social structures they help the adaptation process into the social environment. For pedagogy in school, the identification of these key competences is the most important assignment. In the section below, two models will be presented: the DeSeCo Project (Definition and Selection of Competences), initiated by the OECD, and the group of key competences elaborated by the European Union’s Lisbon Summit. The DeSeCo Project set the goal to lay the foundation for the theory of international performance evaluation, and to select the indicators for the surveys. The participants in the project were selected from the representatives of different scientific disciplines (sociology, psychology, philosophy, anthropology, economic sciences), and different social groups (employers, trade unions, world bank, religious institutions, etc.). At the end of the five-year research, they came up with three basic key competence groups: 1.) competences needed for autonomous acting, 2.) the ability to use different interactive ’tools’, 3.) the ability to get by in different social contexts.

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„Autonomous acting competences” means the formation of individual identity and the relative independence of the decisions and actions of the individual. „The substance of these competences is that individuals actively manage the shaping of their personal lives and professional advancement” (Svecnik 2004: 196). To achieve this, it is indispensable to know one’s own interests and rights, to recognize individual needs, to have a personal life plan, and to be able to think within a wider social context (i.e. people, nation, Europe). The notion different „tools” needs to be interpreted in the widest possible context: It can mean technical aids like the computer, but also abstract tools like using different languages or writing skills, knowledge of symbols, as well as knowledge of pieces of information, cognition and skills. The ability to get by in different social contexts signifies the individuals´ interactive ability: the capacity to interact with other individuals and (usually heterogenous) groups. Examples are the ability to form social connections, to deal with conflicts and to cooperate. A special role is assigned to „multiculturality”: the ability to deal with „people who are different”. The above key competences are the result of a far-reaching consensus between different social groups and sciences, this being their most important virtue. Their drawback is that in order to reach this consensus, they generalize and reach abstraction levels which make their practical application difficult. Another problem is the low elaboration level of the relationship between the key competences. However, their relationship with Lifelong Learning is undisputed: the autonomous acting competences are indispensably needed for the continuous learning/education of individuals so that they can adapt to the changes of different life cycles and to manage their own learning process. No learning process can be imagined without the ability to handle different „tools”. 52

The choice and evaluation of the contents of learning are in close relationship with the concrete social (learning) situations. Their importance is less and less disputed as a result of globalization. At the European Summit in Lisbon in 2000 the European Union set the goal that by 2010 it become the most competitive and dynamically developing knowledge-based society, which is capable of sustainable economic development through the creation of more workplaces of higher quality, and through a stronger social cohesion. The chairman of expert group that was charged with the realization for the Lisbon strategy was the former Dutch prime minister Wim Kok. In 2004 the comitee published the report Facing the challenge: The Lisbon strategy for growth and employment (European Communities 2004). In it the experts concluded that the Lisbon-strategy could only succeed if the implementation process was given a higher priority. The European Commission and the national Education Ministers therefore agreed on the document „Education and Training 2010“ the success of the Lisbon strategy hinges on urgent reforms (Council of the European Union 2004). The aim was to spead up the educational reforms outlined in the Lisbon-strategy. However, it seems unlikely that the envisaged deadline of 2010 can be achieved. The following table summarizes the agreed characteristics of the EU’s education system, to be achieved by 2010 (Kovács 2004).

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Europe will represent the highest quality in the field of education – the quality of its educational institutions will serve as reference worldwide. The European educational institutions will be compatible enough to permit permeability and to allow citizens to profit from their versatility. The qualification and knowledge acquired in any of the EU member countries will be acknowledged in the whole EU when individuals pursue further qualification and education. The opportunity of LLL will be open for every EU citizen, regardless of their age. Europe will be open to cooperate with regions outside the EU in the pursuit of mutual profit, whilst it will have to become a preferred destination for students and scientists from other regions of the world. Table 3.2: The expected characteristics of the EU’s education system by 2010

Both, the concept of Lifelong Learning and the education system should play a central role in the realization of these expectations. The council defined eight key competences, taking into account also the results of the DeSeCo Project. Every European citizen is expected to acquire the following competences by the end of the compulsory school education: 1.) Using one’s own mother tongue; 2.) Mathematical, natural sciences and technological culture; 3.) Foreign languages; 4.) Ability to deal with information and telecommunication devices (IT competences); 5.) Learning ability and learning volition (learning to learn);

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6.) Social competences; 7.) Entrepreneurship; 8.) Creation of cultural awareness. The ability to use one’s mother tongue is the basis of any further qualification. It means the understandable and linguistically correct expression, oral or written, of facts, thoughts and feelings on the entire scale of social contexts, in personal life and at workplaces, too. This also includes listening comprehension speech and writing skills. The function of mathematical, natural sciences and technological thinking and their basic cultivation means that the individual can solve problems arising in everyday life by using mathematical and natural sciences methods. The process is more important than the concrete knowledge. Among the natural sciences basic skills, one can find contents that explain the perceptible world around us and their respective methodologies. Basic technological knowledge means the application of these with the purpose of changing the natural environment. Communication in foreign languages represents the same expectations as using the mother tongue. Apart from that there is also need for the ability to understand and move between different cultures. The goal is that European citizens know and use at least two foreign languages. The ability to deal with information and telecommunication devices denotes the ability to gather, store, create, select and exchange information through the application of multimedia technologies. Resulting from the high rate of changes, these competences need to be kept up-to-date continuously.

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Learning ability and learning volition (learning to learn) is the most important precondition for Lifelong Learning. The organization, control and maintenance of one’s own learning process (and the inclination for this) fall under this category. Within this, effective time management, the acquisition, evaluation and usage of new information in different contexts are important. Positive selfevaluation and the skill to initiate it is as important as knowing the opportunities for and strategies of learning. Social competences comprise those interpersonal skills that make the individual capable of participating in different social situations. In a narrower sense this means the cooperation with other individuals and groups, and the solution of emerging problems, while in a wider sense it means the level of regional, national and supranational participation in communal life. Entrepreneurship means the disposition to change oneself, and the skills and abilities that make possible the development and adaptation of innovations engendered by external factors. Examples are: accountability, assuming responsibility, ability to initiate, strategic thinking, planning, managing, evaluation, dealing with risk, orientation for success, the realization and admission of one’s own strengths and weaknesses. Creating cultural awareness supposes firstly the apprehension and knowledge of the cultural background of individuals, secondly the recognition of literary, musical and other artistic creations, and the ability to creatively express oneself. The above list is much more concrete than the previous, and therefore is able to show the direction for educational policy, but general enough so that it can cover individual ways for reaching goals in every member state.

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The following table presents the relationship between the key competences elaborated in the two presented concepts. The autonomous acting competence presented by the DeSeCo project can be linked to the learning ability/volition and entrepreneurship key competences devised by the EU. The interactive usage of different „tools” refers to mother tongue and foreign language communication, basic mathematical and natural sciences cultivation, and the ability to deal with information and telecommunication tools. The ability to cooperate in heterogenous social groups belong to the European Union’s social and cultural awareness competences. In both lists, Lifelong Learning appears as a comprehensive global goal and as a key competence.

DeSeCo-Project (OECD)

Lisbon Goals (European Union)

Autonomous acting

Ability to learn and volition to learn

(work, personal life)

(learning to learn) Entrepreneurship

The ability to use different „tools” in an interactive way

Mother tongue and foreign language usage Basic mathematical and natural sciences education Ability to use information and telecommunication tools

Cooperation in heterogenous social groups

Social competences Cultural awareness

Table 3.3: Key competences

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The present practices and deficiencies of school education The results of the international performance surveys (about the efficiency of school education) have pointed out the problems and deficiencies of the education system and raised the interest of the public in these. One of the most important problems which is common in all European countries is creating and monitoring the motivation to learn, which is the basic precondition for Lifelong Learning.9 Travers’ statement at the end of the 1970s, according to which „school is more likely to be a killer of interest than the developer” (Travers 1978: 125) has not lost any of its actuality. It can be proven empirically that the more time the individual spends in eduactional institutions, the more motivation problems and deficiencies will evolve. This is accompanied by the fear of exams and the lack of selfconfidence: The majority of European students regularly judge their abilities to be worse than they actually are. From the point of view of success orientation and unsuccessfulness the consequences of this can be fatal (Schober/Spiel 2004: 206). In 2002 Barbara Schober and Christiane Spiel made a survey about the learning motivation of 490 Austrian students with questionnaires and interviews of pedagogues teaching the students. In the surveys all school types were represented. The authors wanted to answer two questions: „What are Austrian students’ actual learning motivations?” and „What is the role of school in this?” The results are representative of the situation in other European countries as well.

9 Today’s educational science does not treat motivation as a personality trait (any more), but rather as a process which can be systematically developed.

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According to the survey, students’ motivation to learn is high at their enrolment time; however, its gradual decline will be in direct relationship with the number of years spent in institutionalized education. The results have again demonstrated that school education can only be successful if it allows for the orientation of the students, supports their social relationships, and makes it possible that students manage their own learning process. It is important that school take into consideration the age and orientation of the student. Schober and Spiel drew attention to the following: The pedagogues’ opinion about their students was mostly negative. This determined to a large degree what was expected of the students and the help offered for their learning. The age of the pedagogues and their negative attitude was in direct proportion. Students did not have the feeling that with more work, they could achieve better results. According to the majority of the teachers, students were unable to deal with failure in a productive way. To sum up, the majority of Austrian teachers saw little opportunity for preparation for Lifelong Learning in schools. According to József Zsolnai Hungarian schools today do not want to take notice of the paradigm of Lifelong Learning. The vast majority of Hungarian pedagogues either do not know the concept, or, if they do, do not support it (Óhidy 2006b). In the discussion of „the PISA-shock” the controversies were about the following topics: Part of the pedagogues are either „frustrated, unsatisfied, underachieving and undermotivated”, or the educational system narrows their activeness, diligence, commitment into a process which is not functioning properly. A substantial part of people working in schools expects „the government” to solve the problem, but governments either fail to react or the reaction is too slow. Pedagogic research is missing, the prestige or rather lack of prestige of the pedagogues’ profession has a negative impact on the financing of pedagogic programmes and experiments. 59

The difficulties of accepting and applying the concept of Lifelong Learning in practice (even in case of teachers) are not specific to the Hungarian school system but international. The survey confirmed that the role of school in preparing students for Lifelong Learning, namely in developing learning motivation and key competences (especially the competence of learning how to learn), is very limited.

What should be done? International specific literature has for years now been profoundly concerned with inspecting how the preparation for Lifelong Learning in schools could become more efficient. A whole array of theories and practical examples have been born. In the following, two surveys with entirely different methods and their results will be presented: 1.) Based on their empirical findings the proposals of the above mentioned Austrian scientists Schober and Spiel, and 2.) based on the hermeneutical method, the results of the commentary for the theory of cultivation by the German pedagogue Manfred Bönsch. The Austrian researchers Schober and Spiel put together ten theses as the most important preconditions for preparing students for Lifelong Learning in schools. These are in full accordance with the conclusions of other international surveys and the scientific literature (i.e. the proposals of the OECD and the German Forum Bildung). The following table summarizes these theses:

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1) The creation and conservation of positive learning motivation should begin as early as possible. 2) The personality and interest of students should play a greater role. 3) School should become more open: there should be cooperation and coordination between learning in school and learning outside school 4) The independent learning management process and the bearing of responsibility for the effectiveness of one’s own learning process should be given a central role. 5) Group-learning forms and project-learning methods in lessons are very important. 6) The development of competences as learning goals should receive more weight. 7) Pedagogues should learn the application of feedback, which increases the motivation to learn and students’ performance. 8) Equal opportunity of genders should be assured. 9) Age and other developmental characteristics are to be taken into consideration. 10) In teacher training and teacher work, learning methods that increase motivation should play a greater role. Table 3.4: The most important preconditions for the preparation for Lifelong Learning in schools

According to Manfred Bönsch, it is essential that a new, multidimensional idea of erudition (education) should be created, which contains the following: 1.) individual aspects 2.) social dimensions 3.) content ingredients and 4.) communication ingredients.

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The individual aspects mainly refer to the critical self-knowledge which evolves during the learning period and which point the way to autonomy and independent acting. The individual is the active manager of his/her own learning and is also in charge of its success. „Ultimately, every learning process is the personal responsibility of the person who learns. Nobody can be forced into learning. The task of the learning person is to organize and control one’s own learning process” (Achtenhagen/Lempert 2000:14). In the centre of the social aspects are the participation and emancipation aspirations: the LLL concept is in strong correlation with the endeavours to create and maintain democracy. To ensure equal social opportunities by education is a generally acknowledged political goal worldwide. As the Memorandum about LLL of the European Committee states: „All those living in Europe, without exception, should have equal opportunities to adjust to the demands of social and economic change and to participate actively in the shaping of Europe´s future” (European Committee 2001: 2). The content ingredients raise the question of how the education/civilization idea can be accomplished; i. e. which learning contents should be used? Bönsch purposes a „bundle of knowledge”, which should be composed of four main kinds of contents (table 3.5): a.) contents fostering the existential orientation, i. e. the way of thinking about one’s own life and world; the recognition of different relationships; contents promoting social commitment and activity; b.) learning contents dealing with the so-called global key problems (environment protection, the possibility of creating and sustaining peace);

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c.) subjects that promote knowledge about the world; d.) subjects that serve the enrichment of one’s life (i.e. literature, the arts, music). The most important characteristic of the communication aspect needs to be striving for symmetry. This means that instead of making weaker, younger people with less knowledge the object of communication, making them its subjects instead, i. e. education should become more interactive and the asymmetrical pedagogic relationship with the students should be made more symmetric. Amongst other things, this means that the teacher, being liberated from the traditional role of „knowledge conveyor”, acts as a „work-mate” or advisor10, while he/she is still in charge of the learning process (Óhidy 2005: 101). Table 3.5 summarizes the content aspects of the modern education (civilization) ideal.

Summary In order to realize the goals of the European Union (originally to be attained by 2010), there is a need for considerable changes and improvement if time allows in the remaining few years and beyond 2010. A multitude of measures has been introduced in the European states since the turn of the century to achieve Lifelong Learning. Howewer, there are tremendous differences between theory and practice. The majority of European schools is unable to attend to their tasks in a desirable way, i. e. the motivation to learn and the acquisition of key competences that are needed to achieve Lifelong Learning remain below expectation.

10 Because of this Hermann Giesecke defines the role of the teacher as „Lernhelfer” (Giesecke 1996).

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The task of the coming years will be the adequate realization of the requirements elaborated by the two presented proposals. To attain this, social volition, a general agreement within society and an adequate economic background are essential.

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3 Subjects which promote knowledge of the world - Mathematics - Physics - Chemistry - Biology - Geography - History - Politics - Work - Economy - Nature - Mother tongue - Foreign Languages

Learning/subject contents

2 Current global key problems - the question of peace, the relations between West and East - environmental protection - the opportunities and dangers of the natural scientific -, technical- and technologica l -, and economic progress - the so -calle d “developed ” and “developing ” countries, the relations between North and South - democratic development (including economic questions) - work and unemployment - work and leisure time - the social role of individuals/ small groups and mammoth organizations - the conflict between the generations - the individual pursuit of happiness and social responsibility - the question of national identity and universal responsibility - traditional and alternative ways of life - the relations between local inhabitants and foreigners, and the relation between the genders - the relations between people with disabilities ( physical and mental) and “healthy” people - the problems and opportunities of mass media and their effects - the role of sciences, every day life becoming “scientific ”.

4 Subjects which serve the enrichment of one ´s life - Music - Sports - Arts - Wood - and Metalwork - Textile work - Gardening - Cooking - Languages

1 Contents fostering existential orientation - A value and norm system built on freedom, reason and justice - social sensitivity and ability to act - being socially active and assuming responsibility (social) - the search for the meaning of li fe and self -knowledge, with the ability to use and connect different subjects (philosophy, religion, law, etc.)

Table 3.5: The basis for creating the modern idea of cultivation Source: Bönsch (1996: 34)

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4.

Lifelong Learning and adult education

The idea of Lifelong Learning and the educational concept of LLL are particularly compatible with adult education. This is shown, amongst other things, by the fact that the concept was received favourably and accepted very early in adult education, while in other areas of the education system it was ignored for a long time. The following chapter highlights the links between the LLL concept and adult education.

The concept of adult education Educational science considers training (instruction) as being a (sub)category of education (as a personality shaper). In this respect, education refers to conveying knowledge, while instruction refers to forming thinking and acting processes, proficiency and skills. Thus, the pair concept of education/instruction concept has become useful to denoted these (different) activities. Another interpretation uses the term education for general training, and the term instruction for special, vocational training (Csoma 2004). Despite the interpretation differences, the terms adult education and adult training were used as synonyms, as long as they both denote the entirety of institutionalized adult education.

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The term andragogy, which is becoming better known , was created analogously to the Greek compound pedagogy (aner, andros means man or adult person), and it has added the notion of self-education, self-training to the category of adult education (Gellért 1970: 23). In some countries a completely independent system of institutions was created for adult education, like the community colleges in Scandinavian countries. In Germany the establishment of the adult education institution system as the fourth pillar of the education system (additional to public education, vocational training and higher education) is in close relationship with the spreading of the LLL idea (Künzel/Böse 1995: 97). In contrast, adult education in Hungary does not constitute an independent institutional unit within the public education system but instead functions as a part of it „in a differentiated and specially configured way” (Magyar 1995: 28). There are several theories about the place of adult education in the education system and in educational science. The most prevalent of these is the one according to which training, instruction and education are all best denoted by pedagogy, which also refers to educational science. Adult education or andragogy is a subcategory of this, both in the education system and as a scientific discipline as well. According to another viewpoint, both pedagogy (educating young people) and andragogy (educating adults) are equal parts of the universal „education of human beings”, i. e. „anthropagogy”. Additional to these, there is gerontho-andragogy, or geronthagogy, i.e. educating the elderly (Csoma 2004: 18).

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The goal and function of adult education In democratic countries the primary goal of every kind of education is to create and maintain and civilians’ ability to act, and in this way to support the idea of the active civilian. This also applies to adult education, whose goal and function cannot be separated from other functions of the education system. „Adult education allows the correction and completion of the social role of public education, vocational training, and higher education (which more or less functions in an irregular way): the social openness, the creation of equal opportunity, and the mobilization character of these will be completed” (Csoma 1995: 11). From its concept, adult education has been providing and still is providing complementary and higher education tasks. More specifically: counterbalancing the shortcomings of the public education system is at its centre. Public education is failing to attend to its three main tasks: personality development; the conveying of social norms, thus fostering the adaptation process of the individual to society; and selection (Óhidy 2006c). In 1907 Alexander Bernát, university teacher of Philosophy, summed up the deficiencies of school education in the following way: „Every kind of school education, even the most impeccable one, suffers from two big handicaps: the first is that it’s obliged to apply a certain degree of coercion, which transforms learning for many into grudging work; the second is that it can only build the basis, it has to entrust the individual with his/her further progress (which happens by the individual’s own free aspiration). […] School education can only be good if it entails the free, self-sufficient further education of the individual, which lacks every kind of formality” (see Maróti 2002).

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The results of international performance surveys about the efficiency of school education have drawn the attention of the European public to the problems and drawbacks of the education systems. According to the results of the PISAsurveys, the Hungarian education system, instead of creating equal social opportunities, conserves and recreates them. For this reason, the adult education´s compensation role and its responsibility of providing a „second chance”, to achieve institutional (formal) qualification in public education, in vocational training, and in higher education, becomes even more important. The notion of a second chance is strongly connected to the function of assuring equal social opportunities through adult education, but it is not the same: „While this second chance is about the (repeated) opportunity to advance in the hierarchy of the labour market, creation of social opportunities offers the odds of a more complete social advancement: existential improvement, changes in one’s way of living and cultural status, and occupying a better place in the prestige hierarchy or the entire society” (Csoma 2004: 24). Katalin Nagy and László Zrinszky differentiate between four basic trends in the history of adult education. These can be grouped, according to their contents, participants, the relation between the educator and the participant, and their relation to politics (table 4.1). At the end of the last century, the traditional compensation function of adult education was faced with new tasks. Resulting from the social, political, economic, scientific and technological progress of the 20th century, the speed of changes in society and economy increased considerably. Accordingly, there were revolutionary changes on the market of human resources as well: in almost every area of social and economic life, systematic re-education was necessary even where the terms of employment remained the same.

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Thus, the concept of further education acquired a new meaning: „It means less and less simple addition, completion, amending one’s knowledge; it refers more and more to switching to something new” (Zrinszky 2002: 135). According to Matthias Finger, in today’s society the new function of adult education is „learning to find a way out” of the different complex, sociopolitical-economic crises, which are a result of modernism (Finger 1997: 188). (Further) education has become a lifelong task.

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Content

Popularizing

Participation

Educator-

Explicit

Participant Relationship

Relation to Politics Apolitical

Classical

Based on the

Conveying

humanist education

concepts of the multipliers

knowledge – passive reception

Liberal

What adults need

„Civilization is a personal

„Laissez fairé”

„Neutral”

issue” Pragmatic

What is

Based on

Object-

Politics play

actually

narrow

centred

hardly any

useful for individuals

utilitarian motives, adults

education

role

choose what they need Social

What helps

Based on

‘Partner

Mostly

the individual to

strong recruitment

relation’, group

participates in politics in

socially adapt and to

and advertising

dynamics

an open way

solve problematic situations Table 4.1: Trends in adult education Source: Nagy/Zrinszky (1979: 400)

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Adult education and the Lifelong Learning concept In many European countries, like Germany, Lifelong Learning and adult education are considered synonyms (Gerlach 2000; Kraus 2001). According to this point of view and because of its mandatory character school education is not influenced by the idea of Lifelong Learning: learning can be viewed as a natural process (both socially and biographically) at the doorstep of adulthood and during that time learning is socially mandatory. In contrast, Lifelong Learning is much less self-evident and can be less connected to concrete institutions. The Lifelong Learning-Conference held by UNESCO in Montreal in 1960 was the first to state that, as a result of the social changes and the increased rate of scientific and technological progress, „the traditional division of age groups according to which childhood and young adult age is the time of learning and preparation, and adulthood is the time of creative work, is breaking apart. There is a new situation born, new needs are appearing, which dictate the acquisition of constantly new knowledge, and the formation of new skills, even within the life span of a single generation” (Csoma 1995: 4). The following table summarizes the five current questions of Lifelong Learning, two of which unequivocally adopt the pedagogic concept of adult education: 1. Globalization 2. European integration 3. Economic policy orientation 4. Adaption of the didactics of adult education 5. Focusing on the formal and informal, and the self-directed learning processes. Table 4.2:

Current questions of Lifelong Learning

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By „globalization”’ we generally mean the interlocking of the economic systems of the world. „This process substitutes political decision making with what is happening on the world market and in this way it creates the basic contradiction of modern times: the conflict of interest between politics and economics” (Beck 1999: 5). Globalization has many dimensions of which not only environmental protection and communication theory and culture result in an intertwining and harmonization process between the education systems of the world. The European integration process influences the development of the education systems in member states to a large degree. By admitting new, Eastern European members, and by drafting a common constitution, new perspectives have opened for international cooperation within the Union and the European Council. According to Josef Olbricht, the tendencies of market orientation, competition and economic considerations have been emphasized; in the education systems of all European states this results from globalization and European integration (Olbricht 2001: 388). In the centre of European LLL is the labour market, whose social and cultural goals have been elaborated in this context. The stress is on ensuring the competitiveness of the continent: the hopes attached are about the best possible employability of the individual but also about creating a new European identity. While in the seventies the concept was defined mostly by the demands of social reform, from the beginning of the nineties two other basic tendencies can be discovered. One of them is liberal, market-oriented and looks upon (further) education as a service: If every adult learns until the end of his/her life, demand for education (civilization) as a product increases. Chances are that this will increase the quality and the quantity on the supply side.

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The other tendency borrows the logics of the labour market, according to which Lifelong Learning is viewed as a measure of loyalty to the employer. Resulting from this, the interpretation according to which general and vocational education should be separated is spreading more and more. In the nineties the didactic orientation of Lifelong Learning which is built on adult education and the ideas of the constructive learning theory and highlights the learning strategies and lifelong competence development evolved (Arnold 2000: 151). Within this, the self-sufficient learning management and the questions of formal and informal learning are emphasized. Self-directed learning management means that the learner, who, as the subject of this process is the active leader of it and is responsible for his/her (formal and informal) learning, ist at the heart of the learning process. According to the European Union’s Memorandum, non-formal learning “takes place alongside the mainstream systems of education and training and does not typically lead to formalized certificates. One of its possible locations is the workplace, but it can happen in non-government social organizations and groups as well as in organizations (and services) which complete these formal systems. Informal learning “is a natural accompaniment to everyday life. Unlike formal and nonformal learning, informal learning is not necessarily intentional learning, and so may well not be recognized even by individuals themselves as contributing to their knowledge and skills” (European Committee 2000: 7). The concept of Lifelong Learning also had an impact on the constructivist learning theory, which defines learning not as a reaction to teaching/education but as responses given to different situations emerging in one’s life (Dohmen 2001: 187).

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The constructivist learning theory and adult education The constructivist learning theory, which redefined learning as knowledge construction (Terhart 1999:24), meant a paradigm shift in psychology. The earlier behaviourist theory stated that learning is the result of different stimuli and effects coming from the environment; thus it can be regulated by engendering the right stimuli and alternating their strength. Later, as the result of the so-called cognitive turning point, the interpretation of learning as information processing and the active role of the learner were put in the centre. Despite this, the model can still be regarded as a more complex version of the behaviorist learning model. According to the constructivist learning theory, learning is the independent activity of the learning individual in the course of which knowledge, content and abilities are „constructed”, or consciously built, instead of just being acquired or processed. This process never begins at zero, but builds on already existing knowledge as the starting point for interpreting the information received, or learning as knowledge construction. This kind of knowledge is always connected to situations and contexts and depends on the learning individual, who stays in charge of and reflects on the learning process. Reflection is an integral part of the learning process and can increase its speed. In the constructivist learning theory, a prominent role is assigned to the motivation of the learning individual, more specifically to her/his internal, socalled intrinsic motivation. According to the psychological needs model by Deci and Ryan, human behaviour is greatly influenced by autonomy (self-definition), competence (effect), social belonging, and the innate psychological needs.

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Together these are responsible for the creation of an intrinsic motivation, which originates in the thing itself and is substantially different from the desires coming from the outside, and referring to the effect of things, not the thing itself, like being rich or famous (Hartinger/Fölling-Albers 2002: S. 22). A range of empiric research proves that intrinsic learning is usually more successful than extrinsic learning. Although the constructivist learning theory is not entirely new in adult education, it signifies an important change in its approach to both theory and practice: the term “adult education” was changed to learning in adulthood, the paradigm of teaching was exchanged for the paradigm of learning. The following table contrasts the most important characteristics of these:

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Teaching paradigm

Learning paradigm Mission and Goals

Offering educational services

Initiating the learning process

Goal: conveying knowledge from the

Goal: the student should discover and

teacher/institution to the student

construct his/her own knowledge

Offering courses and programmes

Creating an environment

Increasing the quality of education

Increasing the quality of learning

Involving a wide circle of students; quantity indicators

Attaining students’ success; quality indicators

efficient

learning

Criteria of success Input and resources Quantity and quality of resources

Perspectives of learning and student efficiency

The quality of students entering the

The quality of outgoing students and

education system

their prospects

Developing and expanding curricula

Developing

learning

technologies,

expansion Increased number of students enrolled, increased salaries

Increased knowledge and efficiency

The

The „quality” of the students, learning

„quality”

of

the

institution,

education Table 4.3: Differences of the teaching and learning paradigms Source: Kraiciné (2004: 4).

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Competence development in adult education In the concept of LLL the so-called key competences appear as the most important learning content. The European Union defines eight key competences for European citizens (see page 48). As the European Union’s Memorandum states: „Member States´ formal education and training systems – whether initial, further/higher or adult/continuing – are responsible for ensuring, as far as possible, that each and every individual acquires, updates and sustains an agreed skills threshold” (European Committee 2000: 11). In this context, the ability to learn, which needs to be acquired mainly in childhood and adolescene, but must be improved continuously later in adulthood, plays a most significant role. The basic elements of the learning ability are the so-called metacognitions, i. e. the competences of learning and learning management, knowing the learning strategies and the ability to consciously direct the learning process (reflective dealing with learning, i.e. knowledge storage techniques and memorization). Even more important are the subjective preconditions of learning: motivation, interest, and values (Achtenhagen/ Lempert 2000 : 12). The acquisition of key competences and theformation of the ability to learn happen mainly in the public (school) education,while their further development happens in adult education. László Zrinszky draws attention to the fact that developing the general ability to learn is not sufficient in itself, because „one of the learning difficulties adults have to face can be discovered in the shortcomings of their ability to learn” (Zrinszky 2002: 142). Because of this, the explicit and methodological teaching of learning methods and strategies is an indispensable requirement.

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The other important aspect that needs to be considered in adult education is the central role of key competences in employment: problem solving competence, creativity, learning and thinking ability, reasoning and evaluation abilities, cooperation and communication abilities, ability to assume responsibility, independence and ability to perform (Siegrist 1997: 141). According to János Setényi adult education needs to become student centered in order to achieve these goals and he defines four pillars: making use of individual life experience; making clear the meaning and use of the curriculum; flexible and individual management of the learning process; continuous and personal evaluation (Setényi 2004: 30).

The learning adult Setényi differentiates the following categories in adult education: the retraining and further training of employees; the training of the temporarily inactive (i.e. those on maternity leave); the vocational training of the young; the retraining and socialization of the unemployed; the integration of the elderly; the use of the products of education for their own´s sake. There are two basic goals for participating in adult education: 1.) the expansion of one’s general education/civilization 2.) the improvement and maintenance of employability, in most cases by further vocational training. The expansion of one’s general education serves the self-fulfilment of the learning person, performed to be happy. From the point of view of society, this is the basic condition of maintaining democracy and the most important tool of social participation (Kraus 2001: 100).

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Through constant (lifelong) learning, it becomes possible for the individual to adequately respond to social, political and economic changes. In the words of Hartmut von Hentig: „General education is the tool which makes it possible for individuals in a society to think about their common fate” (see Bönsch 1996: 32). For this reason, one of the most indispensable parts of civilization/education is the constant critical reflection on the social and economic context, including the concrete socio-cultural situation and the biographical background of the individual. A Hungarian survey evaluating the conditions of Lifelong Learning as a human resources developer has shown that „economy and employability do not any more exert a direct influence on the lifelong learning of the working population” (Zachár 2005: 6). The sustainability and improvement of employability is an existential question for the learning individual in order to become successful on the labour market: „For much of most people´s lives, having paid work underpins independence, self-respect and well-being, and is therefore a key to people´s overall quality of life” (European Committee 2000: 5). The decisive criterium of the competitiveness of manpower is the possession of work activity-centred knowledge, which comprises the possession of up-to-date technical, technological knowledge and the abilities needed for performing work and solving new problems (thinking ability, creativity, innovation). From the point of view of society, the lifelong learning process of the individual is important for the development of human resources, which „by increasing employment, has a positive impact, on the economic progress of the industries which create and spread knowledge. Human capital-intensive national economies are more competitive because they can invest the majority of their GDP11 in the creation of new knowledge.

11 Gross Domestic Product

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By this, the rate of improvement of human capital increases further, which has a positive effect on the whole economy” (BMBF 2002: 37). Károly Miklós sums up the goals of adult education in the following way: -

in areas where there is a fallback owing to the education system you need to catch up with the technical and economic progress

-

adult education needs to keep pace with the results of science and technology, so that people who have vocational knowledge or degrees will be able to further produce high quality

-

in every area preparations need to be undertaken in order to learn about the results of technical improvement, so that their utilization can be achieved sooner (Miklós 1973: 18).

The OECD differentiates between two categories of adults: learners and nonlearners. Within these, there are two further categories: in the group of learning adults there are the ones who are willing to learn in any form (formal, nonformal, and informal), and those who learn exclusively within the frames of formal education. Non-learning adults can be subdivided into two categories: those who cannot (mainly because of financial reasons), and those who do not want to (mainly because of prestige reasons) learn. In order to achieve Lifelong Learning, there is need for different motivation strategies for every group. C.E. Houle distinguishes between three different motivations in adult education: 1.) a goal-oriented learner attitude, which regards education as a tool needed in order to achieve clearly defined goals. 2.) an activity-oriented student, who participates in adult education programmes in order to satisfy social needs 3.) a learning-oriented adult student, who is seeking knowledge for its own sake (Ruddock 1997, 22). Lifelong Learning can be found most likely in this last case. The following table connects Houle’s motivation attitudes with the categories of the OECD and completes it by listing the possible motivation strategies (table 4). 82

Learning adults

Non-learning adults

Learn in any form Learn with help

Learning-

Cannot learn (lack of time or

Do not want to learn

money, or because

(because of

of „old age”)

supposed loss of prestige)

Activity-

oriented

oriented Goal-oriented Motivation strategy

Giving the learner Supplying

Support in terms

Change of

information about adequate choice different of programmes

of time and money approach Change of (individual)

opportunities to learn

approach (individual)

Change of methods (adult education)

Table 4.4: Learner and non-learner adults Source: OECD (2003) with own additions

The learning-oriented group learns because of their own internal motivation; for this reason there is no need for special motivation strategies, it will suffice if these people are informed about the different learning opportunities. In the gerontological approach, education/learning for the elderly can be part of this. Learning is freed of employment pressures, and is “reduced” to learning to have pleasure; it is also the remedy for losing pace and sinking into passivity.

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The group learning with help usually learns because of a concrete, well-defined reason. In connection with this, Zrinszky draws attention to the dangers of extreme pragmatism or exam-centeredness: „Because students want to achieve, first of all, a qualification […], the majority of them concentrate on knowledge for the exam even if they are strongly interested in the subject” (Zrinszky 2002: 132). Among the learners who learn with help we find the special group of adult learners who are activity-oriented; these people attend the education courses in order to build and maintain social relations. For them, it is important that an adequate choice of programmes is compiled, from which they will choose the most appropriate. Motivating the non-learning adult group is a much more complex task. When he inspected the further education of Hungarian adults, Zoltán Györgyi discerned three causes of not learning: age, financial difficulties and lack of time (which originated in most cases from too much work) (Györgyi 2003). Motivation strategies that work in this target group are providing the necessary conditions and changing the attitudes of adults who consider themselves too old to learn. Additional causes are bad experiences associated with (mostly) school education, and the loss of prestige associated with the student role. These can be eliminated, or ameliorated by applying methods of adult education: the voluntary character of learning and its independent character. Naturally, practical application is a lot more complex, especially concerning the involvement of non-learner adults in the different educational programmes. The reasons for participating or not participating in adult education can be found in part in the socio-cultural context of a national state. „In Hungary today the majority of the adult society does not participate in these activities and do not learn” (Mayer 2003, 41).

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In his work Does the Hungarian society learn? Zoltán Györgyi compares the proportion of learning adults in different social groups of different ages. The bases of the survey were age, gender, education, education acquisition forms, and income. Adult learners, in his view, form six different status groups: 1.) Laggards (women with low qualification, men with low qualification and a low income level); 2.) Aspiring workers with specialization (men with low qualification, but high income, men with vocational training); 3.) Trained men and women (women with full-time vocational qualification and low income, men with a full-time high school diploma and low income); 4.) Highly qualified men and women (men with a degree from a higher education institution and low income, women with a special training diploma (part-time and correspondence degree course) and low income, or with a high school diploma (full-time) and low income); 5.) The intellectual elite (men with a high school diploma (part-time) and low income, a high school diploma and high income, or a degree from higher education institutions and high income, women with a high school diploma and high income, or a degree from a higher education institution (part-time training) and low income, or a degree from a higher education institution and high income); 6.) Retired men and women (people above 55). The survey showed that not only those who have a good employment position and for whom Lifelong Learning is an indispensable element of their career (i.e. the elites with a diploma) strive to participate in adult education, but „there exists a stratum of people with vocational training whose determination to learn and their readiness to make sacrifices for it can be compared to those of the elite” 85

(Györgyi 2003: 156). The former often suffer from a lack of time, while the latter suffer from a lack of financial resources. In the case of laggards, the lack of motivation to learn can be attributed to poor financial resources on the one hand, but also to their previous negative experiences and their fear stemming from these, which they often try to hide behind their „age”. The differences between the genders can mostly be found in the division of work within the families: in every female status group, the family role is a hindrance of learning. The most significant result of the survey is that it shows that participation in adult education is a combination of the above listed phenomena. According to Mária Szokoly Kraiciné´s analysis, the main problem is that while the adult education market would need to fulfill the student-oriented ‘learning’ paradigm, the Hungarian adult education system – which mostly materializes in higher education – is built on the teacher-oriented ‘teaching’ paradigm and follows the traditional model and structure of school education.

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60,0 50,0

Percentage

40,0 30,0 20,0 10,0 0,0 Laggards

Aspiring workers with education

Trained workers

Highliy qualified people

Intellectual elite

Retired

Status Groups

Table 4.5: Participation in adult education Source: Györgyi 2003: 148

Summary „Acquiring civilization” in our day and age is a „never ending story”, which will accompany individuals through the entirety of their lives, and can only be reached by Lifelong Learning. The realization of the idea of modern civilization and Lifelong Learning cannot be the task of school alone: Even a wellfunctioning school system is incapable of this by itself.

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The concept of Lifelong Learning means continuous learning „from the cradle to the grave”: from the period before mandatory schooling to the time following school and active employment. Since educational science regarded the question as one pertaining to andragogy, adult education occupies a central role in it even today. The concept of Lifelong Learning, however, connects the learning process of different times in our lives. It tries to create its unity both on the theoretical and practical levels. Building adult education on school education, assuring openness and mobility (permeability) between the institutions of the education system, and caring for those who are in disadvantageous learning situations presupposes an intensive dialogue between the institutions of the education system, mainly between school and adult education. It is important that adult education as such tries (in future) to counterbalance the differences and shortcomings and social segregation of public education. The difference between elite education (serving the interests of smaller social groups) and the quality of „mass education” leads to a selection process in society. Gyula Csoma outlines two possible ways for the future progress of Hungarian adult education: firstly, the concept which aids the structural development of society helps the upward movement of lower social classes, and secondly, the concept which tries to prevent this mobility tries to conserve the state of society (Csoma 1995: 12). The author of this book votes for the first model, because in her view, an adult education which fosters sharp social conflicts does not help further democratic progress nor the creation of stable social prosperity.

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5. Preparation for Lifelong Learning in practice: cooperative learning

In today’s European pedagogic methodology literature the issue of preparation for Lifelong Learning often brings up the importance of cooperative learning methods. However, the application of these in lessons (the question of ’HOW’) is rarely discussed. After a short theoretical overview the following chapter intends to introduce the reader to the practice of the most important cooperative learning methods by presenting concrete examples, which were elaborated in the first semester of the 2005 academic year for the University of Bielefeld´s Seminar „Education development and school education” (Unterrichtsentwicklung und schulische Bildung). Naturally, the proposed exercises can be applied in higher education and, with some alterations, in grammar schools and comprehensive schools as well.

Why are cooperative learning methods needed? The ever increasing need for cooperative learning methods in institutionalized learning today can be traced back to the shortcomings of traditional Pedagogy (Nagy 2005). The results of the latest pedagogical and psychological research prove that the traditional, mostly frontal ways of teaching do not meet the demands of today’s society any more, they do not prepare the new generations for the active participation in the modern, knowledge-based society and for 89

Lifelong Learning. For this reason, József Nagy speaks about the failure of the traditional pedagogic culture in every important area of education, but mostly in the area of cognitive development, „the cultivation of reason” and social competence, or social behaviour. According to him (and many others), the solution would be the introduction of a competence-based, criterion-oriented pedagogy, which is one of the preconditions of Lifelong Learning. One of the most important factors of this is individual and group education by so-called active learning and the application of cooperative learning forms in school education.

What are „cooperative learning methods”? Norm Green, the international expert of cooperative learning, states that cooperative learning is not only a teaching method but also a philosophy. The cooperative approach to life means an attitude which emphasizes collaboration based on mutual respect and an emphasis on the individual performance of every member of the community (in contrast to competition, where individuals strive to eclipse other members of the group). Its precondition is the consensus created on the basis of the collaboration between members of the community. The experience hitherto shows that students who apply cooperative learning transfer the attitude of „cooperation instead of competition” into other areas of life, which fundamentally determines their relationship with other people. The cooperative learning form is based on activities of small groups (4-6 members). Beyond fostering intellectual ability and knowledge development, it plays an important role in the creation and development of students’ social skills. The students work as a group, which means shared responsibility for the results reached by the group, not only for one’s own work. 90

Cooperative learning as a method builds on the constructive learning theory, according to which the acquisition of knowledge always happens in a creative, or constructive way: The human brain not only acquires knowledge, but it sorts it, transforms it, recreates it. Like other active learning forms and in contrast to traditional learning methods, cooperative learning methods not only allow, but expressly stimulate the creative constructive functioning of the human brain. József Benda states that the most important advantages of the cooperative learning forms are the conscious development of social competences and of learnings kills based on experience: „The programme, besides the subject content also contains the development of pro-social behaviour (empathy, mutual respect, offering help, accepting others, following the flow of thought of the partner, organization management, assessment, self-control, the competences of emotional intelligence, etc.). The stress is on (experience-based) learning instead of teaching. The source of knowledge is not only the teacher and the book, but the complex educational situation” (Benda 2002: 29).

The new role of teachers The application of cooperative learning forms involves a change in the traditional teacher role. The teacher is liberated from the usual knowledgeconveyor role, and becomes, on the one hand, a helping, assisting, co-working „workmate” in students’ group work, but on the other hand he also remains in charge as a coordinator. Herman Giesecke highlights the helping role of teachers and defines them as Lernhelfer (Giesecke 1996). Norm Green presents the essence of the new teacher role in the following tasks:

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Decision making: social and special goal setting, group formation, formation of the learning environment, defining the needed learning aids, defining the tasks of the students within the group. Managing the learning process: assigning tasks, creation of positive dependence (interdependence) between the members of the group, creation of individual responsibility, setting and explaining rules (set against students’ behaviour), developing students’ cooperative skills. Observation and interference: following students’ behaviour and interfering in a helpful way during task solving. Evaluation and assessment: developing students’ self evaluation through the analytical evaluation of the group’s work (Green 2005). Based on Johnson & Johnson’s 1994 comparison the following table presents the differences between cooperative group learning and traditional group work.

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Traditional group work

Cooperative learning group

There is no positive dependence within the group

There is positive dependence within the group

There is no individual responsibility

There is individual responsibility

Homogenous group

Heterogenous group

The chosen group leader leads

Common learning management within the group

Task solving happens in the centre

Task solving and the relationship between the group equally important

members are

Social competence does not count

Developing social competences

The teacher does not interfere in the work of the group

The teacher follows the work of the group attentively and helps whenever it is needed

The group does not evaluate and reflect on their work.

Evaluation of and reflection on the learning process is the task of the group.

Table 5.1: Differences between cooperative group learning and traditional group work Source: Green 2005

Cooperative learning forms The professional application of the cooperative learning forms on teaching lessons allows for individual learning and the creation of individual ways of learning for students with different abilities, knowledge and interests. These individual learning forms make use of students’ learning and life experiences and their actual knowledge. 93

In the last two to three decades a multitude of cooperative learning forms have been elaborated in Canada, the United States and Western Europe. In the following, a lesson based on cooperative learning methods which was put together for future teachers will be presented. The presented methods can be used as independent modules, but, if needed, they can also be used as a complete unit or a part of a teaching lesson. Naturally, they can be used in other combinations, and applied for other topics.

Nametag Activity Getting to know one another and presenting oneself is in the centre of this method, which can obviously be used at the beginning of a teaching unit. 1.

Every participant receives a nametag (i. e. a rubber band with their name written on it).

2.

The participants receive a balloon, on which they write their names and something positive about themselves. In the first round of the

3.

introduction, everyone reads this and their name. The participants form pairs. One member of the pair will tell a story from their school experience which had a positive impact on his overall attitude to learning. The other member of the pair, as he listens to the story, will come up with a new positive statement about the other

4.

person, which will be written on the balloon after the story ends. In the next round, the task will be repeated with reversed roles. When everyone has finished, the participants will read out (in front of everyone) the positive statements written on their balloons.

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The goal of this task, apart from getting to know each other and presenting oneself, is to „activate” students’ individual experience and knowledge about a given topic. The informal sharing of opinion serves, as a „defreezer”, namely, it helps in the creation of a relaxed, playful atmosphere. Furthermore it helps with the preparation for the given topic. Another goal of the exercise is the creation of a positive attitude of future teachers towards children: They should concentrate, first of all, on children’s strengths and positive characteristics, which can be and need to be developed (and not on their weaknesses). The exercise should always be followed by a deeper elaboration of the topic, for example an opinion grid.

Opinion Grid (Think-Pare-Share) The method of the opinion grid (in German „Schreibgitter”) integrates and further develops one of the oldest cooperative learning methods, the Think-PareShare method (Kagan 1994), which is based on a mutual exchange of opinion and debate. The task should be performed in groups of 3 or 4 with the help of a worksheet (put together by Rolff in 2004).

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1 1

2

4

3

y y

2

y

3

y

y y

Table 5.2: Opinion grid for groups of 3 and 4 people Source: Rolff 2004

1.

„What is an efficient teaching lesson like?” This question should be written on the board.

2.

As a first step, participants list the three most important characteristics of a teaching lesson (for them), which they write on the first part of the diagram.

3.

In the next phase, group members exchange views (opinions). Students write down the other students’opinion under points 2, 3 and 4.

4.

In the next step, based on a debate between the group members, the three most important characteristics of the ones listed individually will be chosen.

5.

The characteristics chosen by the groups will be written on the board and will be discussed in a shared brainstorming.

These will be written in the central square of the diagram.

The next important step is to systematize the information. The most convenient tool for this is the mindmap method. 96

Mindmap This method is useful for the simultaneous solving of two different tasks (Buzan 1983). First, it helps in the collection of creative ideas and associations about a topic (brainstorming), then it aids the systematization of knowledge by illustrating the different logical connections and relationships. The graphic illustration of the notions and ideas connected with the topic corresponds to a high degree to the systematizing activity of the human brain and resembles the architecture of the most important knowledge-conveyor medium of our days, the internet. This similarity has a positive impact on learning efficiency. 1.

Groups of 3-4 members prepare a mindmap containing the notions and

2.

ideas collected so far on the board: time limit = 20 minutes. As a next step, all groups present their mindmaps (these should be hung side by side). In the end, a common mindmap is prepared (all groups participating) by using all the graphs of all the groups. This remains visible until the end of the exercise.

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efficient teaching lesson

the personality of the teacher

the elaboration of the syllabus in an interesting way

competences diversity of teaching methods

good coursebook

cooperative teaching methods

Table 5.3: Mindmap for the „Efficient teaching lesson” Source: Óhidy (2005: 104) based on Sliwka 2000

So far, we have summed up the already existing knowledge of the learners by summarizing and systematizing their individual knowledge. The next step consists of elevating this knowledge to a higher level, controlling and (if necessary) correcting it. Individual knowledge, opinions, viewpoints (attitudes) should be lead from subjectivity into the world of objective facts. For this reason, the next step should be their comparison with the results of empiric research. In our case, Hilbert Meyer’s short summarizing work „The ten most important parameters of the efficient teaching lesson” (Meyer 2003) serves as the basis for this comparison (table 4), which sums up the empiric results of the past 10 years.

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1.

First, the teacher presents the results of the scientific research in a short

2.

presentation. Then, these are compared with the existing mindmap (in plenary).

3.

1.

In the end, differences and similarities are discussed to complete the picture.

The logical setup of the learning process

2.

Making intensive use of the learning time

3.

Matching the goal, content and methods of the teaching lesson

4.

Diversity of teaching methods

5.

Intelligent practice

6.

Individual development

7.

A learning environment and an atmosphere that foster learning

8.

Discussions and explanations that help understanding

9.

Taking into consideration the opinion and suggestions of the students

10.

Clearly defined requirements, performance monitoring and evaluation methods

Table 5.4: Hilbert Meyer: The ten most important parameters of the efficient teaching lesson Source: Meyer 2003: 37-43

The results of the relevant empiric research show that the efficiency of the teaching lesson depends to a high degree on the atmosphere at the school, its assumed social tasks, and its pedagogic programme. For this reason, in the following step we are going to deal with the efficiency of the teaching lesson in a wider context, simultaneously presenting several views; the method used will be the Graffiti Steps.

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Graffiti Steps Graffiti Steps (Gibbs 1987) (in German Schneller Schuh) enables the group to perform a group brainstorming task by approaching a topic from different angles. The essence of the method is to change attitudes: In our case, the expectations concerning school and school learning are examined from the viewpoint of teachers/students/employers. 1.

„What characterizes a good school?” This question should be written on the board well visible. For this exercise, several tables should be used, and on them 3 or 4 posters should be placed. On every poster, one aspect of the topic should be written. In this case, we are curious about the expectations of parents, teachers, students and employers. Every group receives one poster; they will approach the topic from the point of view written on the poster. Every member of the group will write down all the ideas and questions they might have about the topic. Time limit = 10 minutes.

2.

In the next round, groups switch tables, and every member will write down their ideas and opinions, independent of the other group members and the opinions of the previous group.

3.

The switching of the groups ends when every group returns to their original table.

4.

The members of the group read out (together) all the observations written on the poster, they systematize these and choose the most important ones, which will then be presented in a presentation in front of everyone.

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E stablishing a „good school” and providing the efficient teaching lessons is the task of school and education development. In the following a few practical examples of best practice will be presented. The most appropriate is the Jigsaw method.

The Jigsaw Method The Jigsaw method is one of the basic cooperative learning forms (Aronson et. al., 1978). All of its existing variations are built on the principle of „learning by teaching”. All student groups train themselves to become „experts” in a topic, following this they pass their knowledge on to the others (this is part two of the exercise). A big advantage of this method is that all participants are assigned the role of students and teachers at the same time. In most cases the material used is written, but films or audio material can also be used. Usually, this exercise takes up a lot of time, for this reason it is worth assigning at least 1.5-2 hours for it. In this exercise, the German education development models create the individual topics. The studies used for the exercise were chosen by Hans-Günter Rolff (Rolff 2004). 1.

For the groups, we should strive for equal size, with groups of 5x5 or 6x6, namely 5 groups of 5 people or 6 groups of 6 people working best.

The groups formed in this way will become the „experts”. All the members of one groups will be given the same text, which presents their part of a topic. (In one example, 5 expert groups received a study of 5-8 pages about a) „Schule & Co.” of Westfalia; b) the Horster/Roff, c) the Klippert, d) the Tschekan school development method, and e) a report about the Secondary Modern School „Realschule Enger”). As a first step, the students read the text independently, they take notes, underline key words, write down their thoughts and questions.

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2.

The next step is a debate of the „expert groups”, who discuss the common topics in about 10-15 minutes, debating and explaining them. They prepare explanatory material together: slides, mindmaps or drafts.

3.

Then new groups are formed, so that in all of these there is one expert. All the experts present their own model (they are the experts for their topic in the new group now). The next task is to look for similarities between the different models. Every group compiles a list, which is written on a poster.

4.

The posters are hung side by side and all groups present their own, which will then be summed up in a common list in plenary and which can be amended in a common debate.

„Expert group“

„Cooperative group“

Table 5.5: The Jigsaw Method Source: Sliwka 2000:23

After having presented expectations concerning school and the teaching lesson and having discussed practical examples of education development (in German „Unterrichtsentwicklung”) we have arrived at a level where the new knowledge can be generalized. In our case the Outside circle – Inside circle is the most appropriate method for this.

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The outside circle – inside circle method As the name suggests, we create two circles of equal numbers of students for this exercise. They sit or stand facing each other. By moving the circles new student pairs are created, who split up immediately after solving a task. 1.

„What do we mean by education development?” This question is written on the board. As a first step, everyone writes down individually, spontaneously, in an associative way everything that comes to their mind. Afterwards, every student will choose five terms which best describe the definition of „education development”.

2.

The members of the outside circle will read the five terms for the „inside members”, who will criticize them, amend them, and ask questions about them. Based on this, the people on the outside will

3.

correct their list. The outside circle will step forward one step, and now the inside circle will read out their list, and the outside circle will criticize it, amend it, and ask questions.

4.

After three to four steps forward we write all the mentioned notions and terms on the board and create a common definition together, in plenary.

After summing up the new knowledge, it is important to engrain it, and one good method for this is Essay Writing.

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Essay Writing Essay writing is not a new method, but it can be also applied as a cooperative learning method. In this case, two students will write one composition. On the board we write „What have we learned about the efficient teaching lesson and education development in this lesson?” Students will sum up the new material in about 10-15 minutes. Essay writing can also be applied as a preparation exercise before written or oral exams.

Summary In my summary I would like to deal with some common misconceptions and prejudices about the cooperative learning methods: 1.

Cooperative learning methods serve only the development of social competence.

Although cooperative learning methods come up many times in connection with the development of social competence, let us not forget that this is not the sole goal of lessons. For example the Hungarian National Curriculum also names the joint development of the cognitive and social skills as the primary goal of school education (Dancsó 2005). Without a doubt the application of cooperatvie learning methods plays an important role in the development and formation of social skills. Empiric research shows, however, that the cooperative learning forms have a positive impact on the development of cognitive skills as well.

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To name only a few examples (Green 2005): In 1987 Madden, Stevens and Slavin demonstrated that cooperative learning forms have a beneficial impact on the efficiency of reading. In 1994 Nattiv demonstrated the positive effect on students’ readiness to help and their motivation when it comes to mathematical performance. This was confirmed by Springer, Stange and Donovan in 1999. In 1994 Johnson observed that critical thinking, while Yager noted (in 1985) that verbal communication was developed more in the case of students who learned cooperative learning methods. Johnson & Johnson found evidence in 1998, that active learning has a positive influence on students’ self-esteem. Consequently, cooperative learning methods do not only contribute to the formation of social skills, but they also have a positive impact on the development of the students’ cognitive skills, a fact which can be empirically proven.

2.

Cooperative learning forms will replace the traditional methods.

Individual methods alone are never good or bad, their efficiency always depends on their concrete application. Accordingly, the goal of applying cooperative learning methods is not the replacement of traditional methods but their amendment. For this reason, the basic precondition of teacher professionalism is the formation of a repertoir of several (the more the better) teaching-learning methods and their continuous improvement (Óhidy 2004) and the creation and their continuous improvement of the pedagogues’ diagnostic ability so that they are able to recognize students’ cognitive, creative and social skills. Apart from the ability to select from a variety of methods, it is equally important not to use the methods simply for the sake of using them. The method should remain only a „tool”.

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3.

The role of the teacher in cooperative learning lessons decreases.

In cooperative learning lessons the role of the teacher changes significantly. However, this only means change, not a decline of the teacher role; moreover, teacher creativity receives a substantial boost in these lessons. Even though the teachers remain in the background, they are still in control of the lesson. In contrast to frontal teaching they are not the protagonists, but the organizers of the lessons. When compared to traditional lessons, we find that the preparation for the teaching lesson (cooperative lesson) is given a greater role. The application of cooperative teaching methods – contrary to common belief – requires a lot of preparation and care. But the effort is worth it: Students’ aversion against subjects decreases substantially (Green 2005), students with modest abilities can voice their opinion and discover their own hidden abilities.

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Deutsche Zusammenfassung (German Summary)

Lifelong Learning: Die zwei wichtigsten Perspektiven einer bildungspolitischen Konzeption in Europa Lifelong Learning, auf deutsch: Lebenlanges Lernen – oder lebensbegleitendes Lernen – hat sich von einem bildungspolitischem Konzept zur wichtigsten pädagogischen Leitidee der heutigen Zeit entwickelt. Mit der Verwirklichung der Leitidee werden viele verschiedene Zielsetzungen und Hoffnungen verknüpft, die zueinander oft in Widerspruch stehen. Das Lifelong-Learning-Konzept dient im heutigen Europa vor allem der Verwirklichung von wirtschaftlichen, bzw. gesellschaftlich-politischen Zielsetzungen. Die wichtigsten zwei Zielsetzungen sind: Lebenslanges Lernen als Voraussetzung von und Weg zur Demokratie, und als Entwicklung von Humankapital.

Lifelong Learning – vom bildungspolitischen Konzept zur pädagogischen Leitidee Das Konzept eines lebenslang andauernden Lernprozesses entstand als eine Antwort auf die von Philip H. Coombs 1967 konstatierte Weltbildungskrise, erwirkte auf der Folie der europäischen Entwicklung eine neue Fokussierung in der Bildungslandschaft und gilt spätestens seit dem 1996 von der Europäischen Kommission ausgerufenen „Europäischem Jahr lebensbegleitenden Lernens“ als die einzig mögliche Antwort auf eine sich immer schneller verändernde Welt. Das Kapitel stellt anhand ausgewählter internationaler Programme die Entstehung des bildungspolitischen Konzepts und dessen Entwicklung zur pädagogischen Leitidee dar. Dabei werden die wichtigsten Unterschiede und 115

Gemeinsamkeiten der vorgestellten Konzepte aufgezeigt. Schließlich werden diese nach zwei Kriterien kategorisiert: Einerseits nach Zugehörigkeit zur sog. maximalistischen oder minimalistischen Auffassung sowie zu den zwei wichtigsten Zielsetzugen der Leitidee: Erziehung zur Demokratie sowie Entwicklung von Humankapital.

Lebenslanges Lernen und Schule Das Kapitel zeigt die wichtigsten Verknüpfungspunkte zwischen dem Konzept „Lebenslanges Lernen” und dem schulischen Bildungsprozess auf. Zunächst werden die gesellschaftlichen Funktionen schulischer Erziehung und Bildung erörtert, dann die Erwartungen gegenüber der Schule bezüglich der Grundlegung für Lebenslanges Lernen: vor allem die Entwicklung von Schlüsselkompetenzen und die Motivation zum (Weiter)Lernen. Schließlich werden die Probleme und Mängel der heutigen schulischen Erziehungspraxis aufgezeigt sowie zwei Beispiele aus der internationalen Fachliteratur über erfolgreiche Schulentwicklungsprozesse vorgestellt.

Lebenslanges Lernen und Erwachsenenbildung „Lebenslanges Lernen” scheint mit der Erwachsenenbildung besonders kompatibel zu sein. Dies zeigt u. a. die schnelle, breite und überwiegend positive Rezension des Konzepts in diesem Bereich während das Konzept in anderen pädagogischen Gebieten (wie z. B. in der Schulpädagogik) lange nicht wahrgenommen wurde. Das Kapitel zeigt die wichtigsten Verknüpfungspunkte zwischen dem Konzept „Lebenslanges Lernen” und dem Bereich Erwachsenenbildung. 116

Vorbereitung auf das lebenslange Lernen in der Praxis: kooperatives Lernen In der europäischen Fachliteratur wird in Bezug auf Lebenslanges Lernen oft die Wichtigkeit von kooperativen Lernformen betont. Aber über das „Wie?” , also über die praktische Anwendung von kooperativen Lernmethoden im Unterricht wird viel weniger gesprochen. Der Aufsatz möchte – nach einem kurzen theoretischen Überblick – in die Praxis von kooperativen Lernmethoden mit Hilfe konkreter Beispiele einführen. Es wird eine Unterrichtseinheit dargestellt, die an der Fakultät für Pädagogik der Universität Bielefeld für das Seminar „Unterrichtsentwicklung und schulische Bildung“ im SoSe 2005 ausgearbeitet wurde. Die vorgestellten Übungen können selbstverständlich nicht nur in der Hochschuldidaktik, sondern auch in der Schulpraxis angewendet werden.

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