TO ME I
Education | Online and Distance Learning
distance education for researchers and practitioners. It provides key information about all levels of education (that is, K–12, higher education, proprietary education, and corporate training), allowing for all-inclusive coverage of the discipline of distance education.
The book offers a comprehensive index of distance learning terms, cross-references to synonyms and, when appropriate, online web links to encourage further exploration. Each lexicon citation is categorized by its root terminology—general, education, technology, instructional technology, or distance education—and provides the actual definition and complete exploration of the term along with specific references that include related books, volumes, and available manuscripts.
LAWRENCE A. TOMEI is associate provost for academic affairs and professor of education at Robert Morris University.
For orders and information please contact the publisher ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD EDUCATION A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 • fax 717-794-3803 www.rowmaneducation.com
LexiconOnlinePODLITH.indd 1
Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning
The Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning, a desktop resource, focuses specifically on
L exi con o f o nline and Di st a nc e Le arning L A W R E N C E A . TO M E I 11/23/09 10:16:45 AM
Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning Lawrence A. Tomei
Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK
Published by Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.rowmaneducation.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright © 2010 by Lawrence A. Tomei All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tomei, Lawrence A. Lexicon of online and distance learning / Lawrence A. Tomei. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-1-60709-283-4 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-285-8 1. Distance education—Terminology. 2. Distance education—Dictionaries. I. Title. LC5800.T66 2010 371.3’58—dc22 2009014489
⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America
Contents
Introduction
v
The Lexicon
1
Distinguished Contributing Authors
245
Contributing Authors
251
Index
253
iii
Introduction
the most part, are unfamiliar (if not totally uninterested) in mastering the vocabulary of the technician. For instructional technologists in schools and business, the Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning contains a host of terms that encompass a variety of teaching tools to improve student learning. Instructional technology goes beyond computers and computer software and is not limited to computers in the classroom. Instructional technology, and the terms offered in this text, describes an assortment of tools used for teaching and learning, such as digital cameras, CD players, PDAs, GPS devices, interactive lessons, simulations, virtual reality, and technologies yet to be discovered. For distance educators, the Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning provides specific terminology that encompasses the distinctive language of online education. Terms such as course management systems, asynchronous and synchronous learning, teleconferencing, and virtual classrooms have particular meanings to distance education. This text provides appropriate jargon in support of effective strategy for the execution of strategic online planning. Finally, for distance education students, the entire Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning should become an indispensible resource for acquiring knowledge about this complex modality that you have chosen to support your own learning—now and as a vehicle for lifelong learning. More and more learners demand the flexibility inherent in distance programs structured to accommodate their life-based responsibilities such as full-time jobs or family needs. The annual market for distance learning is expected to grow from $11 billion in 2005 to over $20 billion by 2010 (Kariya, 2003). The International Data Corporation (IDC) expects a 33 percent growth rate in distance education over the next several years (Oblinger & Kidwell, 2000). Too, online course development provides students in traditional classrooms with new learning opportunities previously unavailable: for example, independent study using podcasting lectures, lesson reviews via drop box PowerPoint presentations, and catching up on missed/absent classes with lesson materials provided in a hybrid learning management system. Clearly, distance students are not the only ones
The Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning is the pivotal reference book for teachers, educational administrators, technical support personnel, and students who make use of distance education as their primary modality for teaching and learning. With over 800 citations from some 150 respected authors representing the disciplines of education, technology, instructional technology, and distance education, the Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning is intended to become the foremost record for professionals interested in exploiting this newest, and arguably most inexhaustible, media for learning. The Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning serves as a manual for defining the terminology necessary to plan strategically for the design, implementation, and evaluation of distance learning in any organization from elementary school to higher education to corporate training environments. Inside these pages is an accepted dictionary of terms with references to the latest books, journals, and online sources as well as a compendium of related words and acronyms to explore distance education to its fullest potential. For educators responsible for designing, developing, and evaluating distance education courses or programs, the Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning is a single source for “talking the talk.” Online learning demands a working understanding and practical application of a host of education-related terms unique to teaching at a distance. For example, collaborative learning means something totally different when considering communications skills in a traditional face-to-face classroom versus online. Likewise, a community of practice takes on different forms when employing this educational schema in the classroom via distance. For technologists responsible for implementing effective distance learning technologies, the Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning offers a directory of technologyrelated terms describing the latest in distance hardware and software as well as networking, information, and communications technologies. Teaching and learning at a distance requires the technician to become knowledgeable about education and conversant using nontechnical language with educators and corporate leaders who, for
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INTRODUCTION
who benefit from online modality; most online students live in the local vicinity of the institution offering their course (Carr, 2000).
ORGANIZATION OF THE LEXICON The Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning provides an alphanumeric listing of citations addressing online and distance education. Each citation is composed of two or more of the following elements: Taxonomy A taxonomy is a classification system that assists the reader in understanding the thrust of the term under consideration. In the lexicon, the following taxonomy corresponds to the target audience for the book (see figure I.1). Each citation is categorized according to degree of specificity using the following schemata: • General terms. Many terms important to education, technology, instructional technology, and distance education do not fit into any one particular category or are generic enough to be important to readers of the Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning for their universal value. For example, the concept of multitasking, while certainly an adopted word from the past, has taken on new meanings in this age of cell phones, iPods, laptop computers, and cable television. Over 135 such words have been included in the lexicon for your consideration.
Figure I.1.
• Education terms. Citations identified as educational terms are generic to the discipline and can apply to traditional as well as online learning. For purposes of the lexicon, those education-related terms that have application to learning at a distance have been chosen for this text. Also included in this classification are words related to educational philosophy (why we teach), educational psychology (how we teach—especially pertinent to distance education), sociology (who are we teaching), and the history of education (when in the history of education are we teaching—also pertinent to the recent advances of technology in education). Over 500 education words are included in this classification. • Technology terms. Many of the citations in the lexicon have been categorized as technical words, such is the nature of the online and distance education discipline. While many of the words are generic to all things “technical,” each has particular application to the online modality for teaching and learning. Many other words are identifiable with online learning and are not typically part of the vernacular of traditional education settings. The over 325 technology terms will go a long way to establishing a common vocabulary between technologists and educators. • Instructional Technology terms. Instructional technology encompasses the research, application, and integration of technology with learning theory to analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate the use of technology for teaching and learning. Often used interchangeably with educational technology, most instructional technologists will distinguish between the two terms with the additional emphasis on systems design with respect to instructional technology. The Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning includes nearly 200 words that merge technology with instruction and represents a more focused category of terms describing technology and education. Whereas a term such as threaded discussions might arguably be classified as a technology, it is more effectively placed as an instructional technology term since its application is meaningless without reference to an actual learning situation. Therein lies the distinction between these two categories with respect to this publication. • Distance Education terms. A final refinement of terminology distinguishes words that are exclusive to online and distance education. The interactive lesson, for example, is certainly a technology—and a relatively recent technology at that. More specifically, it is an instructional technology used in both the traditional as well as the virtual classroom. However, to address its taxonomy to the finest degree
INTRODUCTION
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possible, the interactive lesson is best described as a distance education term since, by far, its most effective application is as an online teaching tool. Citation The citation provides the actual definition and exploration of the term. Since this is a lexicon, it is by nature a brief, concise, to-the-point characterization of the word under scrutiny. Contributing authors were instructed to limit their citations to the minimum number of words necessary to illuminate the reader in the fundamentals of the term. Most citations are 50–150 words, some are in the 150–350 word range, and only selected citations are over 350 words. Also, some terms come with multiple (two, three, or four) citations due to the importance and implications of the terms to distance learning. Figure I.2.
References The precision of the citation is made possible due in large measure to the incorporation of the additional elements of each citation. One of the most important elements added to the lexicon is the reference extracts provided for most words. References can include books, volumes, and manuscripts available in the discipline. In addition, many journals are cited representing the most popular periodicals dedicated to technology and distance education. Finally, over 600 websites are provided for investigators seeking further online information. Related Terms Distance education, for all its importance as a teaching and learning modality, remains a relatively immature discipline. For readers seeking information regarding computer-based training, definitions are just as likely to be found under computer-assisted instruction, computeraided instruction, computer-aided testing, computerbased instruction, courseware, or web-based training. The Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning provides a record of supplementary terms so that readers may continue their inquiry. Acronyms The final element of each citation is the acronyms associated with each term. Face it, education, technology, and distance education are replete with contractions, ellipses, and mnemonics. In this business, acronyms themselves become reputed terms used interchangeably without their expanded descriptions on a routine basis.
A lexicon without mention of applicable acronyms cannot be considered a comprehensive resource for today’s distance educator. The citations offered in the Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning run the gamut of terms important to those in distance education (figure I.2).
CONTRIBUTORS Over one hundred experts in the fields of education and technology participated in the preparation of the Lexicon of Online and Distance Learning. Many of the contributors are international in reputation and eminence. Certainly, many authors represent institutions of higher education whose standing in the discipline adds dimension and status to this effort. Many of those responsible for this publication offered more than ten citations each; these supporters have been identified as Distinguished Contributing Authors. Those who were able to submit fewer than ten citations are identified as Contributing Authors. Anyone who has served as editor-in-chief for a volume such as this lexicon can empathize when I attest to the considerable time and effort that went in to the process of compiling so many citations while attempting to ensure that all authors were identified—with the proper designation, affiliation, and position. Undoubtedly, there are to be some mistakes. I offer my heartfelt apologies and regrets to any contributor who might be omitted or misrepresented in the acknowledgments of this text.
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INTRODUCTION
REFERENCES Carr, S. (2000, July 7). Many professors are optimistic on distance learning, survey finds. The Chronicle of Higher Education.
Kariya, S. (2003). Online education expands and evolves. IEEE Spectrum, 40(5), 49–51. Oblinger, D., & Kidwell, J. (2000, May/June). Distance learning: Are we being realistic? Educause, 31–39.
The Lexicon
in place of x as shown. IEEE (previously known as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is a nonprofit organization that was formed in 1963, and is a world leader in setting standards for uses of electronic devices. References: IEEE. (n.d.). About IEEE. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/home/index.html. IEEE. (n.d.). IEEE 802.11™ wireless local area networks. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from www.ieee802 .org/11/. Related Terms: Standards Acronyms: IEEE, Wi-Fi
10Base-T Taxonomy: Technology Citation. An Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) shorthand identifier representing one of several physical media specified in the IEEE 802.3 standard for Ethernet local area networks (LANs) is ordinary telephone twisted pair wire. 10Base-T supports Ethernet’s 10 Mbps transmission speed. The 10 in the media type designation refers to the transmission speed of 10 Mbps. The Base refers to baseband signaling, which means that only Ethernet signals are carried on the medium. The T represents twisted pair. 24/7 Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A term referring to the twenty-four hours in a day and the seven days in a week. It is used to express the convenience of availability. In an educational context, it refers to the availability of course material usually located on the Internet that can be accessed by a student at his or her convenience regardless of time or day.
Academic integrity Taxonomy: Education Citation. Producing academic material that is solely the intellectual property of the creator and created without extensive collaboration. It includes taking tests independently of others, citing sources, not passing off the work of others as one’s own, using fact-based information, and not unduly collaborating while working on group-based assignments. The Internet has allowed for increasing violations of policies created by educational institutions to prohibit such actions due to a greater wealth of knowledge and ease of access. References: Kisamore, J. L., Stone, T. H., & Jawahar, I. M. (2007). Academic integrity: The relationship between individual and situational factors on misconduct contemplations. Journal of Business Ethics 75(4), 381. Related Terms: Academic honesty
802.11 Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The official designation for the wireless protocol. Also known as Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity). 802.11 is a set of wireless LAN standards developed by working group 11 of the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The 802.11 family uses the same wireless Internet protocol. 802.11b was the first widely accepted wireless networking standard, followed by 802.11a and 802.11g. 802.11 is a standard for the functioning of wireless LANs that was created and updated by the IEEE LAN/ MAN Standards Committee in 1997. This standard is well known by its brand name, Wi-Fi. It established a standard protocol for the transmission of over-the-air modulations for a multitude of electronic devices, such as computers, cell phones and associated devices, microwave ovens, radios, and more. There are currently at least twenty-six amended versions of the original standard, each with a more or less unique purpose and capability with letters added to the number, 802.11(x),
Academic wiki Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Academic wikis, or learning wikis, are wikis that are used in education. Generally, a wiki is a website that allows users to read and quickly edit. Public wikis are associated with the notions of openness and the aggregation of knowledge from many individuals. The social context of public wikis differs from that of academic wikis. In academic wikis, membership is restricted to a predetermined community such as students in a course. Wiki activities are determined by 1
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ABILITY GROUPING
the instructor and are institutionalized into the existing practice of the course. The use of wikis is to facilitate pedagogical goals such as collaborative learning. Pages in public wikis are a continuous work-in-progress, but in academic wikis, a final product is usually expected, with the process of collaboration supported. Still, the use of academic wikis is hampered by the lack of easy ways for assessing collaborative work. In sum, academic wikis are social software, a group project tool, and an academic study tool all rolled into one. References: Elgort, I. (2007). Using wikis as a learning tool in higher education. In Proceedings Singapore 2007. Retrieved April 9, 2008, from www.ascilite.org .au/conferences/singapore07/procs/elgort.pdf. Forte, A. & Bruckman, A. (2007). Constructing text: Wiki as a toolkit for (collaborative?) learning. In Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis (Montreal, Quebec, Canada, October 21– 25). New York: ACM Press. Related Terms: Wiki, Assessment, Social software Acronyms: AW Ability grouping Taxonomy: Education Citation. Refers to how students are placed into classes based on their past achievement and/or how the student will perform in future academic endeavors. Ability grouping is assumed to increase student achievement by reducing the gap between ability levels, which helps teachers plan and instruct to a homogenous group. In addition, teachers can increase the pace at which material is taught and raise the bar and expectations for every student to meet without worrying about lower-achieving students falling behind. The high achievers have no one to hold them back and the lower achievers might not feel “dumb” when grouped with students with higher abilities, thus they may work harder and receive more individual attention. Skeptics argue that students might feel discouraged as they are labeled. Also, students of the lower-achieving group may not have opportunities to experience a more rigorous curriculum, resulting in a steady, slow pace of learning throughout their academic career. References: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. www.ascd.org/portal/site/ascd/menuitem.5a4 7c86b3b7b44128716b710e3108a0c/. Hollifield, J. (1987). Ability grouping in elementary schools. (ERIC Digest: ED290542). Retrieved from www.ericdigests.org/pre-927/grouping.htm. Related Terms: Homogenous grouping, Tracking, Streaming
Acceptable use policy Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Rules, sanctions, and guidance set out by an organization, usually in the form of a policy of that organization, to govern what users in that organization are permitted to do when using IT (information technology) systems, including the Internet. The rules are usually designed both to protect the users and the organization, with respect to the relevant laws of the jurisdiction, and to protect the IT systems themselves. Membership organizations, for example, for schools and universities, often provide guidance and templates to assist policy formation tailored to local laws. References: Kinnaman, D. (1995, 2003). Critiquing acceptable use policies. Retrieved May 31, 2008, from www .io.com/~kinnaman/aupessay.html. Related Terms: Code of conduct, Terms of use Acronyms: AUP Access Grid Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The Access Grid® is a real-time communications technology (RTC). It is computer based and provides video and audio communications. It can be differentiated from other RTCs by several features: • Multiple cameras that capture multiple images of the participants at each site. These images are delivered to other connected sites that choose to view them in large-, medium-, or small-sized windows. • A visually rich environment. Typically three or more projectors provide images of the near and far-end participants as well as documents, presentations, and media files. • Several software modules are included that have been designed for application and file sharing. • The Access Grid is software based and the software is open source. The software is available for download from the Access Grid website, at www .accessgrid.org/. • The Access Grid software is independent of the size of the installation. It can be used for installations ranging from room-based nodes on the Access Grid with multiple cameras and projectors to personal interfaces to the grid (PIGs) using a webcam, personal computer, and headset. The Access Grid project was initiated by the U.S. Department of Energy for communications between its laboratories. More recently it has been adopted as an alternative to videoconferences in distance education. In Australia the Access Grid has been used for inter-
ACCOMMODATION
institutional teaching. An example of this is a project hosted by the Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute. Many universities in Australia offer courses in honors-level mathematics, and honors students necessarily require specialized subjects. However, student numbers are so small that to run all the courses at each university would not be practical. The Access Grid has been used to connect students wanting to study the same courses at different universities. In this way the numbers in each course were increased to feasible levels. Academics at any of the participating universities could teach classes made up of students from their own university and several others. The courses were organized for reciprocity. Consider three courses that are taught between three universities with a teacher at each. In such a case each academic teaches only one subject, yet three subjects are being offered to students at each university. If it is assumed that online learning technologies are evolving in a similar direction to other online technologies, then it is reasonable to expect that interactions will increase and that the preferred medium will change from text to audio and video. In this way online learning technologies will move from the solely text-based technologies of email, chat, and discussion forums to media-rich technologies such as Access Grid. Of course the text-based communications technologies will remain, just as most superseded technologies usually remain. It is expected that use of the Access Grid in distance and online learning will increase and thus provide media-rich communications and interactions. Related Terms: Videoconference, Learning technology, Online learning, Open source software, Real-time communications, Virtual network computing Accessibility Taxonomy: Education Citation. Accessibility generally refers to the degree to which a product, service, or environment can be used or accessed. The term is most meaningful when used in the context of particular ranges of abilities (e.g., particular disabilities or language limitations). Sometimes the term accessibility is contrasted with the term usability, the latter being more focused on efficiency; however, unless access is sufficiently efficient it is not considered access. For example, cases that should arguably not be described as accessible include a building where a wheelchair user must go around to the back and come in through a circuitous route, or a device that takes ten actions to type each letter. When developing a computer-based assessment, care needs to be taken to ensure accessibility without
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undermining the validity of the scores (Hansen & Mislevy, 2005). References: Hansen, E. G., & Mislevy, R. J. (2005). Accessibility of computer-based testing for individuals with disabilities and English language learners within a validity framework. In M. Hricko & S. Howell (Eds.), Online assessment and measurement: Foundation, challenges, and issues. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing. World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). (2008, May). Web accessibility initiative. Retrieved May 13, 2008, from www.w3.org/WAI/. Related Terms: Disability, Usability, Assistive technologies Access points Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A radio receiver and transmitter that connect to a wired Ethernet network. Through these devices wireless nodes, such as desktop computers, notebooks, and laptop computers equipped with wireless network cards, have access to wired local area network services such as email, the Web, printers, and more. Operating range, management capabilities, wireless network security, and number of users supported are determined by the capabilities of the access point. Access points have an IP (Internet protocol) address that configures them to connect to devices in order to form a wireless network. Several wireless access points (WAPs) can link together to form a larger network that allows “roaming,” which extends the connectivity service in a location that is different from the home location where the service was registered. The WAP usually connects to a wired network and can relay data between wireless devices and wired devices. References: Mitchell, B. (2008). Access point, wireless. Your guide to wireless networking. Retrieved May 30, 2008, from compnetworking.about.com/cs/wireless/ g/bldef_ap.htm. Related Terms: Wireless access point Acronyms: AP, WAP Accommodation Taxonomy: Education Citation. Refers to approaches whereby the learning environment of the student, or some of the elements of the total environment, is modified to promote learning. The focus is on changing the learning environment or the academic requirements so that the student may learn in spite of a fundamental weakness or deficiency.
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ACCOMMODATION OF STANDARDIZED TEST FOR LEARNERS WITH DISABILITIES
References: Price, B., Mayfield, P., McFadden, A., & Marsh, G. (2001). Accommodation strategies. In Collaborative teaching: Special education for inclusive classrooms. Parrot Publishing. Retrieved from www .parrotpublishing.com/Inclusion_Chapter_6.htm. Related Terms: Adaptations, Adjustments Accommodation of standardized test for learners with disabilities Taxonomy: Education Citation. “All children with disabilities are included in all general state and district-wide assessment programs . . . with appropriate accommodations and alternate assessments, where necessary and as indicated in their respective individualized education programs” (IDEA, Section 1412(c)(16)(A)). In K–12 schools, a team of people that often comprise teachers, parents, support staff, an administrator, and, when appropriate, the student define what the accommodations for testing will be during the student’s individualized education program (IEP) meeting. During this time, they determine if they need accommodations during testing in the areas of timing, scheduling, setting (where the test is taken, such as in a room separate from other students), and the test’s format (i.e., taking the test on the computer instead using of a pencil and paper test). Accommodations are not intended to change the content of the exam; instead, they change the way that the standardized test is presented. Refusing to participate in standardized tests could limit the student’s future opportunities for promotion to the next grade level and/or graduating. College students must demonstrate proof of disability in order to have accommodations made for standardized tests. References: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004). U.S. Department of Education at idea .ed.gov. Related Terms: Americans with Disabilities Act, Assessment, Accommodations, Modifications, Testing, Standardized tests Acronyms: ADA, IEP Accountability Taxonomy: Education Citation. Local educational agencies are held responsible for making students meet or exceed the proficient level of academic achievement designated by the state. At least 95 percent of the students enrolled in schools need to be assessed for the state to monitor adequate yearly progress. If students in a school fail to pass for the proficient level for two consecutive years, parents
in the school district have the alternative to provide other means of education including private schools, charter school, and homeschooling. Taxonomy: Education Citation. Romzek and Dubnick (1998) define accountability as a relationship, one in which either a person or an entity is held to answer for performance that involves a delegation of authority to act (p. 6). However, as Kearns (1994) points out, the construct itself is inherently ill-structured, making it difficult to arrive at an operational definition of accountability that does not merely focus on narrow and technical issues of compliance. Accountability can be legal accountability (following the rules and laws), negotiated accountability (addressing implicit standards that have not yet been codified), professional or discretionary accountability (doing the right thing even when it is not enforceable), and anticipatory accountability (monitoring and participating in legislative activities related to accountability) (Watt-Geer, Maher, & Cole, 2008). References: Kearns, K. P. (1994). The strategic management of accountability in nonprofit organizations: An analytical framework. Public Administration Review, 54(2), 185–92. Romzek, B., & Dubnick, M. J. (1998). Accountability. In J. M. Shafritz (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of public policy and administration, Vol. 1 (pp. 6–11). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Watt-Geer, B., Maher, J. K., & Cole, M. T. (2008). Managing nonprofit organizations: The importance of transformational leadership and commitment to operating standards for nonprofit accountability. Public Performance Management Review. Related Terms: Compliance, Responsibility, Answerability, Liability Accreditation Taxonomy: Education Citation. The evaluation of higher education programs and institutions to ensure an acceptable level of quality. In the United States there are two prevalent types of educational accreditation: institutional and programmatic. If accreditation applies to an entire institution it is said to have institutional accreditation. This indicates that each part of the institution is contributing to the overall attainment of the institution’s mission, vision, and goals. If the accreditation applies to programs, departments, colleges, or schools it is said to have programmatic accreditation. Universities and colleges in the United States may receive accreditation
ACCREDITATION
from one of nineteen accepted institutional accrediting organizations. Programs may receive accreditation from one of roughly sixty accepted programmatic accrediting organizations. The accreditation organizations are private, nongovernmental entities created specifically to review the quality and educational standards of higher education institutions and programs. References: U.S. Department of Education. Accreditation in the United States. Retrieved from www.ed.gov/admins/ finaid/accred/index.html. Related Terms: Council for Higher Education Accreditation Taxonomy: Education Citation. An educational program or public-service industry, such as a hospital, may be required to have a certification showing compliance with certain standards reflecting quality assurance. These quality assurance issues are specific to outcomes that serve the interest of the public (such as public safety) and are set by the governing body that is responsible for monitoring and granting accreditation. In these instances, the governing body is usually of a state or federal program and provides funding to the institution that is contingent upon meeting the standards of the quality assurance issues. Institutions may be due for recertification after a set period of time, known to the agency and the governing body. A school of nursing may be accredited by the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE). A hospital may need to meet the regulations of the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO). References: The Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education of the American Association of Colleges of Nurses. (2003). Standards for accreditation of baccalaureate and graduate nursing programs. Retrieved June 22, 2008, from www.aacn.nche.edu/Accreditation/. The Joint Commission (2008). Accreditation programs. Retrieved June 22, 2008, from www.joint commission.org/. Related Terms: Credentialing, Certification, Licensing Taxonomy: Education Citation. A systematic process of evaluation whereby a team of peers evaluates an educational institution and recognizes it for a specific time period. This team of peers or reviewers is usually considered as leading experts in the field and must recognize an educational institution or programs according to specified sets of standards. Accreditation also refers to certification that
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an institution’s programs and activities meet selected standards necessary to accomplish the role, scope, and mission of the institution. Once standards are met, an institution or programs are issued accreditation, which means this institution or programs are authorized to continue to operate under the leadership or scrutiny of agencies that have the authority to grant accreditation to educational institutions or programs. For example, in the state of California, most educational institutions or programs must seek accreditation from California Commission on Teacher Credentialing and National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. It must be pointed out that it is these educational institutions or programs that pay the team of peers or reviewers for examining the quality of their educational institutions or programs. While some institutions easily obtain accreditation if they actively work hard to conform to the specified standards, other institutions may have difficulty securing accreditation if they fail to meet the specified standards. Those institutions that can secure accreditation naturally enjoy a good reputation among scholars/practitioners and students. References: Wang, V., & King, K. P. (Eds.). (2008). Innovations in career and technical education: Strategic approaches towards workforce competencies around the globe. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Related Terms: Authorization, Delegation, License, Mandate, Commendation, Consignment, Entrustment, Facilitation, Fostering, Promotion, Commanding, Directing, Ordering Taxonomy: Education Citation. A process by which an academic institution establishes that certain academic standards are met by the institution. In the United States, accreditation of academic institutions is typically performed by a third party comprising peers in the industry. In addition to accreditation, higher education institutions also must gain the authority to operate, which is determined by the state in which the institution belongs. For institutions that operate in multiple states, the institution must gain permission from each state in which the institution operates. Accreditation can be separated into several categories, including regional accreditation, national accreditation, and specialized/professional accreditation. In the United States, there are six regional accrediting bodies: Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, New England Association of Schools and Colleges, North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, Northwest Association of Accredited Schools,
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ACCREDITATION AGENCY
Western Association of Schools and Colleges, and Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. There are fifty-two recognized national accrediting bodies including but not limited to Distance Education and Training Council, and Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools. There are many specialized and professional accrediting bodies including but not limited to the American Bar Association and the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business. References: Lechliter, J. (2008).The many cases for quality certifications. Forensic Examiner, 17, 87. Related Terms: Regional accreditation, National accreditation, Specialized accreditation, Professional accreditation Accreditation agency Taxonomy: Education Citation. An agency that creates standards and evaluates institutions to ensure a high-quality education. The standards may vary from agency to agency. The agencies usually assess the mission, goals, and objectives of the institution; quality of faculty; admissions policies; and study support available. There are national and regional agencies. It is important to note that the U.S. Department of Education does not accredit any institution. However, the secretary of education is required by law to publish a list of accreditation agencies that are believed to be reliable. References: U.S. Department of Education. Accreditation in the United States. Retrieved May 21, 2008, from www .ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/index.html. Accredited Taxonomy: Education Citation. The formal recognition of a university, college, or postsecondary higher education institution by a regional or national accrediting agency as meeting certain standards or requirements with regards to quality. See eLearners.com, at www.elearners.com/ resources/accreditation.asp, for more information about distance learning accreditation and online degrees. References: eLearners.com. (n.d.). Regional vs. national accreditation. Retrieved from www.elearners.com/guideto-online-education/regional-and-national-accredita tion.asp. Taxonomy: Education Citation. After determination of having met established standards, set forth by regional, national, or gov-
ernmental agencies, an institution would be granted formal recognition, approval, or accreditation. Accreditation standards vary but are set to ensure that certain levels of quality in education are met or exceeded. The process to become accredited consists of an external assessment, by a private nonprofit organization or official review board, of an institution’s internal workings. The assessment conducted would examine the institution’s “mission, goals, and objectives, resources and resource allocation, student admission requirements, student support services and the quality of the faculty and educational offerings” (eLearning.com, 2008). Accreditation usually indicates that the institution has met high-quality standards and is capable of delivering a quality education to those individuals who apply themselves. However, accreditation itself does not always signify quality. It is important to review the qualifications of the accrediting body or agency. Degrees or credits earned from nonaccredited institutions are not always recognized, nor transferable, so accreditation is highly valued among most institutions. Possible government funding and student financial aid may also be affected by the accreditation of the institution in question. The only legitimate accrediting agencies in the United States are those recognized by the U.S. Department of Education (USDE) and/or the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA). Regional accrediting bodies covering specific areas of the nation and in the United States include Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, New England Association of Schools and Colleges, North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities, Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, and the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. A few of the national accrediting bodies include the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology (ACCSCT), Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS), and Distance Education and Training Council (DETC). For a detailed list of accrediting organizations recognized by the U.S. Department of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation, go to www.chea .org/pdf/CHEA_USDE_AllAccred.pdf. References: Council for Higher Education Accreditation. (2008). Important questions about accreditation, degree mills and accreditation mills. Retrieved January 28, 2008, from www.chea.org/degreemills/default.htm. eLearners.com. (2008). Distance learning accreditation. Retrieved January 28, 2008, from www.elearners .com/resources/accreditation.asp.
ACTIVE LEARNING
Related Terms: Accreditation, Approval, Certification, Recognition, Specialized accreditation Acronym Taxonomy: General Citation. From Greek origin meaning “heads of names.” Letters or series of letters taken from a compound term to form an abbreviation that is pronounced as one word to increase ease of communication, writing, advertising, and remembrance of the term. The arrangement of upper and/or lower case letters can be sequential, syllabic, or hybrid in nature. Related Terms: Initialism, Mnemonic aid, Learning/ study strategy Active learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. Students who are actively learning are processing, discovering, and applying learned information. According to Hollingsworth and Lewis (2006), active learning is “involved learning; it takes place when the learners are excited, mentally alert and caught up in the experience” (viii). Active learning can mean that the student is physically active, exploring the information through his or her senses. Regardless if there is movement involved, the concept of active learning indicates that the student’s mind is engaged in the lesson. References: Hollingsworth, P., & Lewis, G. (2006). Active learning: Increasing flow in the classroom. Norwalk, CT: Crown House. Related Terms: Application, Discovery learning, Processing Taxonomy: Education Citation. Variously described as a type of instruction that teachers employ to involve students during the learning process. It is often associated with the term learning by doing and often contrasted with less active forms of instruction (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). In the context of this study, actively encourages and involves the student in the process of knowledge production and acquisition. Active learning can be defined as methods by which learners actively participate in the learning process, for example, discussion groups, problem solving, and experimentation. The term is used to differentiate it from passive learning by which learners are led by the nose. It is widely believed that active learning may lead to the creation of new knowledge and new skills needed by learners. Active learning involves students in the course material through carefully constructed activities. It is about learning from doing, performing and taking action, and usually con-
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trasts with the conventional lecture method. The action can be either mental or physical. Active learning seeks to create a learner-centered environment and engage students as active participants in their education. The opposite of this is passive learning. Active learning refers to a process whereby learners are actively engaged in the learning process, rather than “passively” absorbing lecture. During the active learning process, learners must read, write, discuss, and engage in solving problems, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. References: Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, DC: The George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development. Taxonomy: Education Citation. The concept of active learning emerges from constructivist philosophies and theories of learning— for example, the work of Piaget (1952), Bruner (1985), and Vygotsky (1978). The fundamental tenet of active learning is that learners are responsible participants in forming their own knowledge (Machemer & Crawford, 2007) rather than passive recipients or listeners. Active learning refers to instructional activities “involving students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing” (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). From the perspective of active learning, learners create knowledge via interactions with, and manipulations of, the environment. This view that the learner is a key player in the formation of knowledge places the learner, rather than the teacher, at the focus of the learning experience. Learning environments supporting active learning are learner centered and sensitive to the needs of the learners and their learning styles. Successful learners involved in active learning are engaged learners who are responsible for their own learning. The teacher’s role in active learning environments is twofold: (1) to provide ample opportunities for learners to interact with the environment, collaborate with peers, explore, evaluate, analyze, clarify, question, synthesize, and reflect on the learning experiences, and (2) to act as a guide or facilitator. It is well documented that active learning experiences result in deeper, more meaningful learning outcomes leading to lifelong learning, understanding, and the ability to transfer knowledge to solve problems (Strommen, 1999; Machemer & Crawford, 2007). References: Bonwell, C. C. & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. ERIC Digest.
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ACTIVE LEARNING PROCESS
ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education. Last accessed February 24, 2004. Bruner, J. S. (1985). Models of the learner. Educational Researcher, 14(6), 5–8. Machemer, P. L. & Crawford, P. (2007). Student perceptions of active learning in a large crossdisciplinary classroom. Active Learning in Higher Education, 8(1), 9–30. Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: International Universities Press. Strommen, D. (1999). Constructivism, technology, and the future of classroom learning. Retrieved April 15, 2003, from www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/papers/ construct.html. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Related Terms: Constructivist learning, Self-directed learning, Student-centered learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. Active learning allows students to talk, listen, read, write, and reflect on course content by way of practical, real-world problem-solving exercises. Small groups, simulations, case studies, role-playing, and other similar hands-on activities are employed by the instructor. Students apply their learning and move up to the higher levels of learning taxonomy. Active learning process Taxonomy: Education Citation. Active learning processes facilitate active learner engagement rather than passive learner activities such as passively reading, listening, or receiving information in some way. The learner in an active learning process is the key participant in the learning process rather than merely a recipient of knowledge. Based on active learning principles, active learning processes are characterized by: • Opportunities for interaction with, and manipulation of, the environment. • Knowledge construction through reflection, analysis, and interpretation. • Authentic, goal-directed activities that motivate thinking and provide contextual clues found in a “real situation and that assist with understanding and learning.” • Collaboration, conversation, and interaction with others (Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999). • Opportunities for learners to take a higher degree of control over their own learning (Parsons & Ryu, 2006).
Suitable categories of strategies for implementing active learning processes include: • Participatory simulations. Learners become active players in an immersive simulation situation. • Problem solving. Learners are encouraged to develop critical skills and encouraged to reflect on the problem in order to devise cognitive strategies for solving it. Learners are encouraged to select, evaluate, and modify strategies. Case studies are a useful tool here. • Exploratory learning. Activities in this category encourage learners to experiment and discover for themselves. There is a high degree of learnerdirected activity. The success of this approach is dependent on the provision of scaffolding and learner guidance. • Situated learning. Learners are presented with authentic contexts within which knowledge is negotiated by communicating with a community or peers. • Collaborative learning. The conversation and exchanges among learners promote the sharing, questioning, and exploration of understandings. References: Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Publishing. Parsons, D., & Ryu, H. (2006). A framework for assessing the quality of mobile learning. Retrieved February 15, 2008, from www.massey.ac.nz/~hryu/ M-learning.pdf. Related Terms: Discovery learning, Exploratory learning, Situated learning, Collaborative learning, Problem solving, Participatory simulations, Discovery learning Adaptive search engine Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Advanced model of tool for searching for content as close as possible to the user’s interests. An adaptive search engine “learns” by questioning the user who uses it, and “adapts” to the user’s profile in a way to show some results consistent with his or her preferences. In other words, the search engine understands what the user wants and his or her characteristics, based on behavior while surfing the system (Web); for this reason, the results of the search that do not correspond to the subjective user’s traits get cancelled (see user profiling in this lexicon). References: De Pietro, O., & Frontera, G. (2003). Adaptive instruments for w-learning. Technology Enhanced Learn-
AD HOC WIRELESS ROUTING PROTOCOLS
ing ’03—International Conference by ACM Italian Chapter and AASI. Conference CD-ROM. November 20–21, Milan, Italy. De Pietro, O., Piu, C., De Rose, M., & Frontera, G. (2006, March). An intelligent agent and an adaptive search engine to support tutoring activities on-line. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 2(1), 97–110. Mendel, J. M., & Fu, K. S. (Eds.). (1970). Adaptive, learning, and pattern recognition systems: Theory and applications. New York: Academic Press. Related Terms: Adaptive systems, Intelligent agents, User profiling Acronyms: ASE Adaptive system Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A series of computer elements that interact with the purpose of adapting the interface of the system and/or the contents for the characteristics of the user who uses the system (see user profiling in this lexicon). The components of a complete adaptive system include the following: • A system of collecting and storing the data related to the users who interact with the interface (data mart, data warehouse). • A system of data elaboration for the calculation of the users’ profiles (data mining). • The interface adaptive user, or rather an interface that adapts itself to the users’ profiles that have been elaborated. • A system of adaptive retrieving information, or rather a research system of the information that adapts itself to the users’ profiles. • An adaptive system of presentation of the information, or rather a system that adapts the modalities of presentation of the information to the users’ profiles. An adaptive system noticeably improves either the accessibility, measured in the capacity of the system to make the information available to the users who interact with it, or the usability, intended as the simplicity of use of the system since the first time the user interacts with it. References: De Pietro, O., & Frontera, G. (2003). Adaptive instruments for w-learning. In Technology Enhanced Learning ’03—International Conference by ACM Italian Chapter and AASI. Conference CD-ROM. Milan, Italy, November 20–21. De Pietro, O., Piu, C., De Rose, M., & Frontera, G. (2006, March). An intelligent agent and an adaptive
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search engine to support tutoring activities on-line. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 2(1), 97–110. Laforcade, P., Marquesuzaà, C., Nodenot, T., & Sallaberry, C. (2004). Adaptive e-learning systems: Model based engineering of learning situations for adaptive web-based educational systems. Proceedings of the 13th International World Wide Web Conference on Alternate Track Papers & Posters. May 19–21, New York. Related Terms: Adaptive search engine, User profile, Adaptive web Adaptive technology Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Adaptive technology (also know as assistive technology) refers to the devices that help people who cannot use or have difficultly using regular versions of products to perform tasks. Adaptive technology promotes greater effectiveness for people with functional limitations or disabilities, by enabling them to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had difficulty to accomplish. Examples of adaptive technology include Braille displays, larger monitors, adaptive technology computers, screen review software, speech synthesizers, text to speech scanners, magnifiers, Optelec products, TDD machines, wheelchairs, and other equipment. References: Cook, A. M., & Hussey, S. (2001). Assistive technologies: Principles and practice (2nd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby. Database of Adaptive Technology in Western Australia. (n.d.). What is adaptive technology? Retrieved June 28, 2008, from www.abwa.asn.au/datwa/what_ is_adaptive_technology_.html. Related Terms: Assistive technology, Adaptive devices Acronyms: AT Ad hoc wireless routing protocols Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Ad hoc wireless routing protocols are defined sets of algorithms used to determine paths through packet-switched wireless mesh topologies. Nodes in ad hoc networks do not have prior knowledge of their neighboring nodes. Therefore, each node must discover its neighboring nodes and then determine the best path through the neighboring nodes in order to reach remote destinations. Typically, the longer client nodes remain members of the network topology, the more information they gather about the network and the nodes associated with it. As nodes gather a
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ADVANCED STANDING
more complete view of the network topology, they can use the network resources more efficiently. However, since the network is wireless and ad hoc, it is likely that many of the nodes will be mobile, thus constantly changing the network topology. Dealing with this constant topological change is the responsibility of the ad hoc wireless routing protocols. Ad hoc wireless routing protocols fall into two broad categorizations: proactive and reactive. Proactive routing protocols maintain network routing information in organized tables. These tables are maintained via periodic updates that are received from broadcasts by other network member nodes. An example of such a proactive protocol is the optimized link-state routing (OLSR) protocol. Reactive routing protocols build routes on demand. That is, when a node attempts to reach a remote station over the network a route discovery mechanism is activated and a route through the network is discovered. These routes are typically stored until a specified amount of time elapses and the route expires. An example of a reactive routing protocol is the ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol. Related Terms: Open shortest path first, Link-state routing protocol, Wireless mesh network Acronyms: OLSR, AODV Advanced standing Taxonomy: Education Citation. This term is used in formal education (K–12 and postsecondary) to describe having the necessary qualifications for a particular course or other prerequisite without having to take that subject or course. Advanced standing in freshman physics, for example, would qualify an applicant to take a course for which that freshman physics course is a prerequisite without actually taking the course. Advanced standing typically does not carry credit toward a degree, diploma, or certificate, which means that the credit normally earned by taking that course will have to be made up some other way, usually by taking an additional course at some other point. Advanced standing may be assessed through various means including but not limited to exams, oral or written; portfolios; or personal interviews. Advisor blog Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. An online/web communication tool, written in the first person, that allows the owner to make entries as though he or she were writing in a journal or diary. Information can incorporate text, images, and links and is displayed in reverse chronological order.
Readers are given the opportunity to leave comments in an interactive format. An online Web 2.0 communication tool, written in the first person, that allows an academic advisor to make entries as thoughts, advice, motivation, or guidance utilizing a format much like that of a personal journal or diary. Information can incorporate text, images, sound, video, or links and is displayed in reverse chronological order. Adware Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Software with advertising functions integrated into or bundled with a program that a user has downloaded. The authors of these applications include additional code that delivers the ads, which can be viewed through pop-up windows or through a bar that appears on a computer screen. The justification for adware is that it helps recover programming development costs and helps to hold down the cost for the user, or to provide it free to the user. Adware has been criticized because it sometimes includes spyware code that tracks a user’s personal information and passes it on to third parties, without the user’s authorization or knowledge. References: Welch, D. (2005). Adware—is it safe? Retrieved May 29, 2008, from www.adware-cop.com/adware-articles/ adware---is-it-safe.html. Related Terms: Spyware Agile/virtual university Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Defined as an agile and virtual entity, integrated from independent providers of units of learning (primitive or complex), in completely individualized or customized flexible web-based networked learning projects. The A/VU, as a set of integrated providers can, in turn, be agilely and dynamically adjusted to either the performance of the providers or to the learner evolution or to changing requirements. An A/VU exists solely to dynamically respond to a learning opportunity or need, transmitted by a learner, and traduced by an individualized learning project. After the conclusion of that learning project, the A/VU dissolves itself. During its lifetime, the A/VU can be subject to reconfiguration (by changing or adapting its physical structure) in order to keep aligned with the learning project. It can have as many instantiations (physical configurations) as necessary in order to closely align the individualized learning project with the learner requirements in useful time.
ALTERNATIVE SCHOOLS
References: Cunha, M. M., & Putnik, G. D. (2007). A changed economy with unchanged universities? A contribution to the university of the future. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 5(4), 5–25. Cunha, M. M., Putnik, G. D., & Miranda, E. M. (2008). The agile and virtual university. In G. D. Putnik & M. M. Cunha (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Networked and Virtual Organizations (pp. 26–34). Hershey, PA: IGI-Reference. Related Terms: Market of teaching resources, Individualized learning project Acronyms: A/VU
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of system-generated identifiers. For example, a system-generated unique identifier could be numerical (0000345265) and produce an email address such as
[email protected]. Using an alias, the user could keep the numeric identifier, while allowing the user to have an email address such as jsmith@domain .com, which would be completely transparent with respect to the original numeric identifier. Related Terms: Electronic mail, User-friendly
Algorithm Taxonomy: General Citation. A sequential problem-solving procedure. For example, a text compression algorithm can be as simple as removing all extra space characters, inserting a single repeat character to indicate a string of repeated characters, and substituting smaller bit strings for frequently occurring characters. This simple step-by-step process, or algorithm, can reduce a text file to 50 percent of its original size. The algorithm also determines how to decompress data. In mathematics and computing, an algorithm is “any well-defined computational procedure that takes some value, or set of values, as input and produces some value, or set of values, as output. An algorithm is thus a sequence of computational steps that transform the input into the output” (Cormen et al., 2001) An algorithm is not patentable, but a practical application of an algorithm may be patentable. References: Cormen, T. H., Leiserson, C. E., Rivest, R. L., & Stein, C. (2001). Introduction to algorithms (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. United States Patent and Trademark Office. (2007, September). 2106.02 **>Mathematical Algorithms< - 2100 Patentability. Manual of Patent Examining Procedure (MPEP) (8th ed., 6th rev.). Retrieved May 12, 2008, from www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ pac/mpep/documents/2100_2106_02.htm. Related Terms: Calculation, Computation, Procedure, Process
Alternative assessment Taxonomy: Education Citation. Defined as any type of assessment in which students create a response to a question or task. This is in contrast to traditional and standardized assessments where students choose a response (true/false, multiple choice, etc). Methods of alternative assessment may include, but are not limited to, portfolios, performances, exhibitions, multicomponent projects, and so on. Alternative assessments are commonly used to assess English as a second language (ESL) learners, and students with physical, cognitive, or developmental disabilities. Alternative assessments are needed to assess the potential of these exceptional learners without their individual differences affecting test performance. A specific example of alternative assessment is the Pennsylvania Alternate System of Assessment (PASA), which is used to test students with significant cognitive disabilities and attending public school districts within the commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Students who are cognitively limited and unable to complete paper and pencil tests are administered this assessment and students’ responses are recorded and analyzed by a third-party examiner. References: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (2008). Alternative assessment. Retrieved June 19, 2008, from wwwncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/ assment/as8lk30.htm. Pennsylvania Training and Technical Assistance Network. (2008). PA Alternate System of Assessment (PASA). Retrieved June 24, 2008, from www.pattan .net/teachlead/PAAlternateSystemofAssessment(P ASA). Related Terms: Performance-based assessment, Performance criteria, Performance task
Alias Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A secondary user identifier, mapped onto a primary identifier. Aliases are usually used for making usernames and email addresses more user-friendly and easy to remember while keeping the functionalities
Alternative schools Taxonomy: Education Citation. The definition of an alternative education school according to the U.S. Department of Education (USDE, 2002) is “a public [or private] elementary/secondary school that addresses needs of students that
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AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT
typically cannot be met in a regular school, provides nontraditional education, serves as an adjunct to a regular school, special education or vocational education” (p. 55). Alternative schools offer educational experiences that are taught utilizing nontraditional methodologies. For example, a special education school for students with emotional/behavioral needs with an outdoor experiential program would be considered an alternative school. To qualify as an alternative school, the program must include the minimum course requirements approved by the State Board of Education and the curricula and instruction should be designed to meet the individual needs of the students who are at risk, have emotional/behavioral disabilities, or other issues that affect their education. References: U.S. Department of Education. (2002). Characteristics of the 100 largest public elementary and secondary school districts in the United States: 2000–01 (NCES 2002-351). Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics. Related Terms: Experiential, Nontraditional education, Outdoor education, Special education, State Board of Education, U.S. Department of Education Acronyms: USDE Americans with Disabilities Act Taxonomy: General Citation. There are an estimated 49.7 million disabled individuals in the United States, according to the U.S. Department of Labor (USDOL, 2003). The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibited discrimination by employers against individuals with disabilities who are qualified to perform the necessary activities of their occupation (Knapp, Faley, & Long, 2006). The responsibility of asking for accommodations is on the employee, yet when the request is made and it is shown that the person qualifies as a person who is disabled, the modifications must be made. The law also includes guidelines for buildings and facilities to ensure that they are accessible for people with challenges. References: Knapp, D. E., Faley, R. H., & Long, L. K. (2006). The Americans with Disabilities Act: A review and synthesis of the legal literature with implications for practitioners. Equal Opportunities International, 2(5), 354. U.S. Department of Labor [USDOL]. (2003). Fact sheet: Statistics on the employment rate of people with disabilities. Retrieved January 1, 2008, from www.dol .gov/odep/pubs/fact/stats.htm.
Related Terms: U.S. Department of Labor, Disabilities, Modifications, Facilities, Discrimination Acronyms: ADA Amplified sites Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A critical component of the virtual tour that provides learners an opportunity to use their prior knowledge to select websites containing additional instructional material. Depending upon the particular front door employed by the lesson designer, the amplified site may be presented as a visual menu of sites for further student exploration of the content material. Sites may be offered to learners who then travel sequentially from one exhibit to the next until they reach the final screen—visited without regard for sequence, allowing the designer to add new features and new sites as they become available. Exhibits can be viewed as a sequence of evolving changes or the movement of an object during a designated time period; presented as a timeline of dates or periods that link to new information; displayed as graphics to promote concrete learning and foster the building block approach that cognitive learners prefer; or they can simulate the activities of a subject during a “typical” twenty-four-hour period or chronicle events over a much longer period of time. Amplified sites are typically text based with links programmed to change colors after they are visited. References: Tomei, L. A. (2001). Teaching digitally with technology. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers. Related Terms: Virtual tour Analog signals Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Analog signals are continuous signals. They include such things as time, sound, and light. There is no way to convert an analog signal into a digital one without some loss of fidelity. When sound is digitized, for example, the original analog sound gets converted to an electrical signal by the microphone and is then sampled (a typical sample rate is 44,000 samples/second). Each sample is translated to a number. Related Terms: Analogue signals (U.K. spelling). Analysis/synthesis-based courses Taxonomy: Education Citation. Analysis/synthesis courses are used to teach students to analyze a situation and engage in problem solving (Fuller & Kuhne, 2008). These are courses where core information is presented but there may not necessarily be a right or wrong view. Examples are
ANDRAGOGY
those classes in any discipline that may be titled as issues classes or policy-type classes. In a class such as Issues in Health Care, where a module or lesson would focus on comparing the Canadian and U.S. health systems, many opinions and views would be prompted. The focus would be on exploring all sides of the issues to ensure that students understand the facts from all angles. The key is to flesh out all angles of the subject and have the students explore and support the differing viewpoints with the facts. While there are many opinions, there may not be one single correct view of a subject. The instructor’s role is to facilitate the knowledge and the understanding of all the facts. The interaction can be facilitated in a number of pedagogies that explore all views and facts and culminate in a synchronous or asynchronous discussion board. For the instructor in this type of class the key is not to intervene too much in the discussion but serve as a facilitator of understanding and direction. Instructors may wish to avoid authoritative postings as they may tend to shut down dialogue. If the instructor posts his or her particular opinions about a topic it can change the discussion in that students stop posting or just restate instructor opinions. Students will simply parrot instructor ideas or postings (as most students do not want to challenge the instructor and risk receiving a lower grade) or quit posting and exploring new angles and ideas as they view the instructor as the final authority. The instructor should post more personal experience than personal thoughts and beliefs. Dialogue among participants provides regular opportunities for reflection and inquiry and requires the least intervention in the discussion boards of all course types. Simulated interaction in this manner through subject matter presentation can subsume part of the interaction by causing students to consider different views, approaches, and solutions and generally to interact with a course. In the analysis/synthesis course there is a need to establish the culture of independent collaborative learning. Instructors do not respond to the majority of postings but facilitate all students to discuss and interact. Instructors will read all postings in this type of course and respond to key ideas and elements to guide the learning process through guiding questions. If the discussion is getting one-sided or negative, the instructor can, through a posted thought, direct the dialogue to view all sides. “That is true but what would ‘so and so’ say regarding this and why?” One technique in this type of course is to create an online debate where students must defend an assigned point of view, which forces them to see all sides. One technique is for students to choose a topic, interview someone, and then
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write a paper discussing their issue and what they have found by leading a discussion board thread. References: Fuller, R. G., & Kuhne, G. W. (2008, January–March). Fostering meaningful interaction in health education on-line courses: Matching pedagogy to course types. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 4(1). Andragogy Taxonomy: Education Citation. The term was first coined in 1833 in Europe by a German grammar teacher. It was first introduced to North America in the early 1970s by the father of adult education, Malcolm Knowles (1913–1997). Knowles defines the term as the art and science of helping adults learn. There are six principles attached to andragogy. Instructors of adults are supposed to be learning facilitators, linking students to learning resources. Students are not supposed to assume a submissive role of following their instructors. Learners are allowed to negotiate course contents and assignments with their instructors. Involving learners in the learning process is recommended in adult learning. Instructors are supposed to use informal evaluation to evaluate students’ work. Since Knowles emphasizes the helping role of instructors, teachers are supposed to be a guide on the side instead of a sage on the stage. The principles of andragogy work best with distance education. Andragogy refers to the art and science of helping adults learn. The word helping is heavily emphasized to differentiate the theory of andragogy from the theory of youth learning. Some scholars refer to andragogy as a set of assumptions; others refer to it as a set of guidelines. Still others refer to it as a philosophy. However, Knowles refers to it as a theory, which has been widely accepted in the field of adult education and training. According to andragogical leaders in North America, the theory of andragogy sparked a revolution in adult education and training simply because previously every learner was taught pedagogically. Taxonomy: Education Citation. The act of tailoring educational instruction to adult learners. Popularized by Malcolm Knowles, it is known as having five important areas of assumption: self-concept (changing one’s mind-set from the learning style of a child to that of an adult), experience (one gains knowledge throughout life), readiness to learn, orientation to learning (perspective changes from delayed use of knowledge to immediate use), and motivation to learn.
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ANIMATION
References: Smith, M. K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy. The Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Retrieved from www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm. Related Terms: Adult learning
distinguishes between an application, which is a standalone program, and an applet, which is a program that is executed (usually) as part of a webpage. The applet has no “main” function or method and is instantiated automatically when the page that refers to it is loaded into the browser. It is referenced in an HTML document like this:
Animation Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The rapid display of images in sequenced succession that, because of persistence of vision, gives the illusion of movement or of time progression. In other words, each frame of an animation is slightly different from the frame that came before it—a notion similar to a flipbook or the frames in a film reel. Computer-based animations may be classified as either 2D or 3D. 2D animations can only be manipulated in a flat plane (i.e., in the x and y axes), while 3D animations comprise shapes or models that can be moved and rotated in three dimensions (i.e., in the x, y, and z axes). Generally distinguished from filmed or photographed video, animations tend to be drawn, rendered, traced, or created from scratch, and with the popularity and ubiquity of vector-based formats (e.g., Flash) that lend themselves well to such animated graphics, animations are widespread in web and multimedia presentations. Indeed, many of the traditional techniques of animation have found their way into or have their equivalent in the computer programs that are used to create such animations. Techniques like the use of light boxes or drawing on vellum to help see underlying pictures as the artist draws the current (top) frame have onion-skin button equivalents in modern animation computer programs. However, computer programs for animation also go a step further to help take the tedium out of drawing multiple pictures in succession by introducing automated tweening—a process whereby an animator need only create the beginning and end images (also called the keyframes—the important frames defining the scene, movement, or action), and the computer program calculates and creates the in-between images that smoothly connects the pictures the animator drew. As such, animators and educators creating animations for their presentations today likely find them having to be knowledgeable and skilled in both technical and digital processes as well as in the traditional artistic practices. Related Terms: Multimedia, Frame rate
APPLET CODE=MyApp.class CODEBASE=“Http://www.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/ ~becker/461/Asst/SearchEngine”>
Applet Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A particular kind of program written in the general purpose programming language, Java. Java
Applets are one way to embed dynamic or interactive content into a webpage. Related Terms: Java, Application Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A program that is embedded in a webpage built in HTML (hypertext markup language), and which launches when the webpage is loaded. Applets are written in Java and are frequently used in playing videos, animated images, audio, and other features that enhance a person’s experience in the page. Unfortunately, applets are often written in ways that require individuals to download programs such as the latest version of Java language that may not be allowed on their computers. Thus, web-browsing experiences that rely on applets can be frustrating for individuals who may need to use computers that have firewalls and security. Application level of the KARPE model Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The KARPE (knowledge, application, research, practice, and evaluation) model began as a way of explaining to adult learners the inherent differentiation between teaching adults at the postsecondary, graduate, and postgraduate levels of higher education. Research has found that technology is used most effectively as an instructional tool when it is integrated into instructional activities. Interactive environments, computer-based manipulatives, virtual reality, educational software, multimedia, content management systems, and simulations and gaming are examples of highly successful application-based technologies. Some of the most familiar virtual environments include Second Life, Active Worlds, DigitalSpace Traveler, Meet3D, and Virtools. Educational software covers a host of applications whose primary purpose can be either technology-enhanced classroom teaching or self-paced content learning applications. These include computer-based, web-based, and computer-based learning software environments like microworlds, com-
ARTIFACT
puter simulations, hypertext systems, and a host of technology-enhanced cognitive tools. Finally, simulation and gaming refers to a series of applications that encompass modeling, computer-assisted board games, and fully interactive environments. Simulations increase student motivation, facilitate affective learning, support interpersonal relations, improve cognitive outcomes and communication, and promote individualized learning. The primary instructional goals and outcomes of the application level of the KARPE model remain the same. Technology can become an effective tool to enrich and enhance the learning experience. Although acquiring technology-related skills is not the primary focus, technology-rich activities frequently scaffold their development. The spread of the Internet and the World Wide Web has made this approach more common in teaching the adult learner as well as other education and training settings. Technology has also been used to extend adult literacy curricula by enabling learners to have immediate access to Internet-based resources that provide content of interest to their personal situations. It has allowed adult learners to develop skills and have experiences in ways that will benefit them outside the instructional setting. References: Tomei, L. A. (2008). The KARPE model revisited. In Adapting information and communications technologies for effective education. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers. Related Terms: KARPE model, Knowledge level, Research level, Practice level, Evaluation level Application service provider Taxonomy: Technology Citation. An approach to web-based computing that refers to a server side delivery of computing capabilities via the Internet that would otherwise be difficult or cumbersome for end users to procure. The ASP model is especially well suited for small businesses that cannot afford a large IT staff or an expensive technical infrastructure. Acronyms: ASP Applied learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. A process of integrating one or more subject matter content areas (disciplines) with authentic (personal, home, career, community, society) learning experiences that apply to the home, career, or society. Applied learning provides experience in the problemsolving process; the manipulative use of tools, equipment, materials, and related techniques; personal skills; occupational awareness; and safety. Applied learning is an effective strategy for learning many of
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the skills and concepts embodied in academic subject matter and relate directly to content and accepted performance standards. Aptitude tests Taxonomy: Education Citation. Standardized tests that are frequently used to determine what a person already knows or his or her ability to learn new skills in an area he or she is not trained in currently. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is a famous aptitude test used to predict a student’s ability to succeed when entering into a college or university; it is now called the Scholastic Reasoning Test. Many businesses also do aptitude testing to determine possible success of skill development for new employees in their workplace. References: Arends, R. I. (2000). Learning to teach. New York: McGraw-Hill. Your Dictionary.com. aptitude test. Retrieved from www.yourdictionary.com/aptitude-test. Related Terms: Achievement test Acronyms: SAT, ACT ARPANet Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The wide area network (WAN) developed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States Department of Defense. (ARPA was later renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, or DARPA.) It was the world’s first operational packet-switching network and the predecessor of the global Internet. Initially proposed in 1962, its first link became operational in 1969. Packet switching, now the dominant basis for both data and voice communication worldwide, was a new and important concept in data communications. It replaced circuit switching, as in the older model of telephone circuits, where a dedicated circuit is tied up for the duration of the call and communication is only possible with the single party on the other end of the circuit (Schneider & Evans, 2007). References: Schneider, G. & Evans, J. (2007). New perspectives on the Internet, comprehensive (6th ed.). Boston: Thomson Course Technology. Related Terms: Circuit switching, Packet switching Acronyms: ARPA, DARPA, WAN Artifact Taxonomy: Education Citation. An artifact, in the field of education, refers to something that a student made or created, which, as
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
a result of a learning investigation, provides observable and measurable insight into the student’s knowledge of a topic. The tools used to create the artifact, whether traditional materials or of electronic technology, depend on which tools best illustrate a student’s knowledge. An object created or designed for presentation. Examples of portfolio artifacts are text documents, webpages, presentations, research papers, assessment instruments, original projects, academic or external teamwork projects, internships, presentation videos, certificates of achievement, spreadsheets, databases, digital images, and multimedia demonstrations. Artificial intelligence Taxonomy: Education Citation. The “science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence” (McCarthy, 2007). It is a computer program that can solve problems creatively, and which learns from any external interaction or communication and adapts its problemsolving processes accordingly. The computer would have the ability to logically deduce and infer, basing its decisions on those experiences. Artificial intelligence (AI) is now being used in most classrooms as well as in the online and distance education formats. “Videoconferencing and distance learning, voice-activated word processors, intelligent tutoring programs, and voice-activated language translators help students complete tasks at home and in the classroom” (Karlin, 2007, p. 37). References: Karlin, S. (2007, September). Futurist Liebowitz looks at tomorrow’s schools today. American School Board Journal 194(9), 36–37, 1/2p. McCarthy, J. (2007). What is artificial intelligence? November 12, 2007. Stanford, CA: Stanford University, Computer Science Department. Retrieved February 2, 2008, from www-formal.stanford.edu/ jmc/whatisai/node1.html. Related Terms: Computer science, Computing, Machine translation, Robotics Acronyms: AI, MT Taxonomy: Education Citation. A subdiscipline of computer science that focuses on creating computer programs and applications that appear to possess attributes associated with human intelligence. The key to defining artificial intelligence is to be able to define intelligence, but usually includes decision-making and/or reasoning capabilities. The
definition of artificial intelligence can vary considerably, depending on whether the individual providing that definition would identify himself or herself as a proponent of “weak AI” or “strong AI.” Strong AI proponents are in some sense the “believers,” while those who argue for weak AI are the nonbelievers. Since there is no conclusive proof behind most of what is done in AI, the discipline sometimes ends up taking on cult status (i.e., zealous devotion to a person, ideal, or thing). The believers will tell you it is only a matter of time before we create an intelligent machine. The nonbelievers are not so self-assured. In 1981 Guy L. Steele Jr., a Distinguished Engineer at Sun Microsystems, wrote the following reply to something Douglas R. Hofstadter wrote: “There is a possibility that the physical structure of the universe may be such that the only feasible embedding of intelligence—in a small enough space that you are not subject to speed of light considerations, and can interact with human beings in real time, at their natural speed—may be the biochemical one. In fact, we may run into problems trying to build electrical, silicon, or whatever computers out of other stuff than what our heads have been made out of, trying to get it into a small enough space that the pieces can interact quickly enough so that they can have conversations with us. That is a possible technical limitation that we shouldn’t overlook in the debate” (Edmonds, 2008). Much of the optimism shown by strong AI disciples comes from a lack of understanding of what is actually involved in making these things happen. The promise that voice recognition is just around the corner is a classic example. The AI believers have been making such promises for over thirty years, yet real, error-free functioning systems remain mysteriously out of reach. Perhaps an example will help put it into perspective. Suppose an AI proponent claims his intelligent voice recognition software can achieve 98 percent accuracy. That sounds pretty good, until we apply that to the words in a book. An average paperback novel contains roughly 8 words per line, 35 lines per page. On one page, we have an average of 8 x 35 = 280 words. If we get 98 percent of the words right that would mean we also get 2 percent of the words wrong: or about five words per page. A book that had five words wrong on every page would be difficult to read easily. References: Edmonds, B. (2008). The social embedding of intelligence: Towards producing a machine that could pass the Turing test. Springer, Netherlands. Related Terms: Intelligent systems Acronyms: AI
ASSESSMENT ALTERNATIVES
Assessment Taxonomy: Education Citation. The process of gathering information or data for the purpose of determining if outcomes of a curriculum have been met, either on the part of the student or the educator. The criteria being reviewed are specific to meeting the standards of a given curriculum. In education, there are various types of measurement, depending on the situation. Two of the most common types of educational assessments are formative and summative. Formative assessment is an ongoing assessment of the activities of a program, with the intent of improving the program. A summative assessment is the total assessment of the overall curriculum. References: MIT Teaching and Learning Laboratory. (2008). Assessment and evaluation. Retrieved from web.mit .edu/tll/assessment-evaluation/types.html. University of Northern Iowa, Office of Academic Assessment. (2006). A definition of assessment from the higher learning commission. Retrieved June 21, 2008, from www.uni.edu/assessment/definition ofassessment.shtml. Related Terms: Formative assessment, Summative assessment, Performance assessment, Process assessment Taxonomy: Education Citation. Assessment is defined as measuring the learning and performance of students or teachers. Different types of assessment instruments include achievement tests, minimum competency tests, developmental screening tests, aptitude tests, observation instruments, performance tasks, and authentic assessments. The effectiveness of a particular approach to assessment depends on its suitability for the intended purpose. For instance, multiple-choice, true-or-false, and fillin-the-blank tests can be used to assess basic skills or to find out what students remember. To assess other abilities, performance tasks may be more appropriate. Performance assessments require students to perform a task, such as serving a volleyball, solving a particular type of mathematics problem, or writing a short business letter to inquire about a product. Sometimes the task may be designed to assess the student’s ability to apply knowledge learned in school. Authentic assessments are performance assessments that are not artificial or contrived. Educators who want assessments to be more authentic worry that most school tests are necessarily contrived. Writing a letter to an imaginary company only to demonstrate to the teacher that you know how to write a letter is different from writing a letter to a real person or company in order to achieve
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a real purpose. One way to make an assessment more authentic is to have students choose the particular task they will use to demonstrate what they have learned. For example, a student might choose to demonstrate her understanding of a unit in chemistry by developing a model that illustrates the problems associated with oil spills. References: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (2008). A lexicon of learning: What educators mean when they say . . . “assessment.” Retrieved June 23, 2008, from www.ascd.org/Publications/Lexicon_ of_Learning/A.aspx. Related Terms: Tests, Appraisal, Evaluation, Measurement, Review Taxonomy: Education Citation. The process of documenting and judging information from diverse sources in order to develop a deeper understanding of what students know, understand, and can do with their knowledge as a result of their educational experiences so as to improve subsequent learning. Assessment includes formative and summative assessments, objective and subjective assessments, informal and formal assessments, as well as internal and external assessments. References: Teaching Effectiveness Program, University of Oregon. (2007). Definition of assessment. In Assessing Students in a Learner-Centered Classroom. Teacher Training Workshop. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from tep.uoregon.edu/workshops/teachertraining/learner centered/assessing/definition.htm. Related Terms: Formative assessment, Summative assessment, Objective assessment, Subjective assessment, Informal assessment, Formal assessment, Internal assessment, External assessment Assessment alternatives Taxonomy: Education Citation. Assessment alternatives present a strategy for addressing critical questions about the value of instruction and quality of student learning outcomes. What am I doing? How well am I doing it? What do I need to do to improve? There are generally two kinds of data used in educational assessment or evaluation: quantitative and qualitative. A quantitative measurement uses input from a standardized instrument that limits data to predetermined set of responses. Qualitative measurement is more concerned with descriptive input and is by nature more subjective. Also, educators generally recognize objective, subjective, selfassessment, and authentic assessments.
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ASSESSMENT RUBRICS
Taxonomy: Education Citation. The use of a variety of assessment techniques leads adults to better understand their particular learning outcomes. A well-developed assessment identifies the factors that contribute to learning. Determining specific factors is accomplished by collecting information on the various conditions under which a student is most and least likely to be a successful learner. Such information collected both indirectly and directly allows the instructor to predict the circumstances under which the best possible learning outcomes are likely to occur. Assessment rubrics Taxonomy: Education Citation. An assessment rubric is a tool for scoring student work, particularly a complex performance such as an essay. The assessment rubric typically specifies at least one dimension (e.g., trait), score levels for each dimension, and criteria that must be met for each level. The IMS rubric specification provides a way of representing assessment rubrics for electronic portfolios (IMS Global Learning Consortium, 2005). Within the evidence-centered design framework, an assessment rubric is part of the “evidence model,” specifically, part of the scoring submodel, also sometimes called the evaluation component. References: Brookhart, S. M. (1999). The art and science of classroom assessment: The missing part of pedagogy. Washington, DC: George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and Human Development. IMS Global Learning Consortium. (2005). IMS rubric specification (version 1.0). Retrieved May 29, 2008, from www.imsglobal.org/ep/epv1p0/imsru bric_specv1p0.html. Lane, S., & Stone, C. (2006). Performance assessment. In R. L. Brennan, Educational measurement (4th ed., pp. 387–431). Westport, CT: Praeger. Related Terms: Performance assessment, Electronic portfolios, Evidence model, Evidence-centered design Taxonomy: Education Citation. Tools designed to evaluate the level of learner response to nontraditional instructional practice including project-based learning, inquiry-based learning, and problem-based learning. Assessment rubrics are designed to assess the subjective responses of learners including performance and process learning skills and concepts such as communication skills, criti-
cal thinking, and collaboration skills. A rubric includes these items: 1. Description of the response being assessed. 2. Description of the activity that led to the response. 3. List of the criteria for scaling the responses of the students. 4. Assessment scale, for example, 1 to 4, or learning to exceptional, and a notes section. Taxonomy: Education Citation. Widely used to assess student progress in various content areas. An assessment rubric is designed with approximately four to six grading criteria, and can be modified to assess student projects, speeches, group work, presentations, portfolios, and more. Students are scored on a point scale in each criteria area. Rubrics are an excellent way to fairly assess students at any level or subject area. Typically students are given the rubric prior to an assignment or project, so they can be sure to adhere to the desired expectations. References: Diller, K. R., & Phelps, S. F. (2008). Learning outcomes, portfolios, and rubrics, oh my! Authentic assessment of an information literacy program. portal: Libraries and the Academy, 8(1), 75–89. Related Terms: Assessment, Authentic assessment, Checklist, Criteria, Learning outcomes, Standards, Student evaluations, Scoring rubrics Assimilation Taxonomy: Education Citation. Refers to the process that allows the acquisition of a new experience into a cognitive scheme or structure already known to the learner. It is mainly linked to two authors, Jean Piaget and David Ausubel. Piaget has defined assimilation as a process that, together with accommodation (in a complementary way) describes the adaptation of the individual to the environment. Assimilation describes the ability of an organism to incorporate an event or an object into a preexistent mental scheme, while accommodation is referred to the process of modification that allows acquiring new experience that could not be assimilated without re-thinking previous concepts and behaviors. Ausubel uses the term to identify the acquisition and re-organization of the meaningful contents within the cognitive structure. He defines the assimilation as an interactive process that involves the material just acquired and the preexistent concepts, which are called assimilators, are general concepts that provide a base for connecting new information with knowledge acquired before.
ASYNCHRONOUS COMMUNICATION
References: Ausubel, D. P. (1968). Educational psychology, a cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Piaget, J. (1936). La Naissance de L’intelligence chez l’Enfant. Neuchâtel: Delachaux et Niestlé. Related Terms: Accommodation, Intelligence, Cognitive scheme Assistive technology Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A generic term including assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices that are used by individuals with disabilities to perform tasks that might otherwise be difficult or impossible to accomplish. Assistive technologies include mobility devices such as walkers and wheelchairs, as well as hardware, software, and peripherals that assist people with disabilities in accessing computers or other information technologies. References: Cook, A. M., & Hussey, S. (2001). Assistive technologies: Principles and practice (2nd ed.). St. Louis: Mosby. Related Terms: Adaptive technology Acronyms: AT Asynchronous classes Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Asynchronous classes allows for anytimeanywhere online learning by combining self-study with substantial asynchronous interactivity with others. The students and instructors can be online at various times to work on assessment, read, and work on projects. Learners share a group learning experience but do not meet in real time. Asynchronous classrooms blend a variety of web technologies, such as hypertext documents, online quizzes, multimedia, notes files, and email to produce programs. One of the most useful tools for asynchronous instruction is Camtasia Studio. The curriculum of synchronous classes is tightly structured so that students would know what is expected of them. Typically, asynchronous classrooms will stagger the due date of assignments throughout the week and include discussion questions to promote collaboration. In comparison to student progress in a synchronous classroom, it’s important to note that students in an asynchronous classroom may be at different stages in a course, do not experience the same learning environment, and cannot generate anonymous responses. References: Liu, X., Bonk, C. J., Magiuka, R. J., Lee, S., & Su, B. (2005). Exploring four dimensions of online instruc-
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tor roles: A program level case study. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 9(4), 29–48. Zhang, D., Zhao, J., Zhou, L., & Nunamaker, J. (2004, May). Can e-learning replace classroom learning? CACM 47(5), 75–79. Related Terms: Asynchronous learning network, Asynchronous interaction Asynchronous communication Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A delayed interaction, a form of computermediated communication (CMC) that supports information exchange and group interactions through a variety of electronic communication tools such as electronic mail (email), bulletin boards, class listservs, and online discussion forums. This model enables the participant to communicate at different times with the aid of technological mediation. Asynchronous electronic communications do not require real-time interaction. In other words, the sender and receiver do not have to be online concurrently to interact, that is, nonsynchronous, two-way communication in which there is a delay between when a message is sent and when it is actually received. In distance learning, asynchronous communication most often takes the form of email (e.g., your professor emails you with feedback on an assignment), voicemail (e.g., you leave a message for your professor on his or her office phone), and discussion boards (e.g., you post a reply to a classmate’s question in a threaded class discussion.). Two-way, nonsynchronous communication that involves a time delay between the transmission and receipt of a message (e.g., email and voice messaging) does not occur in real time and there is a lapse between the sending and receiving of message content. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines asynchronous as “of, used in, or being digital communication (as between computers) in which there is no timing requirement for transmission and in which the start of each character is individually signaled by the transmitting device.” The term asynchronous is usually used to describe communications in which data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream. Teaching and learning anytime, anywhere is the typical asynchronous nature of distance education. Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Communication taking place at different times or over a certain period of time. The term was originally used in telecommunication referring to the transmission of data between two devices that are not synchronized with one another via a clocking mechanism or other technique. Currently, the term has been
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ASYNCHRONOUS JAVASCRIPT AND XML
widely used in online learning, where communications often occur between teacher and students or students and students through email, voicemail, and message boards. Asynchronous communication allows students and instructors to collaborate on topics without immediate feedback. References: Guide to Online Schools.com. (n.d.). Asynchronous communication. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from www.guidetoonlineschools.com/asynchronous communication.html. Related Terms Synchronous communication, Telecommunication Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A communication process whereby participants (computers or people) are not required to attend at the same moment in time, that is, it is not synchronous. Examples of asynchronous communication include voicemail, email, discussion forums, blogs, video blogs, lectures, and so on. In addition to the practical advantages associated with not having to have both (or all) participants engaged in communication at the same time, asynchronous communication supports learning by expanding the opportunities that individuals have to participate in discussions and conversations. Some of these advantages include augmenting communication with visual content that might not have been available previously, meeting individual needs by providing learners with the opportunity to read, reread, mull, and understand other participants’ ideas, and by providing participants with the opportunity to compose, edit, and refine their response without the pressure of time. Another advantage is the potential for anonymity or at least the perception of such with the use of pseudonyms. Asynchronous communication even has a useful potential in the classroom—where for example students may be encouraged to text questions or ideas to the teacher as they arise in their minds to which teachers, upon receiving such messages, may respond without any angst or fear associated with the public articulation of the learners’ thoughts. References: Harasim, L. (2000). Shift happens: Online education as a new paradigm in learning. Internet and Higher Education, 3(1–2), 41–61. Related Terms: Synchronous communication, Online discussion forum Asynchronous JavaScript and XML Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A style of programming in which a webpage is updated in the background while the user continues
to view and interact with the page. The XMLHTTP request object is used to access a file on the server and perform some action, such as update the page with new information, save information, and so forth. Asynchronous refers to the browser not waiting for the results of the request before performing other actions. JavaScript is the scripting language used most often to construct AJAX web applications. XML refers to the format of the file that is retrieved from the server. Related words: JavaScript, XML, XMLHTTP request Acronyms: AJAX, XML Asynchronous learning Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A teaching method using the asynchronous delivery of instructional materials through computer network. It is learning that occurs independent of time and space. Learners are able to interact with course contents, instructor, and peers at a time of their choice. This approach enables learners to increase knowledge and skills through self-paced and self-directed modules because instructional materials, assignments, projects, and/or discussion questions are posted online, and students can access information and provide comments at any time from anywhere. Any learning event where interaction is delayed over time. This allows learners to participate according to their schedule, and be geographically separate from the instructor—could be in the form of a correspondence course or elearning. Interaction can take place using various technologies like threaded discussion. References: Elearnspace.org. (2005). Asynchronous. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from www.elearnspace.org/doing/ asynchronous.htm. Related Terms: E-learning, Online learning Asynchronous online networking Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Asynchronous online networking refers to a network in which participants can exchange information through the Internet at any time from anywhere. With an asynchronous online network, participants are able to choose when and where to connect with others. References: Electrical Interface Buses. (2008). Electronic dictionary, terms, and definitions. Retrieved on May 15, 2008, from www.interfacebus.com/Engineering_ Dictionary_1.html. Related Terms Synchronous, Asynchronous, Networking
AUDIO COMPRESSION
Asynchronous transfer mode Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A high bandwidth, low delay, packet-like switching and multiplexing technique. ATM is the technology selected in 1998 by the Consultative Committee on International Telephone & Telegraph (CCITT), an international standards organization, to realize a broadband integrated services digital network (B-ISDN). It is a fast-cell-switched technology based on a fixed-length 53-byte cell. All broadband transmissions (audio, date, imaging, or video) are divided into a series of cells and routed across an ATM network consisting of links connected by ATM switches. The most significant benefit of ATM is its uniform handling of services, allowing one network to meet the needs of many broadband services. ATM is a cell relay, circuit-switching network, and data link layer protocol that encodes data traffic into small fixed-sized cells. ATM provides data link layer services that run over SONET (synchronous optical networking) Layer 1 links and differs from other technologies based on packet-switched networks (such as the Internet Protocol or Ethernet), in which variablesized packets (sometimes known as frames) are used. ATM is a connection-oriented technology in which a logical connection is established between the two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins. At-risk students Taxonomy: Education Citation. Children who do not meet the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) eligibility requirements for having exceptionality, nevertheless are in jeopardy of not being successful in the academic environment. Teacher rating forms, observations, and screening tests can help to determine if a child is at risk in the classroom environment. Often the at-risk student’s life outside of school influences his or her coping skills, such as living in an area with low socioeconomic status, high incidence of teen pregnancy, unemployment, or abuse. These students frequently become discouraged learners because they operate in a survival mode as opposed to having an academic focused mind-set in the classroom. Related Terms: Exceptionalities, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Observations, Screening tests, Special education, Socioeconomic levels Acronyms: IDEA Audience response systems Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A wireless, technological system that allows instructors to request information and pose questions to the audience by requiring the choosing of an an-
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swer using a handheld clicker that when pressed sends either a infrared or radio signal to a receiver attached to a computer. The information can be compiled, summarized, and graphically displayed in real time to assimilate and provide interactive learning, immediate feedback, and assessment regarding conceptual understanding. These systems allow anonymity of answers, and increase class involvement and excitement. Related Terms: Classroom response systems, Student response systems, Clickers, Interactive learning, Interactive teaching Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Systems that provide each participant with a handheld input device through which they can communicate anonymously with software that aggregates all participant response data and displays the results on a public screen for subsequent discussion. At their simplest they may only offer numeric keys, but are increasingly making use of a variety of input devices that can provide text and graphics input. Related Terms: Classroom voting systems, Personal response systems, Electronic voting systems, Classroom performance system, Classroom communication systems Audioblog Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A form of blogging, audioblog is the auditory form of the root term blog, which is a portmanteau of the terms web and log and refers to the text-based version. Audioblogs, originally referred to as MP3 blogs or music blogs, generally follow the same format as traditional written blogs in that they provide a platform for the sharing of content or commentary on a topic in a reverse chronological order. Similar in format to podcasts, audioblogs are part of a new worldwide trend toward networking through social media. Audio compression Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Digital compression is necessary to control file size and data rates of digital audio files. Unlike video compression, and prior to the use of the computer in digital audio production, compressing audio referred to reducing the dynamic range of an analog audio signal. Reducing the dynamic range of an analog audio signal means that some sounds that vary too greatly from the user-specified range will be reduced or eliminated. In effect, the audio range is narrowed, the audio does not sound as expansive (or lifelike), has lower fidelity, and any extremely soft or loud sounds may not be heard at all.
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AUDIOCONFERENCING
On the other hand, digital audio can be compressed in a number of ways, but the techniques for compression generally take the form of removing digital audio data that the human ear will not effectively hear. For example, if two instruments hit the same note at the same time, the softer-sounding instrument may not be heard as it may be masked by the louder instrument. (This particular phenomenon is also called psychoacoustics.) With the proliferation of portable digital audio devices and the popularity of podcasts and streaming audio in educational technology methods and on the Internet, the need for the control of audio file sizes and audio data transfer rates is increasingly prevalent. To achieve smaller file sizes and more efficient transfer of audio files over networks, audio files may be compressed using lossy methods. This involves reducing the bit rate of the audio files (the number of bits of audio information per second) via one of two primary compression methods: constant bit rate (CBR) and variable bit rate (VBR). Constant bit rate has the advantage of speed—it generally takes less time to compress audio using CBR than with VBR. On the other hand, setting the compression method to variable bit rate takes longer to compress but generally results in files that have a lower average bit rate at an equivalent sound quality to CBR. The reason for the increased compression times and better average bit rates lies in the fact that variable bit rate conducts a first pass to analyze the audio file’s information with the goal of seeking the lowest possible bit rate for the desired audio quality. Less easily compressed portions of the audio are allocated higher rates while more easily compressed portions are allocated lower rates. A second pass then compresses the audio using the information gleaned from the first pass, resulting in a compression scheme that is better tailored to the specific dynamics of the digital audio file. Related Terms: Compression, Compressed video Acronyms: CBR, VBR
cation delivered through standard telephone lines or Internet-based software sometimes used in distance learning, or a voice-only connection of more than two sites using standard telephone lines.
Audioconferencing Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A telephone conferencing service that uses regular telephone lines and a digital conference bridge to provide an inexpensive, flexible, and convenient method of communication. Using this service, individuals or groups at multiple locations can meet conveniently and economically for business or administrative meetings, saving travel expenses and time. Audioconferencing can also offer an alternative method of communication for some or all instruction in a distance education course. It is voice communi-
Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. With academic standards and twenty-firstcentury skills emphasizing reasoning, communication, and technology, it is vital that educators are finding more expedient ways of communicating with others outside the classroom. Newer forms of telecommunicating, which were previously available to only wealthy corporations, are now available at little or no cost to everyone. Using technology to communicate and collaborate across different countries can create a more global learning environment, can allow for crosscultural studies, and can enhance understanding and
Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Audioconferencing offers a real-time and synchronous interaction between or among users. Audioconferencing is also commonplace in chat and instant messaging. Audioconferencing is one way to offer virtual interactions that give learners the opportunity to be actively involved in communication that might be otherwise impossible. Audioconferencing uses voice communication to link participants at two or more sites. Outside of standard telephone lines for audioconferencing connectivity, there are also Internet-enabled audioconferencing known as voice chat. When more than one person is at a location, speakerphones or special audioconference equipment is required. When more than two sites are involved, a telephone conference bridge (rented from a telecommunications provider or provided by the institution) is needed; newer systems may use Internet-based software. Successful audioconferencing requires good audio quality, a reliable audio bridge, and a comfortable or quiet environment to reduce noise. Some equipment facilitates audioconferencing and its convenience, including high-performance speakerphones and headsets, or both. Finally, audioconferencing requires adequate planning. References: France, E. F., Anderson, A., & Gardner, M. (2001). The impact of status and audio conferencing technology on business meetings. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 54(2), 857–76. Hampel, R., & Hauck, M. (2004). Towards an effective audio conferencing in distance language courses. Language Learning and Technology, 8 (1), 66–82. Related Terms: Teleconferencing, Web conferencing
AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
appreciation of education in contexts other than one’s own (Driscoll, 2007, p. 12). Audioconferencing is becoming more popular and only requires a simple computer with a microphone— standard equipment for today’s computer systems and available as an inexpensive upgrade for older models. Services like MSN Messenger or AOL provide audio and video links as part of their instant messaging (IM) services at no charge. Equally exciting is the opportunity to Skype. Skypeto-Skype calls, video calls and instant messaging are free, any time of the day or night, anywhere in the world. Using Skype software downloaded from www .skype.com, users are able to access other Skype peerto-peer users, offering another vehicle for audio and videoconferencing. References: Driscoll, K. (2007, May/June). Collaboration in today’s classrooms: New web tools change the game. MultiMedia & Internet @ Schools, 12. Hammerman, E. (2006). Eight essentials of classroom inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Authentic assessment Taxonomy: Education Citation. Authentic assessments present “engaging and worthy problems or questions of importance, in which students must use knowledge to fashion performances effectively and creatively. The tasks are either replicas of or analogous to the kinds of problems faced by adult citizens and consumers or professionals in the field” (Wiggins, 1993, p. 229). One technique for authentic assessment is the use of design briefs—plausible situations in which students are asked to solve problems given limited materials, a specific time frame, and a number of rules and limitations. Gooding and Metz (2007) contend that the design brief, an established format in technology education, can serve as a unique approach to extend and assess everyday lessons through the process of application. Simply put, a design brief exemplifies the process of inquiry, wherein a problem is identified, investigated, and analyzed. During this process, it is expected that students will engage in researching existing ideas, crafting new thoughts, selecting and testing possible solutions, and analyzing data. It is also anticipated that students will evaluate their data-supported outcomes and present their findings in meaningful ways. Additionally, when rubrics are presented to students prior to assessment, they have a goal to reach. Classroom teachers will find this methodology effective because it places added responsibility onto the shoulders of the learners and it describes what is required, but not how to get there.
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(Although this is described as an assessment of prior knowledge, it can also be used as an activity to acquire new knowledge and experiences. Thus, the authentic assessment becomes an authentic learning activity.) Although there are numerous methods of authentic assessment, the previous example demonstrates the six criteria for authentic assessment as presented by Wiggins (1990). Authentic assessments: 1. Require students to be effective performers with acquired knowledge. 2. Present the student with the full array of tasks that mirror the priorities and challenges found in the best instructional activities: conducting research; writing, revising, and discussing papers; providing an engaging oral analysis of a recent political event; collaborating with others on a debate, and so on. 3. Attend to whether the student can craft polished, thorough, and justifiable answers, performances, or products. 4. Achieve validity and reliability by emphasizing and standardizing the appropriate criteria for scoring such (varied) products. 5. Retain “test validity,” which depends in part upon whether the test simulates real-world “tests” of ability. 6. Involve “ill-structured” challenges and roles that help students rehearse for the complex ambiguities of the “game” of adult and professional life. References: Gooding, J., & Metz, W. (2007). Inquiry by design briefs. Science and Children, 31(3), 35–39. Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research. Retrieved June 1, 2008, from ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests Measurement and Evaluation (ERIC No. ED328611). Wiggins, G. P. (1993). Assessing student performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Taxonomy: Education Citation. This type of assessment is also referred to as a “performance-based assessment.” According to Dana and Tippins (1993), authentic assessments: 1. Focus on content that is essential, focusing on the big ideas or concepts, rather than trivial microfacts or specialized skills. 2. Are in-depth in that they lead to other problems and questions. 3. Are feasible and can be done easily and safely within a school and classroom.
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AUTHENTICATION
4. Focus on the ability to produce a quality product or performance, rather than a single right answer. 5. Promote the development and display of student strengths and expertise (the focus is on what the student knows). 6. Have criteria that are known, understood, and negotiated between the teacher and student before the assessment begins. 7. Provide multiple ways in which students can demonstrate they have met the criteria, allowing multiple points of view and multiple interpretations. 8. Require scoring that focuses on the essence of the task and not what is easiest to score (p. 4). Instead of the traditional method of pencil-and-paper tests, the student is assessed based on engagement in problem solving, projects, written expression, demonstrations, performances, or real-life tasks. References: Dana, T. M., & Tippins, D. J. (1993). Considering alternative assessment for middle level learners. Middle School Journal, 25(2), 3–5. Related Terms: Assessment, Pencil-and-paper tests, Performance assessment Authentication Taxonomy: General Citation. The process of confirming something or someone is, in fact, who or what it is declared to be. For example, when using an email account, authentication is carried out through using a logon password to verify the identity of the user. Human authentication factors are classified in three cases: 1. Something the user has, like an identification card (ID) or bank card. 2. Something the user knows, like a password or personal identification number (PIN). 3. Something the user is or does, which is known as biometric qualities. Biometric qualities can be classified as physiology and behavioral. Physiology includes face, fingerprint, hand, iris, and DNA, while behavioral qualities include keystroke, signatures, and voice. Often a combination of methods is used, for example a bank card and PIN, or username and password for email. The major issue in authentication is the “matching problem,” especially in face recognition programs, with fingerprints, and so on. Many websites discuss
this subject with pictures and animation; see computer .howstuffworks.com/facial-recognition.htm. References: Elmasri, R. and Navathe, S. (2007). Fundamentals of database systems (5th ed.). Boston: AddisonWesley. Related Terms: Authorization, Verification, Public key, Digital certificates Acronyms: RSA, SSL Authentic learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. Authentic learning means learning that uses real-world problems and projects that allow students to explore and discuss these problems in ways that are relevant to them. It relates learning to real-life experiences and gives learning a meaning/purpose. Studies show that students learn best by engaging in authentic learning tasks, by asking questions, and by drawing on past experiences. Authentic learning must take place in a way and in a place that is relevant to students’ “real” lives, both inside and outside the classroom. References: Authentic Learning: An Educational Expedition. Retrieved from www.authenticlearning.net. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from www .ed.gov/index.jhtml. Western Washington University, Center for Instructional Innovation. Retrieved from pandora.cii.wwu .edu. Related Terms: Active learning, Authentic assessment, Cognitive apprenticeship, Constructivism, Inquiry-based learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. Learning focused on the application of the developed skills beyond the classroom environment that allow for inquiry and self-determination. Authentic learning allows students to explore, discover, discuss, and meaningfully construct concepts and relationships in contexts that involve real-world problems and projects that are relevant and interesting to the learner. Authentic learning implies several things: that learning is centered on authentic tasks, that learning be guided with teacher scaffolding, that students be engaged in exploration and inquiry, that students have opportunities for social discourse, and that ample resources be available to students as they pursue meaningful problems. Advocates of authentic learning believe these elements support natural learning, and
BACKBONE
many of these ideals are based in theory and research on learning and cognition. References: Donovan, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. (2006). How people learn: Bridging research and practice. Retrieved from authenticlearning.net/. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from www .ed.gov/pubs/edpubs.html. Related Terms: Active learning, Authentic learning, Authentic assessment, Cognitive apprenticeship, Constructivism, Distributed intelligence, Inquiry-based learning Authentic learning activity Taxonomy: Education Citation. A synthesis of a number of tactics from other instructional strategies. According to Newmann and Wehlage (1993), for authentic learning to occur, a set of four standards must be met. They include a need for inclusion of higher-order thinking skills, depth of knowledge, connectedness to the world beyond the classroom, and substantive conversation. These guidelines, in themselves, require some explanation. The first criterion, regarding the need for inclusion of higher-order thinking skills (HOTS), is similar to Bloom’s taxonomy, an instructional and learning model with which all educators should already be familiar. Traditionally, classroom teachers tend to design instruction that only reaches the lower levels of the taxonomy, namely, knowledge and comprehension. In today’s classrooms, this is only acceptable as a beginning. The second criterion requires that students have more than a superficial knowledge of the subject area. Therefore, they must experience content through a variety of means, including those that help them apply what they have learned to realworld situations, the third criterion. Lastly, substantive conversation allows students to communicate with each other, their teachers, and even experts around the world. It is purposeful, focused, and conducted in order to develop a deeper understanding of scientific phenomena. Although it is challenging to create an environment in which authentic learning is taking place, we are to be preparing our students for a global society in which they must be competitive free thinkers in order to be ultimately successful. In fact, House (2006) asserts that “to be ‘competitive’ now, students must develop sophisticated critical thinking and analytical skills to manage the conceptual nature of the work they will do. They will need to be able to recognize patterns, create narrative, and imagine solutions to problems we have
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yet to discover. They will have to see the big picture and ask the big questions” (p. 58). References: Gooding, J. (2007). Promoting higher order thinking in the science classroom. Teaching Authentic Science in the 21st Century (online education course). Blairsville, PA: Learning Sciences International. Gooding, J. (2007). Promoting substantive conversation in the science classroom. Teaching Authentic Science in the 21st Century (online education course). Blairsville, PA: Learning Sciences International. House, Gerry. Closing the “Reality Gap.” American School Board Journal Special Report, April 2006. www.asbj.com/MainMenuCategory/Resources .aspx. Newmann, F., & Wehlage, G. (1993). Five standards of authentic assessment. Educational Leadership, 50, 8–12. Authorization Taxonomy: General Citation. The process of giving someone permission to do, access or possess data or information. In multiuser computer systems, a system administrator defines the parameters of user access and privileges including access to file directories, hours of access, amount of allocated storage space, and so forth. Assuming that someone has logged in to a computer operating system or application, the system or application may want to identify what resources the user can be given during this session. Thus, authorization is sometimes seen as both preliminary (i.e., setting up initial access permissions) and ongoing (i.e., permissions extending to the user past the point of initial access). References: SearchSoftwareQuality.com. authorization. Retrieved from searchsoftwarequality.techtarget.com Definition/ 0,,sid92_gci211622,00.html. Related Terms: Access, Permission Backbone Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A larger transmission line that carries data gathered from smaller lines that interconnect with it. At the local level, a backbone is a line or set of lines that local area networks connect to for a wide area network connection or within a local area network to span distances efficiently (for example, between buildings, an office complex to an entire country). On the Internet or other wide area networks, a backbone is a set of paths that local or regional networks connect to for long-distance interconnection. The connection
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BANDURA, ALBERT
points are known as network nodes or telecommunication data switching exchanges (DSE). A backbone is the part of a network that handles the major traffic. It employs the highest-speed transmission paths in the network and may also run the longest distances. Smaller networks are attached to the backbone, and networks that directly connect to the end user or customer are called access networks. Acronyms: DSE Bandura, Albert Taxonomy: Education Citation. Considered one of the major learning theorists of the twentieth century. He created the social learning theory, which later became the social cognitive theory. Bandura was born in 1925 in Alberta, Canada. He obtained a B.A. from the University of British Columbia and his doctorate from the University of Iowa. He has been a professor at Stanford University since 1953. His early works are known for their emphasis on learning from observation of modeled behavior as evidenced by clinical experiments, while his later works emphasize multiple factors that influence learning and motivation in realistic settings. His theory has focused on the concepts of self-regulation and self-efficacy as integral psychological aspects of learning. References: Gredler, M. E. (2004). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Related Terms: Modeling, Observational learning Bandwidth Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The size of a piece of the spectrum (or, the size of a transmission channel) occupied by some form of signal, whether it is broadcast television, voice, fax data, and so forth. Signals require a certain size and location of bandwidth in order to be transmitted. The higher and wider the bandwidth, the faster the signal transmission; so if you want to transmit a complex signal such as audio or video, a high amount of bandwidth is a must. Traditionally, bandwidth is seen as a limited space; when one user is occupying it, others must wait their turn. But new technologies are allowing transmitters to send multiple signals in the same amount of bandwidth without getting them confused. This technique is known as multiplexing. And colloquially, bombarding the Internet with unnecessary information is referred to as “taking up bandwidth.” Generally, bandwidth is the amount of information that can be transmitted over an information channel. High-bandwidth Internet access means audio, video,
and graphics load quickly. High-bandwidth videoconferencing means picture and sound will be clear. In computers, bandwidth is the speed at which data can be transmitted on a communications frequency; in telecommunications, it is the maximum frequency (spectrum) measured in hertz or cycles per second, between the two limiting frequencies of a channel. Or, the amount of data that can be transmitted over a network in a fixed amount of time. Bandwidth is the fundamental networking parameter, and is usually measured in kilobits, megabits, or gigabits per second. Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The amount of data that can travel through a communications circuit in one second, measured in bps (bits per second). Bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be transferred over a given computer or electronic networks. Bandwidth is synonymous with data transfer rate—the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually per second). Bandwidth is usually expressed in bits of data per second (bps). Occasionally, it’s expressed as bytes per second (Bps). More important, the more video- or graphic-intensive data is, the more the level of bandwidth it requires. As such, a link with a high bandwidth is able to carry enough information to sustain the succession of images in a video presentation. From a different standpoint, a given bandwidth is the difference in hertz between the highest frequency the signal uses and the lowest frequency it uses. For example, a voice signal has a lower bandwidth of approximately three kilohertz (3 KHz), whereas an analog video signal has a bandwidth that is about two thousand times that of the voice signal at six megahertz (6 MHz). References: Benini, L., & De Micheli, G. (2002). Networks on chips: A new SoC paradigm. Computer, 35(1), 70–78. Peumans, P., Bulovic, V., & Forrest, S. R. (2000). Efficient, high-bandwidth organic multilayer photodetectors. Applied Physics Letters, 76(26), 3855–57. Acronyms: bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps Basic skills Taxonomy: Education Citation. Basic skills are facts learned one at a time in sequence through direct instruction. Basic skills exist in every new subject, whether in work or personal settings. Basic skills taught in adult education are the same ones addressed in public schools—including areas of reading, writing, and math. In years past, basic skills were scorned and dismissed, but now there is a demand for a return to the basics. Consistently low
BEHAVIORAL THEORY
math scores on standardized tests are prompting the action of going back to the basics. References: Hayes, N. (2005). Reclaiming real “basic skills” in mathematics education. Retrieved from www.new horizons.org/trans/hayes%202.htm. U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from www .ed.gov/index.jhtml. Wikipedia. basic skills. Retrieved from en.wikipedia .org/wiki/Basic_skills. Related Terms: Drill and skills, Direct instruction, Traditional education Baud Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A unit of measure representing a transmission rate. It represents the number of symbols that can be transmitted per unit time (second). If a symbol is represented by 8 bits (such as ASCII), then a transmission rate of 100 baud would in fact be sending 800 bits per second. The baud is named after Emile Baudot, the inventor of the telegraph code that bears his name. It is a standard measure of the speed of data transmission, or the number of the thousands of bits transmitted per second. For example, many people today use 14.4 baud modems—in other words, modems that can send and receive data as fast as 14,400 bits per second. Baud is a unit of digital transmission used to describe the rate at which information flows between two electronic devices such as modems. Related Terms: Bit rate Acronyms: Bd Bcc Taxonomy: General Citation. A blind carbon copy (Bcc:) is a way to send an email message without the recipient or recipients being able to see the email addresses of those the message is being sent to. In contrast, To: and Cc: recipients’ addresses appear in the respective header lines and every recipient of the email can see the To: and Cc: recipients, but would not see Bcc: recipients. References: Tshabitscher, H. (2008). Sending an e-mail to multiple recipients—cc: and bcc:. Retrieved May 9, 2009, from email.about.com/od/emailnetiquette/a/ cc_and_bcc.htm. Related Terms: Blind carbon copy Beaming Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A technology most commonly used to transfer data between devices that are in physical proxim-
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ity to each other. Data transfer is accomplished by way of an infrared light beam or Bluetooth channels and works across platforms. Beaming using infrared technology requires a clear line of sight. Both infrared and Bluetooth can be used to create short-range, lowbandwidth networks such as a PAN (personal area network) to share data with multiple users within the same physical location. Related Terms: Bluetooth, Infrared, Personal area network Acronyms: IrDA, PAN Behavioral theory Taxonomy: Education Citation. Not a single theory but a combination, or group, of educational philosophies that emphasize the learning of facts and skills. The behavioral group consists of behavioral learning, contiguity theory, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and a new form of behaviorism known as information processing theory. These philosophies are generally teacher centered and include lecture, drills, demonstrations, simulations, and tutorials. When these are combined in an educational technology forum, they are known as an integrated learning system or ILS. Behaviorism breaks down complex information into smaller units, which the student is required to learn. The instructor then provides feedback and reinforcement, or encouragement, to the student regarding his progress. The focus is on content rather than context; in this regard, students learn the skills needed in the future but are not required to apply them at the time learned. Behavioral theory follows the logic that learning involves a behavior change. Behaviorists also tend to believe that organisms are born as blank slates, and that learning is largely the result of environmental events. This field of theory emphasizes the importance of rewards or reinforcement in the act of learning. According to a website at the Syracuse University School of Education, the ILS educational technology plays an important part in behavioral theory. “ILSs generally begin with a computer-administered diagnostic-prescriptive evaluation of the student’s current achievement level. Then the software breaks down the content to be taught into small units, teaches a unit, assesses progress, and then moves on to the next unit or provides remedial instruction as indicated. The most popular ILSs cover core content areas such as reading, language arts, and mathematics, but many also include instruction in science and social studies.” (Syracuse University, 2007). Behavioral theory was created from the psychological field of behaviorism. Names associated with
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behaviorism include American psychologists John Watson, who was influential in the 1920s and 1930s, and B. F. Skinner, another psychologist who had a great effect on education in the 1950s and 1960s. References: Chen, I. (2008). An electronic textbook of instructional technology. University of Houston. Retrieved on May 19, 2008, from viking.coe.uh.edu/~ichen/ebook/et-it/behavior.htm. Syracuse University (2007). Behavioral learning theory—web quest. Retrieved May 19, 2008, from suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/behavior.htm. Acronyms: ILS Behavior modification Taxonomy: Education Citation. The term behavior modification is a psychological term and is a form of treatment for many psychiatric conditions. Most of the theory behind this form of treatment is based on the work of B. F. Skinner. Skinner’s approach to psychology is founded on operant conditioning. Humans or any organism operates within their environment linking stimuli and responses. Behaviors can be shaped or modified through this process of linking stimuli and response. Behavior modification uses this stimuli and response theory where positive association increases the behavior and negative association decreases the behavior. Many consider the use of behavior modification to treat mental health problems of adults and children, for a spectrum of disorders like anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorders, attention deficit, and hyperactivity disorders. References: Encyclopedia of mental disorders. behavior modification. Retrieved June 20, 2008, from www.minddis orders.com/A-Br/Behavior-modification.html. George B. G. (2008). B. F. Skinner 1904–1990. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from webspace.ship.edu/cg boer/skinner.html. Taxonomy: Education Citation. Described as a technique to address challenging or maladaptive behaviors in the classroom. Key components of behavior modification include identifying measurable outcomes for student behavior change. Changing the classroom environment to support behavior change and function is another key aspect of behavior modification. In behavior modification methods and interventions are systematic and consistent. Interventions developed using behavior modification should be applicable to everyday life.
Behavior modification is based greatly on the operant and respondent conditioning principles of learning. There is an emphasis on scientific method in that data is taken on interventions and changes are data based. Finally, there is a strong emphasis on the accountability of all those involved in the behavior change process, including the teachers and fellow peers (Martin & Pear, 2007). Behavior modification techniques are applied to students with a variety of special needs effectively because of the emphasis on observable and measurable behavior changes as a marker of progress as opposed to remediation of overall limitations symptomatic of their disability. References: Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2007). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Related Terms: Behavior therapy, Positive behavior support, Behavior management, Applied behavior analysis Benchmark Taxonomy: General Citation. A standard measurement that forms the basis for comparison. It is a permanently affixed mark that establishes a precise point to base future measurements of the same material. This can be a standardized problem or test that serves as a basis for evaluation or comparison. The results allow the growth of one’s knowledge to be measured after a length of time in which learning has occurred. References: Answers.com. benchmark. Retrieved from www.an swers.com/topic/benchmark. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. benchmark. Retrieved from www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ benchmark. Related Terms: Point of reference, Standards Taxonomy: Education Citation. A skill or understanding that students are expected or anticipated to master at a predetermined age, grade level, or range of grades. After students have mastered one benchmark, they move on to the next; benchmarks are steps in the process of reaching a goal or meeting a standard. When developing benchmarks, key factors are students’ developmental readiness and accumulation of prior skills necessary to master the benchmark. Although there is no set time and instruction that is necessary to reach a benchmark, the benchmark should be written clearly and specifically enough to evidence the instruction and learning it should require. It should not be so narrow as to pre-
BITMAP
scribe time and curriculum nor so broad as to be open to various interpretations. References: Kendall, J. S. (2001). A technical guide for revising or developing standards and benchmarks. Aurora, CO: Mid-continent for Education and Learning. St. Joseph School District (2005). Definition of assessment and related terms. Retrieved May 29, 2008, from www.sjsd.k12.mo.us/assessment/Definition% 20of%20Assessment%20an.htm. Related Terms: Academic standards, Assessment, Content standards, Indicator, Learning expectation, No Child Left Behind, Performance standard Taxonomy: Technology Citation. In computing, a benchmark is the act of running a computer program, a set of programs, or other operations, in order to assess the relative performance of an object, normally by running a number of standard tests and trials against it. The term benchmark is also mostly utilized for the purposes of elaborately designed benchmarking programs themselves. Benchmarking is usually associated with assessing performance characteristics of computer hardware, for example, the floating point operation performance of a CPU, but there are circumstances when the technique is also applicable to software. Software benchmarks are, for example, run against compilers or database management systems. Another type of test programs, namely, test suites or validation suites, is intended to assess the correctness of software. Benchmarks provide a method of comparing the performance of various subsystems across different chip/system architectures. Benchmarking is helpful in understanding how the database manager responds under varying conditions. You can create scenarios that test deadlock handling, utility performance, different methods of loading data, transaction rate characteristics as more users are added, and even the effect on the application of using a new release of the product. References: Gray, J. (Ed.). (1993). The benchmark handbook for database and transaction systems (2nd ed.). San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. Binary Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The base-2 number system, a number system that represents numeric values using two symbols, 0 and 1. Each position of a binary number represents a power of the base 2, beginning with the rightmost column, and increasing the exponent by 1 for each successive column to the left. Binary numeral systems
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have been traced to both Indian and Chinese cultures in ancient times. The modern binary number system was documented by Gottfried Leibniz in the seventeenth century. It is relatively simple to construct electronic circuits that generate two distinct voltage levels, which can be used to represent zero and one. Since the binary number system is easily implemented in electronic circuitry, it is used internally by all modern computers. Bit Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The smallest possible particle of data in information processing and communication systems. The term is a contraction of the term binary digit. A bit may set to one of exactly two possible discrete states (on or off, 0 or 1, true or false, etc.) to support information input, output, storage, communication, and processing. A bit of data may be stored in many different forms (e.g., a signal level, a switch state, a pool of electrons or lack thereof, a magnetic alignment or misalignment, etc.).When bits are associated in groups (e.g., 8, 16, 32, 64) according to some useful scheme, they can be used to describe whole numbers (in binary) or some other useful data type (e.g., integers, floating point numbers, ASCII characters, graphical representations, etc.). References: Shannon, C. E. (1948, July/October). A mathematical theory of communication, Bell System Technical Journal, 27, 379–423, 623–656. Retrieved June 16, 2008, from plan9.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shan nonday/shannon1948.pdf. Related Terms: Nibble, Byte, Computer data, Information Acronyms: b, bit Bitmap Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Bitmaps are one of two graphic categories. A bitmap is an image made up of pixels or small dots that are arranged in a grid to form a picture. Bitmap images can be easily manipulated by changing the colors of the pixels. When resized, bitmap images can become blurry due to the loss of pixels or reveal the appearance of rough edges due to the enlarged pixel grid. References: Adobe Systems Incorporated (2002–2005). Adobe web tech curriculum: Lesson 5.1: Graphics basics. Retrieved March 8, 2008, from adobe.com/educa tion/webtech/CS2/unit_graphics1/gb_print.htm. Kazak, S. (n.d.) Multimedia images: Vector-based vs. bitmap graphics. Retrieved March 8, 2008, from www.edb.utexas.edu/multimedia/PDFfolder/Multi mediaImages.pdf.
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BITS PER SECOND
Related Terms: Graphic, Pixel, Vector Acronyms: .bmp Bits per second Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Bits per second is a rate that measures the speed and capacity of a digital data communication channel, abbreviated bps or bit/sec. Digital data is binary that uses 1s and 0s to represent characters (alphabets, numbers, etc). As the term implies, the speed in bps is equal to the number of bits transmitted or received each second. In addition to data, the communication channel carries other types of information like voice, image, and video. Larger units are sometimes used to denote high data speeds: one kilobit per second (abbreviated Kbps in the U.S.; kbps elsewhere) is equal to 1,000 bps. One megabit per second (Mbps) is equal to 1,000,000 bps or 1,000 Kbps. Also, one gigabit per second is equal to 109 bps. A common measure of data speed for computer modems and transmission carrier signals. As the term implies, the speed in bps is equal to the number of bits transmitted or received each second. The bandwidth of a signal depends on the speed in bps: the speed at which data is transmitted over a channel. The higher the bps, the faster the transmission rate—sometimes known as throughput. Modem speed is measured in bps, but in these cases, the metric is referred to as baud. References: Stallings, W. (2005). Business data communications (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Related Terms: Networks, TCP/IP, Bandwidth, Bit/ sec Acronyms: bps BlackBerry Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Introduced in 1997 as a small wireless handheld device. The BlackBerry incorporates push email, mobile telephone, text messaging, Internet faxing, web browsing, and other wireless information services. It has a built-in keyboard that requires the use of only thumbs to type (“thumbing”) and connects to a wireless network wherever available, allowing the user to browse the Internet or send and receive emails as from a computer. References: BlackBerry. (2008). BlackBerry Overview. Retrieved May 1, 2008, from na.blackberry.com/eng/ata glance/. Related Terms: Personal digital assistant Acronyms: PDA
Blackboard learning management system Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Popular course management software used primarily by colleges and universities, especially in the delivery of online courses and distance education, but can also be found in school systems, corporations, and government agencies. Blackboard allows for enhanced communication between faculty and students. Course content such as syllabi, class notes, and audio and video files can be distributed and stored in an organized manner. Discussion forums allow for the posting of messages and live chats can be held to discuss course content. Librarians or other faculty are able to provide instructions on how to access resources helpful to a specific course. Instructors also have the ability to monitor student activity and manage grades for completed assignments. In addition to use by formal classes, Blackboard can help facilitate communication among groups sharing a common interest like clubs, committees, or academic departments. Cofounded in 1997 by Matthew Pittinsky and Michael Chasen, Blackboard went public in June of 2004 when it was listed on the NASDAQ, and later merged with WebCT in 2006. References: Blackboard, Inc. WebCT Campus Edition 4.0 and 4.1. URL: http://www2.blackboard.com/ce4/viewpage? name=ce4_features. Related Terms: Course management system, Learning management system, Online course Acronyms: CMS, LMS, BB, BBoard Blended learning Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Refers to the fusion of instruction presented via stored digital media and synchronous support provided by a “live” facilitator. Typical forms of stored digital instruction include, but are not limited to, learning objects, threaded discussion board entries, streaming media, websites, interactive multimedia sequences, bundled curriculum products, or any type of digital artifact that is relevant to the instructional message. The synchronous support component in a blended learning sequence can be provided by a facilitator who is physically present when a student accesses the digital instruction or it can be provided via the Web in the form of synchronous chat, voice, or videoconference support. Facilitation in a blended learning environment involves a type of performance support, targeted assistance, or inquiry-based instruction that is especially relevant in digital learning environments that advocate differentiated instructional strategies. The key administrative characteristic that sets blended learning envi-
BLOG
ronments apart from cyber schools and cyber charter schools is the fact that they are designed to fit within, and complement, educational systems that utilize traditional classroom instruction while cyber schools and cyber charter schools offer a full-time alternative to traditional classroom instruction. Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Offers the opportunity to incorporate the “best of both worlds” to improve teaching and learning, to take advantage of the strengths of online and traditional learning environments and be more successful in avoiding their weaknesses. Blended courses produce a stronger sense of community among students than either traditional or fully online courses. The goal of blended learning is to provide the most efficient and effective instruction experience by combining delivery modalities and multiple learning strategies with a variety of media. In contemporary terms, learning strategies and media typically include aspects of faceto-face instruction and online (or distance) learning, in combination with a rich variety of learning strategies or dimensions. What is new is that today’s Internet-based tools can facilitate communication, interaction, and collaborative learning in ways that were not possible before. What’s also new is the relative accessibility of digital learning technologies and the ease with which instructors can blend them with classroom resources. Because there are multiple tools available for use when incorporating blended learning in the classroom by a teacher, it is important to highlight what is available to create a blended learning environment. Blended learning may include several forms of learning tools, such as real-time virtual/collaboration software, selfpaced web-based courses, electronic performance support systems (EPSS) embedded within the job-task environment, and knowledge management systems. Blended learning mixes various event-based activities, including face-to-face classrooms, live elearning, and self-paced learning. References: Oblender, T. (2002). A hybrid course model: one solution to the high online drop-out rate. Learning and Leading with Technology, 29(6), 42+. Rovai, A. P., & Jordan, H. M. (2004, August). Blended learning and sense of community: A comparative analysis with traditional and fully online graduate courses. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. Related Terms: Hybrid learning, Integrated learning, Mixed-mode learning, Multiple learning
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Blended learning communities Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Teaching in both a classroom setting and via online components. It allows students to have faceto-face interaction with professors and other students while also giving them the opportunity to complete assignments remotely and at a distance. This type of learning has become more common due to the increasing popularity of the Internet. Blended learning communities are groups of people gathered together for certain educational purposes through online learning and face-to-face meetings. Engaged learners communicate, share thoughts, and collaborate learning via online discussions, Web conferences, or other methods before and/or after a faceto-face learning event. References: Honore, S., & Mitchell, A. (2007). Criteria for successful blended learning. Industrial and Commercial Training, 39(3), 143–49. Related Terms: eLearning, Online education Blog Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Short for “web log.” A blog is an updatable website that is chronologically arranged, and updated at the user’s discretion. What makes a blog different from a regular website is that it can be syndicated so that others can subscribe and have the content delivered to a certain place automatically. Weblogs started out as journals and chronologically arranged websites. However, it is common now for blogs to include audio, video, graphics, and text. It is common for blogs to be available as RSS or Atom feeds. Blogs are usergenerated websites where entries are made in journal style and displayed in a reverse chronological order. Strands of online discussions can be facilitated with a blog and can be publicly available. Blog participation can be restricted to designated users, or it can be open to anyone with access to the Internet. It is a web-based publication consisting primarily of periodic articles (normally in reverse chronological order). Blogs can be hosted by dedicated blog-hosting services, or they can be run using blog software on regular web-hosting services. The activity of updating a blog is “blogging” and someone who keeps a blog is a “blogger.” Blogs are typically updated daily using software that allows people with little or no technical background to update and maintain the blog. A personal website or webpage in which the subscriber can write entries describing his or her daily activities or reflection. Blog entries are normally listed chronologically, where older entries are archived
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BLOG ETIQUETTE
weekly or monthly. Bloggers, individuals who write blogs, can publish text, graphics, audio and video clips as entry contents, which is called blogging. Readers can search these entries and/or provide comments or feedback to the entries. References: Richardson, W. (2006). Blogs, wikis, podcasts, and other powerful Web tools for classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Related Terms: Blogger, Blogging, RSS, Weblog, Online journal Blog etiquette Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. As the number of blogging communities continues to rise, so does the need to follow informal rules called blog etiquette. These rules are not stated explicitly within the blogging community. But as one would interact with another person face-to-face, exhibiting proper manners would lead to cordial and respectful relationships among the bloggers. There are certain principles or guidelines in blog etiquette, and ignoring them would lead to banishment from the community. When blogging, following simple rules can help improve the communication process and sustain the relationships developed. Exhibiting kindness, correcting mistakes (grammatical or informational), respecting people’s privacy, providing links to quoted material, following fair use guidelines, and avoiding becoming part of personal attacks, online brawls, or “flames” are just a few of the rules for demonstrating blog etiquette. References: Babb, P. (2007, June 2). Blog etiquette: Top 10 dos & don’ts: How to survive in blogs and wikis. PC Advisor. Retrieved May 2, 2008, from www.pcadvisor .co.uk/news/index.cfm?newsid=9550. Schmidt, J. (2007). Blogging practices: An analytical framework. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 1409–27. Blogger Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A person that posts messages in a blog, an asynchronous communication tool that acts as an online space for journaling and gathering links related to topics of interest. Bloggers create new entries in the blog that are loaded in a chronological manner with the newest post located at the top. Blogs allow readers to comment on posts and those comments are attached to the related post. Most blogs have searchable archives. Updated blogs can be “pushed” to users via RSS (really simple syndication or rich
site summary) into a blog reader (a tool that allows users to track all of the blogs they are interested in, in one location). In the classroom, bloggers can reflect about their learning experiences, report about their portion of a group project, or comment on blog entries made by other classmates. Blogs have many dimensions that are suited to students’ “unique voices,” empowering them, and encouraging them to become more critically analytical in their thinking. Writing a blog forces students to confront their own opinions and contemplate how their views might be interpreted and reflected upon by others. References: Clyde, A. (2002). Shall we blog? Teacher Librarian, 30(1), 44–46. Stiler, G. M., & Philleo, T. (2003). Blogging and blogspots: An alternative format for encouraging reflective practice among pre-service teachers. Education, 123(4), 789–97. Related Terms: Blogging, Weblogger Blogging application Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A tool that allows a blogger to post, edit, format, and perform different functions of a blog. Blog applications usually offer Web syndication service in the form of rich site summary or really simple syndication (RSS). This allows for other software such as feed aggregators to maintain a current summary of the blog’s contents. Some popular blog-writing tools in education include Blogger, LiveJournal, Facebook, MySpace, Ning, and Wikispace. These programs are operated by the developer, requiring no software installation for the blog writer. In addition, they are free to register and easy to use. Related Terms: Blogger Acronyms: RSS Blogging community Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Blogging community is a virtual community maintained by bloggers using different blogging applications. Blogging community is normally initiated by one blogger, where additional members are invited through online invitation. Once the invitation is accepted, new members can join in the community and are able to read, comment, and post on each other’s blogs. Blogging community is an effective collaborative learning tool. The collective community of all blogs is known as the blogosphere. Related Terms: Blog, Blogging, Blogger, Community
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Blogosphere Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Refers to the “world of words” or the universe for discourse, which represents a forum for discussing public agenda and opinions. Media outlets are treating the blogosphere as a way to gauge public opinion, which has gained attention in both academic and nonacademic arenas. Some even argue that the forum considerably minimizes the editorial capacity of the traditional media by allowing any able and willing individuals to become authors and editors. According to Wikipedia, some have used it to resist, promote globalization ideals, or to further courses they believed in. References: Keren, M. (2000). Blogosphere: The new political arena. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Wikipedia. blogosphere. Retrieved from en.wikipedia .org/wiki/Blogosphere. Related Terms: Blog, Weblog Blogroll Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Consists of a system for managing one’s blog. In other words, blogroll is a linklist manager. It allows bloggers to add or delete favorite links in a list at the side of their blog page. There are a lot of tools to help one blog without getting your hands dirty —but managing your linklist still means having to crawl through the HTML in your template every time you want to add or remove a link. No more! Now it’s as simple as clicking a link or making a pit stop at Blog Rolling.com. There are even some Internet tools that allow individuals to add code to a website for easy and convenient blogrolling. Furthermore, BlogRolling lets one know when the sites in linklist were last updated, instead of having to physically visit the sites to check. References: BlogRolling.com. Welcome to BlogRolling! A webservice designed to make your blogging life easier. Kumar, R., Novak, J., Raghavan, P., & Tomkins, A. (2004). Structure and evolution of blogspace. Communications of the ACM, 47(12), 35–39. Lerner, R. M. (2005). At the forge: Bloglines Web services. Linux Journal, 2005 (129), 11. Retrieved from portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1044989.1045000. Related Terms: Blog Bloom’s taxonomy Taxonomy: Education Citation. Benjamin Bloom (1956) created this taxonomy for categorizing levels of abstraction of ques-
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tions that commonly occur in educational settings. The taxonomy provides a useful structure in which to categorize test questions, since professors will characteristically ask questions within particular levels, and if you can determine the levels of questions that will appear on your exams, you will be able to study using appropriate strategies. Many teachers apply Bloom’s taxonomy to discussion groups in distance education, and using Blooms’s taxonomy has proved to be an effective technique in facilitating discussions in distance discussion. It is an education classification system that focuses on the cognitive domain. This system includes the following levels, given in order from lowest to highest, of descriptions of desired student behavior: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Taxonomy: Education Citation. Bloom presented his taxonomy organization in Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain. His view was that learning involved pupils’ accumulation and remembering of varied pieces of information. Bloom and his colleagues began the development of taxonomy in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. According to them, cognitive is for mental skills, affective is for growth in feelings or emotional areas, while psychomotor is for manual or physical skills. Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy is organized into six levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Bloom’s “learning for mastery” defines mastery in terms of specific educational objectives, and mastery of each unit is essential for students before they advance to the next one. According to Bloom, Hastings, and Madaus (1971), nearly all students can achieve mastery of material in a course when given the time and quality of instruction that they need. To reach mastery, the student needs to get 80 to 90 percent of the answers right. The basic instructional task was to define the course into educational units and find methods and material to help the students reach the set level. The student would be tested with a formative test that would either indicate mastery or emphasize what still needed to be learned in order to reach the next level. The basic belief of Bloom and his colleagues is that behaviors can be modified, and learning is measured by observable changes in behavior. As of today, learning objectives written by teachers are still widely recognized and very useful. Here is an example of a learning objective: “After having completed the unit, the student will be able to answer correctly 85% of the questions.”
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BLUETOOTH
References: Bloom, B. S., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Book 1, Cognitive domain. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. Bloom, B. S., Hastings, J. T., & Madaus, G. F. (1971). Handbook on formative and summative evaluation of student learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bluetooth Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A form of wireless technology intended to replace the cables connecting portable and/or fixed electronic devices. It uses short-range communication technology using both voice and data transmissions over short distances from a fixed or mobile device to create a wireless personal area network (PAN). The most popular form of this technology is as a headset. The creation of Bluetooth was intended to provide the user with a single digital wireless protocol, capable of connecting multiple devices and overcoming issues arising with synchronization of these devices. Bluetooth connects and exchanges information between devices such as cellular phones, printers, telephones, computers, GPS receivers, digital cameras, and videogame consoles over a secure short-range radio frequency bandwidth. References: Bluetooth. (2008). Bluetooth mobile guide to living wirelessly. Retrieved May 29, 2008, from bluetooth .com/Bluetooth/. Bookmarks Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Bookmarks, also called favorites, are hypertext shortcuts to locations on the Internet. They are created by storing a webpage location or uniform resource locator (URL) in a web browser or other application. Users can then click on the stored link to access a site instead of retyping the URL or conducting a new search. Bookmarks can be categorized using folders to create a hierarchical structure to facilitate navigation. Originally called hotlists, bookmarks are typically stored in the browser of a local machine, although web-based and social bookmarking sites now provide for the storage of bookmarks on remote servers. Although the use of bookmarks reduces the time spent typing URLs and eliminates mistyped URLs, they can be problematic if not frequently updated to reflect changes in the location of online resources. References: Williams, B. (1996). The World Wide Web for teachers. Foster City, CA: IDG Books.
Related Terms: Favorites, Hotlists, Web-based bookmarks, Social bookmarking Border gateway protocol Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A routing protocol that is used to span autonomous systems on the Internet. It is a robust, sophisticated, and scalable protocol developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). BGP was designed to supersede the original exterior gateway protocol (EGP). It is also known as a path vector protocol. BGP4 supports the CIDR (CIDR stands for Classless Inter-Domain Routing, a mechanism designed to slow the growth of routing tables across the Internet) addressing scheme, which has increased the number of available IP addresses on the Internet. The core routing protocol of the Internet. It works by maintaining a table of IP networks or “prefixes” that designate network reachability among autonomous systems (AS). BGP does not use traditional metrics, but makes routing decisions based on path, network policies and/or rule sets. BGP was created to replace the previous routing protocol to allow fully decentralized routing in order to allow the removal of the Internet backbone network and allowed the Internet to become a truly decentralized system. Acronyms: BGP, EGP Brick-and-mortar schools Taxonomy: Education Citation. A term commonly used to describe physical retail space, refers to traditional physical locations for educational institutions. These are secondary and postsecondary institutions that have traditional campuses with academic and administrative buildings and athletic facilities. They offer classes in this physical space and provide in-person services. This is an important distinction in the current education environment. Virtual secondary and postsecondary institutions can operate entirely online, offering classes and support services at a distance. Related Terms: Traditional schools Broadband integrated services digital network Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A concept and a set of services and developing standards for integrating digital transmission services in a broadband network of fiber-optic and radio media. BISDN encompasses frame relay service for high-speed data that can be sent in large bursts, the fiber distributed data interface (FDDI), and the synchronous optical network (SON). BISDN supports transmission from 2 Mbps up to much higher rates.
BROWSER
BISDN is the broadband counterpart to the integrated services digital network (ISDN), which provides digital transmission over ordinary telephone company copper wires on the narrowband local loop. A framework for advanced telecommunications from the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), BISDN was introduced in 1988 as an extension to ISDN. It was designed to provide a blueprint to integrate data, voice, and video in the twenty-first century. BISDN specifies the use of ATM for switching and SONET for high-speed links. Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Enables telecommunications and videoconferencing data to be transmitted over optical fiber at high speeds. Basically, it is a service or system requiring channels capable of supporting transmission rates greater than DSL. It supports switched, semipermanent, and permanent point-to-point and point-to-multipoint connections, and provides on-demand, reserved, and permanent services. It also contains intelligent capabilities for providing advanced service characteristics, supporting powerful operation and maintenance tools, network control, and management. Broadband telecommunication Taxonomy: Technology Citation. An Internet communication with a rate of 200 kilobytes per second (KBps) or larger, and it is contrasted with baseband or narrowband connections of 56 KBps or less. There are many forms of broadband communication, including cable modems, digital subscriber lines (DSL), fixed wireless, satellite transmitted, and fiber-optic lines. Broadband is characterized by the transmission of multiplicities of data sent simultaneously, thereby significantly increasing the speed of the reception of data in different forms. Broadband is defined by varying sizes of bandwidth, with larger capacities of bandwidth allowing the transmission of higher loads of data including audio, video, and graphics. A wide band of frequencies is available to transmit information. Like a highway with more lanes, broadband is broken down into various channels, which allows more data to travel over the line at the same time. There is controversy over what speed is considered broadband; some say a connection of 500 KBps or more. As opposed to the connection speeds and capacity that one can obtain over a phone line with a modem, a broadband connection can accommodate the rapid transfer of large amounts or packets of information. Generally, Internet connections provided by cable or DSL are broadband. Most distance learning courses will recommend that you have a broadband connec-
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tion. Faster than modems but slower than Ethernet, several different forms of broadband access are available from local Internet service providers, phone companies, and cable providers. The most common forms of broadband are DSL, ISDN, and cable modems. DSL and ISDN use special adapters to send data over your telephone line without tying it up. Cable modems send data over your cable TV connection. DSL and ISDN availability is limited based on geographic location and telephone line quality. Cable modem availability varies with each cable company. References: Senfit, T. (2003). Broadband. In S. Jones (Ed.), Encyclopedia of new media: An essential reference of new media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Related Terms: Digital subscriber lines, Baseband, Narrowband Acronyms: DSL, ISDN Broker Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Traditional Internet technology (search engines and directories) can be used to search the Web for educational contents; however, these do not cope with the requirements of online and distance education. Brokerage is a known mediation mechanism, performed by a broker. In our context, it is a necessary function, assuring trust, flexibility, and dynamics to the process of searching, selecting, negotiating, and integrating educational contents on behalf of an individual that needs to construct his learning path or individualized learning project. The broker is an expert in the domain of knowledge where he acts as consultant and composer of individualized learning projects. References: Ávila, P., Putnik, G., & Cunha, M. (2002). Brokerage function in agile/virtual enterprise integration—A literature review. In L. M. Camarinha-Matos et al. (Eds.), Collaborative Business Ecosystems and Virtual Enterprises (p. 65–72). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Cunha, M. M., & Putnik, G. D. (2007). A changed economy with unchanged universities? A contribution to the university of the future. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 5(4), 5–25. Related Terms: Individualized learning project, Market of teaching resources, Learning units Browser Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Software that allows access to view websites on the Internet from your PC, laptop, or handheld
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BUSINESS-TO-BUSINESS
PDA. Examples of browsers include Firefox, Internet Explorer, Mozilla, Opera, and Safari. A software tool used to read electronic documents over the World Wide Web. Netscape is one of the most popular browsers, while people with very slow Internet connections sometimes still use Lynx for text-based web browsing. Business-to-business Taxonomy: General Citation. Refers to automatic ecommerce transactions, which is a term commonly used to describe electronic commerce transactions between businesses. B2B is also used to describe marketing activities including sales or ecommerce that occur between businesses and other businesses. An example of a B2B transaction would be an auto parts company selling its product to a car dealer to make repairs. References: Raisch, W. (2001). The emarketplace: Strategies for success in B2B ecommerce. New York: McGrawHill. Weller, T. C. (2000). BtoB ecommerce: The rise of emarketplaces. Legg Mason Wood Walker. Related Terms: eCommerce Acronyms: B2B, B-to-B Taxonomy: General Citation. Any transaction that occurs between a company or organization and another company or organization. This can include the exchange of products, services, payments, or information between businesses. The term B2B has evolved into one that is practically synonymous with the term electronic commerce. The intention is to enable buyers and suppliers to find each other more easily. References: Solomon, M. R., Marshall, G. W., & Stuart, E. (2006). Marketing: Real people, real choices (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Related Terms: Business-to-consumer, eBusiness, Electronic commerce Acronyms: B2B Business-to-consumer Taxonomy: General Citation. Refers to automatic ecommerce transactions, which is a term commonly used to describe electronic commerce transactions between businesses and end users or customers. An example of a B2C transaction is Amazon selling books over the Internet to potential readers. However, B2C can also describe marketing activities between businesses; in other words, the term can be used to identify institutional sales—that is, sales
transactions between businesses. B2C, in general, describes activities of ebusinesses serving end consumers with products and/or services. It is often associated with electronic commerce or Internet marketing that encompasses banks and other types of businesses. B2C offers the advantage of shopping convenience and comparison for consumers. References: Jarvenpaa, S., Tractinsky, N., & Vitale, M. (2000). Consumer trust in an Internet store. Information Technology and Management, 1(1–2), 45–71. Lee, M. K. O., & Turban, E. (2001). A trust model for consumer Internet shopping. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 6(1), 75–91. Related Terms: eCommerce Acronyms: B2C, B-to-C Taxonomy: General Citation. A transaction or process that occurs between a company and a consumer. The transaction typically involves the exchange of money for goods or services. It also describes activities of ebusinesses serving end consumers with products and/or services. It is often associated with electronic commerce but also encompasses financial institutions and other types of businesses. There has been a transition in the B2C field over the previous years. Businesses now must implement an electronic-commerce website to stay competitive and serve the consumer. References: Solomon, M. R., Marshall, G. W., & Stuart, E. (2006). Marketing: Real people, real choices (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Related Terms: Business-to-business, eBusiness, Business to customer, Online banking Acronyms: B2C Byte Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The most common interpretable unit of data and the smallest unit of data that can be directly addressed in a computer system. A byte is composed of a contiguous sequence of 8 bits that can be set to any one of 256 possible states and thus represent 256 values (e.g., 0–255, ASCII characters, etc.). A byte is also used as the base unit of measure in relation to the capacity of components of computer systems with a kilobyte being 1,024 bytes, a megabyte being 1024 ⫻ 1024 bytes, a gigabyte being 1024 ⫻ 1024 ⫻ 1024 bytes, and so on. References: Bemer, R. W., & Buchholz, W. (1960). An extended character set standard, IBM Tech. Pub. TR00.18000.705, 1960 Jan, rev. TR00.721, 1960 Jun.
CASE-BASED LEARNING
Related Terms: Bit, Nibble, Kilobyte, KB, Megabyte, MB, Gigabyte, GB, Terabyte, TB, data Acronyms: B Caching Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A temporary storage area where frequently accessed data can be stored for rapid access. Once the data is stored in the cache, future use can be made by accessing the cached copy rather than refetching or recomputing the original data, so the average access time is shorter, also called reduced latency. Cache, therefore, helps expedite data access that the CPU would otherwise need to fetch from main memory. Because a cache uses expedited data access it also reduces network bandwidth use, ensuring faster access and more availability to the website in question. There are many different types of caches such as “memory caches, hardware and software disk caches, page caches and more” (Provost, 2008). According to Nottingham (2006), “A Web cache sits between one or more Web servers (also known as origin servers) and a client or many clients, and watches requests come by, saving copies of the responses—like HTML pages, images and files (collectively known as representations)—for itself. Then, if there is another request for the same URL, it can use the response that it has, instead of asking the origin server for it again.” Nottingham continues, “if you examine the preferences dialog of any modern Web browser (like Internet Explorer, Safari, or Mozilla), you’ll probably notice a ‘cache’ setting. This lets you set aside a section of your computer’s hard disk to store representations that you’ve seen, just for you. The browser cache works according to fairly simple rules. It will check to make sure that the representations are fresh, usually once a session (that is, the once in the current invocation of the browser).” References: Nottingham, M. (2006). Caching tutorial for web authors and web masters. Retrieved May 19, 2008, from www.mnot.net/cache_docs/. Provost, G. (2008). How caching works. Retrieved May 19, 2008, from computer.howstuffworks.com/ cache.htm. Related Terms: Browser caches, Proxy caches, Reduced latency, Reduced network bandwidth, Virtual memory, Web caching Calm computing/calm technology Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Aims to reduce information overload by letting the users select what information is at the center
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of their attention and what information is peripheral. Calm technology is envisioned to not only relax the user, but move unneeded information to the edge of an interface, thus allowing more information to exist there, ready for selection when needed. References: Weiser, M., Gold, R., & Brown, J. (1999). The origins of ubiquitous computing research at PARC in the late 1980s. IBM Systems Journal, 38(4), 693–96. Related Terms: Ubiquitous technology, Pervasive technology, Proactive computing Campus area networks Taxonomy: Technology Citation. An interconnection of local area networks within a limited geographical space, such as a school campus or a military base. The computers are within that limited geographic area. Case-based learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. An instructional design model and method of learning that employs the student as an active participant in problem- or scenario-based learning activities. Learning by this method can be self- or group-directed and centers on an instructor-supplied, and instructorfacilitated, realistic scenario. In the scenario, the students identify their own learning needs, are presented with the necessary background materials, but are not necessarily given the resources to solve the problem. There is no specific outcome in mind from the scenario, just the knowledge gained from the learning process itself. This method allows the student to see theory in practice. This type of learning is best used to teach realistic decision making. It could be used in a variety of ways and for many different professions to teach individuals how to best respond to problems they will encounter in their workplaces. This method affords students the opportunity to build skills in the following areas: group communication decision making, public speaking, and critical thinking. It is most frequently employed as a teaching method in corporate and industrial training seminars. Casebased learning is also popularly used in instructing professional studies and business programs as well as in many law schools. It is a popular tool in many universities and other higher education facilities; however, it is less popular among the K–12 set. References: Center for Instructional Development and Distance Education. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved May
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CASE STUDY
25, 2008, from http://www.cidde.pitt.edu/fds/lrn_ casebased.htm. Hale, S. (2005). FDTL case based learning in politics. Case based learning: review of good practice. University of Huddersfield. Retrieved May 24, 2008, from www.c-sap.bham.ac.uk/hottopic/FDTL/prac tice_review.pdf. Related Terms: Case method, Inquiry-based learning, Investigative case-based learning, Problem-based learning, Project-oriented learning, Role-playing, Scenario-based learning Acronyms: CBL Case study Taxonomy: Education Citation. The study of an individual, group of individuals, or organization that is used to educate students on a particular topic. Selected subjects are observed, a problem is stated, and readers are then asked to solve the problem associated with the subjects. Used quite often to profile business, psychological, and medical issues; most commonly told in story form. Taxonomy: Education Citation. Case studies have historically been associated with business schools, law schools, and social science classes, but have more recently been used in many other disciplines that explore issues and consider principles depicting real-world situations. Case study methodologies have expanded to include the physical sciences, mathematics, literature, history, and certainly, adult education. They often take the form of real-world scenarios (cases generally based on realworld situations), supporting data and documents (effective cases using real-world artifacts for students to analyze), and open-ended problems (cases that require students to answer open-ended questions or develop solutions to open-ended problems). Case studies may be designed for teams or for independent learning. Cc: Taxonomy: General Citation. Abbreviation for carbon copy. Originally referred to the duplicate copy of a communication created by carbon paper. With the advent and popularity of electronic mail (email), the term refers to transmitting a copy of the electronic message to a single recipient or group of recipients other than the primary intended recipient. This allows for multiple individuals to view a single message. Related Terms: Carbon copy
Cell Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A rectangular box on a spreadsheet, located at the intersection of a spreadsheet row and column. Spreadsheet cells hold information, such as numbers, text, and formulas. Every cell has a unique cell address denoted by its column letter and row number. For example, cell address D8 refers to the cell in column D, row 8 of a spreadsheet. Related terms: Cell reference Central processing unit Taxonomy: Technology Citation. That part of the computer that is responsible for the execution of most of the instructions. Many personal computers, particularly those used for playing digital games, have graphics processing units (GPU), in addition to the CPU, which handles instructions specific to the creation of graphics and animation. The CPU is also called the processor and is made up of the control unit and an ALU (arithmetic logic unit). Today, the CPUs of almost all computers are contained on a single chip, and many personal computers have two (called dual processors). The CPU, clock, and main memory make up the core elements of a computer and are often placed together on the motherboard. A complete computer system requires the addition of control units, input and output storage devices, and an operating system. Although the CPU is sometimes referred to as the “brain” of the computer, there is no real evidence to suggest that human (or other organic) brains operate anything like the CPU of a computer. Related Terms: Graphics processing units, Arithmetic logic unit, Motherboard Acronyms: CPU, ALU Challenging academic standards Taxonomy: Education Citation. Academic standards are defined as the criteria determined by an academic body to set the levels of teaching by the academic staff or the levels of achievement by the students following courses run by that institution. These levels are normally set by committees whose members are chiefly faculty members and some administrators who really understand curricula and instructional design. These academic standards may be challenged due to academic freedom in the United States. Academic freedom is defined as freedom of academic institutions to decide upon the courses that they will teach, the processes that they will employ to teach them, and the areas that they will research without coercion from outside bodies. Of course academic
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
freedom can be defined in other ways. For example, in the United States, academic freedom may be defined as the autonomy of the professoriate. Challenging academic standards may involve wishing to change the levels of teaching or the levels of achievement by the students following courses run by that institution. It may also mean lowering the academic standards. References: Jarvis, P. (2002). International dictionary of adult and continuing education. London: Kogan Page. Related Terms: Challenging academic status quo Acronyms: CAS Taxonomy: Education Citation. Statements that identify what learners should know and be able to do with respect to academic subject disciplines, such as the arts, sciences, social sciences, humanities, mathematics, physical performance, and others. The so-called standards movement in education began in reaction to the 1983 publication A Nation at Risk, published by the National Commission on Excellence in Education, which decried the status of education in the United States to be mediocre. Since then, several agencies, including the federal government, state governments, and national organizations for subject disciplines have promoted and created rigorous standards for learning in order to guide educational efforts. The purpose of challenging academic standards is to provide teachers, administrators, schools, and universities, along with other educational agencies, guidelines for teaching and testing learners. A resulting increase in achievement testing related to academic standards has emerged. References: Marzano, R. J., & Kendall, J. S. (1998). Awash in a sea of standards. Aurora, CO: Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning. Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. (2007).Curriculum development: A guide to practice (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Channel One Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Founded in 1990, Channel One is a video news organization dedicated to providing news and information to students of all ages. The programming includes stories aimed at fostering discussion and constructive argument. The news channel has twice won the Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting. The channel has covered stories in many areas of the world such as Australia, North Korea, Kuwait, Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Cuba. The channel also features a media-rich website where students and
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teachers can access additional information and instructional materials. References: Channel One. About Channel One News: Who Are We? www.channelone.com. Related Terms: Student news, Video news, Morning news Chat Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Synchronous communication between two or more users via networked computers. Chat room refers to an area online where you can chat with other members in real time. Once a chat has been initiated, each user can type his or her text message and send it to the receiver by clicking the Send button. The receiver can read this message directly from his or her screen and provide feedback. Most networks and online services offer a chat function. References: Jupitermedia Corporation. (2004). ISP glossary. chat. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from isp.webopedia.com/ TERM/C/chat.html. Related Terms: Chat room, Instant messenger Chat reference Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A specific type of library reference interaction where the librarian assists researchers with scholarly questions within a synchronous, online chat environment. This service is very prevalent at institutions with large distance learning programs as a way to connect librarians and their expertise with remote users. References: Bicknell-Holmes, T. (2007) Chat & instant messaging for reference services: A selected bibliography. NLAQ, 38(4), 3–8. Circuit Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The complete path between two points or terminals over which one-way or two-way communications may be provided with capabilities for a number of channels. A simple dial-up connection is a circuit that is reserved only for the duration of the call. A dedicated circuit is reserved in advance or leased for a period of time and can only be used by the owner/renter. Circuit switching Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The temporary connection of two or more communications channels. There are three types of
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CLASS OF SERVICE
switching: circuit, packet, and message. Users have full use of the circuit to transmit voice, data, and video until the connection is terminated. ISDN is a circuitswitched network. Taxonomy: Technology Citation. An electrical operation associated with the field of telecommunications, often associated with a public switched telephone network (PSTN), which appropriates a channel for communication to interchange data between two or more parties. The originating party initiates the procedure that searches for a circuit to connect with the other party or parties, allowing communication to take place. At the end of the communication the connection circuit is vacated. Circuit switching provides fast and reliable communication, but it is costly to set up and uses excessive bandwidth. An alternative to circuit switching is packet switching, which is used on the Internet. References: Lathi, B. (1998). Modern digital and analog communication systems. New York: Oxford University Press. Class of service Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A collection of restricted and unrestricted privileges and features assigned to telephone systems or users of that system, such as long-distance access, ability to place international or 1-900 calls, local calls, and so on. Class of service also relates to service issues on a packet-switched network, such as delivery time, traffic congestion, and competition for bandwidth. It allows lower priority traffic to be dropped in times of congestion on a router so that higher priority traffic can get through. Acronyms: CoS Classroom climate Taxonomy: Education Citation. A type of environment, either positive or negative, created by all who experience it: students, teachers, and peers. A positive environment is where students feel safe and nurtured and learning is maximized through intellectual stimulation. A negative environment is one in which students feel uncomfortable, for physical, emotional, or academic reasons. It is essential to meet the basic mental needs of students by applying a positive classroom environment. These needs include love, power, fun, and freedom. In order to improve achievement, teachers must be available to students and encourage students as part of the classroom climate.
References: WikEd. classroom climate. Retrieved June 22, 2008, from wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Classroom_Cli mate. Related Terms: Classroom culture, School culture, Classroom management Classroom management Taxonomy: Education Citation. “The way a teacher organizes and administers routines to make classroom life as productive and satisfying as possible. What some people might describe narrowly as ‘discipline.’ For example, teachers with good classroom management clarify how various things (such as distribution of supplies and equipment) are to be done and may even begin the school year by having students practice the expected procedures” (ASCD, 2008). However, the Encyclopedia of Education goes into much more detail, stating that classroom management is the orchestration of the learning environment of a group of individuals within a classroom setting. A teacher’s classroom-management system communicates information about the teacher’s beliefs on content and the learning process. It also circumscribes the kinds of instruction that will take place in a particular classroom. A classroom in which the teacher takes complete responsibility for guiding students’ actions constitutes a different learning environment than one in which students are encouraged and taught to assume responsibility for their own behaviors. Content will be approached and understood differently in each of these settings. Furthermore, more intellectually demanding academic work and activities in which students create products or encounter novel problems require complex management decisions. This correlation between instructional activity and management complexity further reinforces the interrelated nature of classroom management and curriculum. The interwoven nature of classroom management and classroom instruction is especially easy to see from a student perspective. Students have at least two cognitive demands on them at all times: academic task demands (understanding and working with content) and social task demands (interacting with others concerning that content). This means that students must simultaneously work at understanding the content and finding appropriate and effective ways to participate in order to demonstrate that understanding. The teacher must facilitate the learning of these academic and social tasks. Thus from the perspective of what students need to know in order to be successful, management and instruction cannot be separated.
CLOUD COMPUTING
As a result of this broadened definition of classroom management, research has moved away from a focus on controlling behavior and looks instead at teacher actions to create, implement, and maintain a learning environment within the classroom. Everything a teacher does has implications for classroom management, including creating the setting, decorating the room, arranging the chairs, speaking to children and handling their responses, putting routines in place (and then executing, modifying, and reinstituting them), developing rules, and communicating those rules to the students (Answers.com). References: Answers.com. classroom management. Retrieved June 22, 2008, from www.answers.com/topic/classroommanagement. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (2008). A lexicon of learning: What educators mean when they say . . . “classroom management.” Retrieved June 23, 2008, from www.ascd.org/Publications/Lexicon_of_Learning/C.aspx. Classroom network Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A network supporting real-time computermediated communication. It allows teachers and students to explore, collaborate, and expand on ideas in class in writing, and allows them to see each other in the process of developing ideas. Students meet in a classroom in which a local area computer network has been set up, or the teacher brings the class to a networked lab. The server in the classroom or lab runs software that supports group real-time communication. In a networked classroom, students use handheld devices that connect to the teacher’s laptop computer; the handheld devices and laptop both connect to a shared display screen. References: Roschelle, J., Penuel, W. R., & Abrahamson, L. (2004). The networked classroom. Educational Leadership, 61(5), 50–54. Related Terms: Electronic networks for interaction, Computer-mediated communication Acronyms: C-Net Clickers Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A technological handheld device that resembles a television remote control or keypad that allows an individual to answer a question during a lecture, workshop, or seminar by pressing the corresponding button of the answer that he or she believes
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to be correct. The response device will have buttons that are marked A, B, C, D, or E. The collected information can be compiled, summarized, and graphically displayed by the instructor in real time to assimilate and provide interactive learning, immediate feedback, and assessment regarding conceptual understanding. Clickers offer anonymity of answers, and increase class involvement and excitement. Related Terms: Classroom response systems, Student response systems, Audience response systems, Interactive learning, Interactive teaching, Response device Click to Meet Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Click to Meet is a desktop videoconference and collaboration product. It combines multipoint video and voice with data transmission. The vendors of Click to Meet® suggest it as an appropriate tool for distributed training. Click to Meet is similar to other desktop videoconference and collaboration products such as MeetingPlace and Sightspeed. At the time of writing, Skype and some other desktop videoconference products do not support multipoint video. Related Terms: Desktop videoconference, Multipoint videoconference
Client/server model Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Architecture of a computer system where the front-end software provides user interface and data manipulation function. Meanwhile, the back-end software (database server) runs on the server to provide the processing and the shared access for the clients. The client/server model is considered to be the basis of the distributed computer systems. References: Hoffer, J., George, J., & Valacich, J. (2005). Modern systems analysis and design (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Related Terms: File servers, Distributed presentation, Remote presentation, Remote data management, Distributed function, Distributed database, Distributed processing Cloud computing Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Many people keep much if not most of their software and data on the Web for flexible and easy access. This practice has become known as cloud computing. By using an Internet-capable device, one can access a “cloud” of computers holding massive
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CLOUD TAG
amounts of information and offering large caches of data storage space, as opposed to a limited personal computer or application server. Many are also creating, editing, aggregating, mixing, storing, and sharing “clouds” of digital content on the Internet, while synchronizing that same information across multiple devices in different locations. As data and services are increasingly device-independent and platform agnostic, they are accessible no matter where we are or what device we use. References: van’t Hooft, M. (2008). Mobile, wireless, connected: Information clouds and learning. In Emerging technologies for learning series, Vol. 3 (pp. 30–46). Coventry, UK: Becta. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from partners.becta.org.uk/upload-dir/downloads/ page_documents/research/emerging_technologies 08_chapter2.pdf. Related Terms: Mobile web, Personal information cloud, Wireless mobile devices Cloud tag Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Tags allow users to generate a personally meaningful word or phrase to catalog information on the Internet. Tags can be created for the use of a single individual or by the larger user community. Cloud tags are the visual representation of a word or phrases. They appear in a box with the most commonly used words or phrases appearing in bold, large font while less important and less frequently used terms appear in smaller font. This allows a user to quickly search for the most popular word or phrase. References: Sinclair, J., & Cardew-Hall, M. (2008). The folksonomy tag cloud: When is it useful? Journal of Information Science, 3(1), 15–29. Related Terms: Cloud, Tag cloud Cluster computing Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A method of parallel computing using a cluster of computers interconnected by high-speed networks. The computers of a cluster are usually personal computers or workstations, and the networks are usually commonly used local area networks (LANs). The advantage of cluster computing is cost-effectiveness. It allows for high-performance computing without using expensive specially designed supercomputers. Cluster computer is similar to a local area network, but the computers in the cluster are typically more closely associated such that the combined resources
of all members of the cluster can be shared. Clusters can be created to improve reliability by providing redundancy; they can be used to improve performance by sharing unused CPU or storage capabilities, and they can be used to distribute workloads and resource demands more evenly among a set of machines. The computers in a cluster typically provide full access to each other’s resources. Related Terms: High-availability clusters, Loadbalancing clusters, Grid computing Coaching Taxonomy: Education Citation. Coaching is a method of directing, instructing, and training a person or group of people with the aim to achieve some goal or develop specific skills. The name allegedly recalls the multitasking skills associated with controlling the team of a horse-drawn stagecoach. By the 1880s American college sports teams had, in addition to managers, coaches. Sometime in the twentieth century, nonsporting coaches emerged: nonexperts in the specific technical skills of their clients, but who nevertheless ventured to offer motivational or inspirational advice. There are many ways to coach, types of coaching, and methods of coaching. Direction may include motivational speaking. Training may include seminars, workshops, and supervised practice. There are different types of coaching, such as life coaching, personal coaching, business coaching, health coaching, dating coaching, and conflict coaching. References: Peer Resources. (2004). A guide to coach credentials. Retrieved from www.peer.ca/credentials05.html. Related Terms: Cocoaching, Leadership, Procrastination, Self-help, Training Coaxial cable Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Physical connection device made of pulled copper wire with a cable connector at each end, invented in 1929 by Herman Affel and Lloyd Espenschied and first used in 1941. It is principally used for efficiently conveying direct electrical transmission signals between electronic input/output boards, including television aerials, hi-fi, radio, computers (Ethernet and LANs), and high-specification scientific and medical monitoring equipments. Coaxial refers to the construction of this connection device, in that it provides one single transmission channel that carries signals, surrounded by PVC insulation, and a second concentric channel for grounding.
COGNITIVE THEORY
References: Ott, H. W. (1988). Noise reduction techniques in electronic systems (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. Related Terms: Cable connectors, Wires Acronyms: Co-ax Coder-decoder or compression-decompression Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A codec consists of hardware or software that converts analog sound, speech, or video to digital code and vice versa (analog to digital—digital to analog). It usually uses an algorithm that compresses the original file and makes it smaller. A smaller file is advantageous because it takes up less space on disc (or other storage) and it also takes less time to transmit when it is being sent from one computer to another. For example, a .wav audio file, which is an uncompressed file, can be transformed into an MP3 file, which is a much smaller file. The codec performs this function. Related Terms: Standard compression algorithm Acronyms: Codec Cognitive Taxonomy: Education Citation. The process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition, or perception changes in mental processes and structures that occur as a result of people’s efforts to make sense of the world. References: Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (2004). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Related Terms: Cognition, Schema Cognitive coaching Taxonomy: Education Citation. A form of teaching intervention that has as its primary purpose the intention of enhancing selfdirected learning. It is a combination of skills and strategies, maps and tools, and mental models and personal beliefs. Unique to this coaching model are the five conditions of efficacy, flexibility, consciousness, craftsmanship, and interdependence. Used by the cognitive coach, these resources enhance and develop a learner’s self-directedness and ability to learn on his or her own. Cognitive psychology Taxonomy: Education Citation. Cognitive psychology is a branch that studies mental processes. The core focus of cognitive
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psychology is how people acquire, process, and store information, and then how they interrelate this in their thinking, perception, memory, and learning. This theory portrays individuals as active learners who construct meaning from their experiences. Learners are intrinsically motivated to manage their own learning. Cognitive psychology has many possible applications for teachers, educators, and instructional designers including uses to improve memory, as well as in the design of curriculum to increase learning. Teachers, educators, and curriculum designers can benefit by learning more about how people process, learn, and remember information. Cognitive psychology “portrays learners as active processors of information—a metaphor borrowed from the computer world—and assigns critical roles to the knowledge and perspective students bring to their learning. What learners do to enrich information, in the view of cognitive psychology, determines the level of understanding they ultimately achieve” (Bruning, Schraw, & Ronning, 1995, p.1). One of the leaders in the field of cognitive psychology is Jean Piaget. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development described stages that children pass through in the development of intelligence and formal thought processes. His theory describes four stages: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal operation stage. Children move through these stages as they mature, progressing from the initial sensorimotor stage through formal operations. According to Piaget’s theory “students learn better when they can invent knowledge through inquiry and experimentation instead of acquiring facts presented by a teacher in class” (Hofstetter, 2008). References: Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Ronning, R. R. (1995). Cognitive psychology and instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hofstetter, F. (2008). Cognitive versus behavioral psychology. University of Delaware. Retrieved June 13, 2008, from www.udel.edu/fth/pbs/webmodel.htm. Related Terms: Cognitive development, Constructivist, Schema, Schemata, Scaffolding, Zone of proximal development Cognitive theory Taxonomy: Education Citation. Albert Bandura is often considered the father of cognitive theory. His early theories, based on behaviorism, grew and evolved into the cognitive theory we know today. Bandura looked at personality as being
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COHORT
created from three areas: the environment, behavior, and the individual’s ability to mentally construct and represent images and language. He felt that individuals learned through modeling other’s actions. Individuals first learn through observation, then through experimentation by actively engaging in the behavior they model. They then take the information they gather from their own behavior, construct an understanding of its effects, and decide from the consequences whether to engage in that behavior again. References: Heffner, C. (2002). Cognitive theory. In Personality synopsis (chap. 11). Retrieved June 13, 2008, from allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/cognitive.html. Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retrieved June 13, 2008, from www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html. Related Terms: Behaviorism, Modeling, Self-control therapy, Self-regulation, Social cognitive theory Cohort Taxonomy: Education Citation. “A particular group of people with something in common. For instance, a cohort might be a group of students who had been taught an interdisciplinary curriculum by a team of junior high school teachers. Researchers might want to track their progress into high school to identify differences in success of students in the cohort compared with students who had attended conventional classes in the same school.” References: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (2008). A lexicon of learning: What educators mean when they say . . . “cohort.” Retrieved June 23, 2008, from www.ascd.org/Publications/Lexicon_ of_Learning/C.aspx. Related Terms: Group, Legion, Followers Taxonomy: Education Citation. From an educational perspective, the term cohort is used to describe a group of students that matriculate into a college or university at the same time, progress together through a degree plan, and graduate upon completion of the degree plan. Cohorts have become popular with nontraditional students at the undergraduate and graduate levels. From an administrative perspective, cohorts are much easier to design and manage as opposed to programs that offer a flexible schedule. Cohorts are generally small in size (less than twenty). Every student that enrolls in a cohort program is planning to earn the same degree with the same major, minor, or concentration.
Cohort groups typically have a very high rate of retention. At Waynesburg University, the rate of retention in the RN program to the bachelor of science in nursing program is over 80 percent. The students in the cohort are typically very supportive of one another and work together to attain the degree as opposed to a competitive environment where students work more individually. Related Terms: Nontraditional student programs Taxonomy: Education Citation. A cohort is a group of students who move together through an educational program. Cohorts allow a small number of learners, usually starting courses at the same time, to take a group of core classes over a period of time. However, students in a cohort may not necessarily progress through the program at the same rate or graduate at the same time. Cohorts can be very beneficial because students can get to know each other well and provide a supportive learning environment for each other. Taxonomy: Education Citation. A group of students defined by some type of event (such as a degree program) who typically start the degree program at the same time and take the same program requirements over a period of time. The benefits of cohorts are that students form friendships and professional relationships with one another and can assist one another by providing support. In addition, faculty teaching a class in a cohort format will know the classes that the cohort has already taken and can teach the class based on the assumed knowledge level gained from the previously taken courses. Since the program is taken in a specific sequence, the schedule is predetermined and students do not need to worry about a class meeting maximum capacity. Cohort members are guaranteed a placement in each class. The disadvantages of cohorts are that an event may occur that does not permit a student to continue the program and this may have a negative effect on the remainder of the students. If a student drops out of the cohort, he or she may have a difficult time finishing the program requirements. In addition, if a student has a personality conflict with another member of the cohort, he or she must deal with the issues for the remainder of the program. Collaboration Taxonomy: Education Citation. A structured, recursive process where two or more people work together toward a common goal, typically an intellectual endeavor that is creative in na-
COLLABORATIVE ELEARNING
ture by sharing knowledge, learning, and building consensus. Collaboration does not require a leader. Teams that work collaboratively can obtain greater resources, recognition, and reward when facing competition for finite resources. Groups employ a variety of resources and tools to exchange their individual perspectives and achieve a shared understanding. References: Mäkitalo-Seigl, K. (2008). “From multiple perspectives to shared understanding: A small group in an online learning environment.” Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 52(1), 77–95. Related Terms: Team work, Cooperation, Participation Taxonomy: Education Citation. The practice of forming partnerships with entities both within and outside of the school building. The partners share common goals and responsibilities. Friend and Cook (1992) define collaboration as “a style of direct interaction between at least two co-equal parties voluntarily engaged in shared decision making as they work toward a common goal.” Collaborative partnerships in education may include the following groups: students, faculty, administration, professional organizations, parents, community, local business, social service agencies, and so on. All groups have a shared sense of responsibility in the educational process. Collaboration enables the partners to accomplish goals with greater success that they could have individually. References: Friend, M., & Cook, L. (1992). Interactions: Collaboration skills for school professionals. White Plains, NY: Longman. Related Terms: Partnership, Cooperative learning, Collaborative learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. An interactive process that engages two or more participants who work together toward a shared purpose to achieve outcomes they could not accomplish independently (Salmons, 2009). Collaborative partners use shared rules, norms, and structures to act or decide on issues. When people collaborate they may see different aspects of a problem, constructively explore their differences, and search for solutions that go beyond their own limited vision of what is possible (Gray, 1989; Huxham & Vangen, 2005). References: Gray, B. (1989). Collaborating: Finding common ground for multiparty problems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Huxham, C., & Vangen, S. (2005). Managing to collaborate: The theory and practice of collaborative advantage. Oxford: Routledge. Salmons, J. E. (2009). Taxonomy of online collaboration: Theory and application in e-learning. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. Related Terms: Cooperation, Communications, Interpersonal communications
Collaborative eLearning Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A constructivist approach to online learning developed as a response to user dissatisfaction with content-focused courses. In the past, elearning took the form on online courses offered through learning management systems (LMS) and focused on content delivery. Users in online courses reported feeling isolated when working independently through course materials in an LMS. Collaborative elearning focuses on tools that enable groups of people to work together through both synchronous and asynchronous methods of communication. Collaborative elearning overcomes isolation by building environments where people talk to one another, build relationships, and teach one another. In collaborative elearning the World Wide Web is no longer a passive environment for transmitting information to be consumed. Instead it is an active environment in which users create and share information. There are eight dimensions to address when designing a collaborative elearning environment as described in the framework for elearning. The framework reminds designers to examine pedagogical, technological, and content issues as well as selecting user-friendly applications to assist in both content delivery and collaboration. Collaborative elearning uses many types of collaborative tools to manage content and social interactions. These tools, available through multiple sources, are not packaged into an LMS but are available through free, opensource applications. Collaborative elearning tools can facilitate document sharing and editing, tools that support synchronous communication, and tools that allow information sharing. While hundreds of collaborative elearning tools exist, examples include social networking sites like Facebook and Second Life, social bookmarking sites like Linkroll, information publishing sites like Blogger, and multimedia sharing tools like YouTube. Future growth in collaborative elearning is expected in the areas of gaming, mobile and wireless technologies, and knowledge management tools.
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COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
References: Downes, S. (2005). E-learning 2.0. eLearn, 2005(10). Retrieved May 27, 2008, from elearnmag.org/sub page.cfm?section=articles&article=29-1. Kim, K. J., Bonk, C. J., & Zeng, T. T. (2005). Surveying the future of workplace e-learning: the rise of blending, interactivity, and authentic learning. eLearn, 2005(6). Retrieved May 27, 2008, from elearnmag.org/subpage.cfm?section=research&arti cle=5-1. Related Terms: eLearning Collaborative learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. A term used for various educational approaches that involve intellectual efforts by groups/ pairs of students working mutually to understand content, solve problems, and create projects. A situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together through joint problem solving. Collaborative learning refers to methodologies and environments in which learners engage in a common task in which each individual depends on and is accountable to others. Learners work together to accomplish shared learning goals and to maximize their own and their group members’ achievements. This is a method of learning where learners work as a group, in most cases small groups, for the purpose of accomplishing instructional goals. They interact and evaluate each other’s ideas as they work cooperatively on a given project to solve a learning problem. Taxonomy: Education Citation. One of three identified learning processes where learning takes place via the Web: learning to communicate and converse electronically (the communication aspect), learning to learn together (the collaborative aspect), and learning the subject matter the course is concerned with (the content). These three learning processes proceed in parallel and, at best, support one another. As teacher and course leader one should bear all three processes in mind and remember that they need time and attention in order to come about and acquire quality. References: Fåhræus, E. R. (2003). A triple helix of learning processes: How to cultivate learning, communication and collaboration among distance-education students. Doctoral dissertation. Dept. of Computer and Systems Sciences, Stockholm University/KTH, Report No. 03-015. Fåhræus, E. R., & Döös, M. (2007). Competent web dialogue: Thoughts linked in digital conversations.
International Journal of Information and Communications Technology Education, 3(3), 14–24. Related Terms: Collective learning, Digital conversation, Learning dialogue, Parallel learning processes Taxonomy: Education Citation. Learning situations where learners work together to assist each other in the learning process. Many people, especially Westerners, believe in this philosophy—it is in relationship with others that we learn. It is true that when people interact with each other they learn from one another. When it comes to learning styles, we have what we call “dependent learners” and “independent learners.” Dependent learners may enjoy collaborative learning because they depend on others for answers to questions or solutions to problems while independent learners may feel that collaborative learning is a waste of their time. Twentyfive centuries ago, Confucius used to teach people by saying: “When three men are walking together, there is one who can be my teacher. I pick out people’s good and follow it. When I see their bad points, I correct them in myself.” This teaching of Confucius may also indicate the importance of collaborative learning. Without mingling ourselves with others, how can we expect to learn from others, let alone correct their bad points? In all societies, we have competitive learners. Collaborative learners may not work well with these kinds of learners, who always wish to surpass others in terms of learning. It is doubtful whether these learners will remain open when it comes to assisting others in the learning process. References: Jarvis, P. (2002). International dictionary of adult and continuing education. London: Kogan Page. Tomei, L. (Ed.). (2007). Integrating information & communication technologies into the classroom. Hershey, PA: InfoSci. Related Terms: Peer learning Acronyms: CL Taxonomy: Education Citation. The instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize learning—both their own and their peers. Collaborative learning is governed by the amount of in-class or out-of-class time built around group work. Activities range from classroom discussions (with short lectures, if necessary) through entire class periods. A foundation in research and investigation as well as teamwork and collaborative relationships is critical to success. In collaborative learning, the development of interpersonal skills is as important as the learning itself. The development of
COLLECTIVE LEARNING
social skills in a group work learning environment is key to successful learning outcomes. Collaborative model for distance education Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A combination of instructional design techniques, rapid-prototyping development processes that utilize learning objects, and facilitated-delivery strategies that enable students to experience blended learning lessons that match the scope and the sequence of instruction presented in any given bricks-and-mortar learning environment. This model involves a working relationship between teachers who serve as subject matter experts and curriculum directors, or course developers, who work with publishing technologies to create online lessons. Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. The term used to describe the formative and iterative process of using native resources to guide the translation of classroom instruction into learning object-based instruction so it can be delivered online. When students and teachers are linked through distance education technologies, opportunities for encouraging each person’s equal role as a member of the learning community can be maximized. This term also refers to collaboration between academic institutions and businesses to offer courses for degree or certification programs. References: Baer, W. S. (2000). Competition and collaboration in online distance learning. Information, Communication & Society, 3(4), 457–73. Hardwick, S. W. (2000). Humanizing the technology landscape through a collaborative pedagogy. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 24(1), 123–29. Related Terms: Distance learning Acronyms: CMDE Collaborative support system Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A network-based system designed to facilitate and augment the collaborative support for a solution of computer-related problems. Collaborative support is that support given by work colleagues and friends, usually operating in an informal environment. Collective learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. Collective learning was first made theoretically intelligible through studies of different meeting colloquies, that is, by focusing on dialogue, colloquy,
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and narratives in face-to-face situations and in the immediate context of teams. Thus, collective learning appears in educational research literature as a process occurring in face-to-face meetings through interactive colloquy and communication in the form of spoken words. It is described as proceeding in teams or other clearly limited (most often) formalized groups whose constituent members (a limited number) are established and known, together with their functions. The engendering process results in changed understanding and uniform preparedness for action. Reflection is a vital ingredient of learning, with the result that dialogue, conversation, communication, and so forth has attracted a great deal of attention in recent decades, in research as well as practice. Learning as a collective process means people learning through interactive and communicative action; a learning process that creates added value in the form of synergy, with one plus one making more than two. Usually the reference is to a learning that results in notions that in some sense are common, in a similar understanding and a common capacity for action and competence. Communicative actions assume an order in which understanding which individuals change together also results in collective understanding. Collective learning has taken place. However, collective learning conforms to somewhat different principles and orders in different specific environments or contexts. The identification of collective learning in different activities helps us to understand collective learning as a concept overriding the conditions of specific environments. The study of collective learning in the telecom sector has helped to make theoretically comprehensible the way in which collective learning is also generated outside what is delineated by a given formal organization, and also how collective learning can proceed through interactions other than the creation of common understanding in a face-to-face dialogue. Collective learning depends on the core task of an activity; common knowledge develops in partly different ways in different action contexts. The way in which knowledge develops is context dependent. In more distributed contexts in working life, collective learning is emerging through a host of paired contacts by telephone, Internet, email, electronic subscription, and meeting points. The common arena for action can consist of coordination in the task, for example, joint development of a technical artifact where the results of one’s own actions and other people’s are gathered together. The process whereby collective learning comes about seems, whatever the context and activity, to be
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COLLECTIVE TRANSFORMATIVE LEARNING
based on interactions in a common action arena. It is thus essential to identify the importance of a common action arena and to emphasize interaction in action (both at close quarters and at a distance) rather than just oral communication and colloquy within the boundaries of a group or a team. References: Dixon, N. (1994). The organizational learning cycle: How we can learn collectively. London: McGrawHill. Döös, M., & Wilhelmson, L. (2005). Collective learning: On the significance of interaction in action and common action arenas. Pedagogisk forskning i Sverige, 10(3/4), 209–26 (In Swedish with English summary). Related Terms: Collaborative learning processes, Collective transformative learning, Dialogue competence, Experiential learning, Perspective change in group conversation, Thought network Collective transformative learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. Collective transformative learning develops from a mutual transcending of perspectives when participants in a group conversation together manage to create new, more shared understanding and a pluralistic view, grounded in multiple voices being heard and accepted. To reach this the participants need to interact in a dialogical way, that is, to both integrate and differentiate various perspectives. CTL is an active and explicit transformation that comprises and digests several different perspectives into a new alloy of knowledge. Together a group can go beyond the separate individual’s capacity for understanding a complex societal phenomenon. To do this an interactive process is needed where the learning individual revises a former assumption in order to contribute to a collective understanding. This comes about in a process of mutual adaptation that creates a synergy effect and it is this very process that is the working ingredient in CTL. A group of people, with the intention of collectively making sense of an issue they are interested in and have experienced, can, through the process of perspective change, develop a qualitatively new understanding of a complex societal issue—an understanding that is new to them all. A vital presupposition is that people agree to disagree, that is, that all perspectives are equally seriously listened to as real and true. References: Wilhelmson, L. (2006). Dialogue meetings as nonformal adult education in a municipal context. Journal of Transformative Education, 4(3), 243–56. Related Terms: Collective learning, Conversation, Dialogue competence, Differentiating qualities, Ex-
periential learning, Integrating qualities, Perspective change in group conversation Acronyms: CTL Common carrier Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A company that transports goods, persons, or both for compensation and offers its facilities to the general public without discrimination. Common carriers of goods are insurers of all goods accepted for shipment. With a few exceptions, as set forth in the Carmack Amendment to the Interstate Commerce Act (1978), they are liable as insurers regardless of whether they have been negligent. With a few exceptions, a common carrier has an obligation to accept all persons who may seek passage over its lines. A common carrier must exercise reasonable care in the protection for passengers. References: Brown, G., & Sukys, P. (1997). Business law with UCC applications (9th ed.). New York: Glencoe/ McGraw-Hill. Communities of practice Taxonomy: Education Citation. Instructional environments reflecting an understanding that all participants contribute to the learning process and involve situations in which teachers structure realistic problems or tasks and then facilitate learners to activate previous understandings, to interact collegially with others, and to apply combined knowledge to work toward a process-based solution. Community digital libraries Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. An online repository of items chosen by a specific community of users, operating within a governance structure and outlined plan. The addition of digital images and online collaboration allows for a broader reach in getting more community participation. An example is the geoscience community’s Digital Library for Earth System Education (DLESE). References: Wright, M., Marlino, M., & Sumner, T. (2002, May). Meta-design of a community digital library. D-Lib Magazine, 8(5). Retrieved May 21, 2008, from www.dlib.org/dlib/may02/wright/05wright.html. Related Terms: Electronic community Competencies ePortfolio Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A competencies eportfolio is an electronic portfolio created for the purpose of demonstrating
COMPRESSED VIDEO
satisfaction of standards and competencies. It is a digitized collection of artifacts including text-based, graphic, or multimedia elements stored on a website or other electronic medium, allowing the author to make logical and physical connections among the portfolio elements. The portfolio creation process involves collection, selection, and reflection on evidentiary samples that demonstrate skills and competencies. For a competencies eportfolio, the author places a list of certification standards and competencies (for example, those required in education and nursing programs) into the portfolio. He then collects evidentiary artifacts that demonstrate satisfaction of each standard, establishing a link between the selected work and the standard that it satisfies. The portfolio connections link the core competencies with samples of best work. References: Cambridge, B. (Ed.). (2001). Electronic portfolios: Emerging practices in student, faculty, and institutional learning. Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education. Related Terms: Initial job inquiry portfolio, Showcase eportfolio, Integrated eportfolio Compressed video Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Compression is the reduction in size of data in order to save space or transmission time. Transmission of compressed video over a communications network requires sophisticated compression algorithms. When the vast amount of information in a normal TV transmission is squeezed into a fraction of its former bandwidth by a codec, the resulting compressed video can be transmitted more economically over a smaller carrier signal. Some information is sacrificed in the process, which may result in diminished picture and sound quality. Some videoconferencing systems offer both proprietary and standard compression algorithms. You’ll want to make sure that you know whether your system is proprietary or standard before you buy as this will limit the types of videoconferences in which you can participate. Video images are processed to remove extraneous information, facilitating the transmission of information over telephone lines or other narrow bandwidth carriers. Television signals can be transmitted with a much lower than usual bit rate. The lower bit rates typically involve some compromise in picture quality, particularly when there is rapid motion on the screen. Video that is viewed or stored on a computer is typically compressed in an effort to control the size and data-rate of the digital video file. To illustrate, a typical frame size of 720 ⫻ 480 pixels (e.g., a DV NTSC standard) in full 24-bit color (comprising the
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three channels of red, green, and blue) is 720 ⫻ 480 ⫻ 3 or approximately 1 MB in size. Hence, at 30 frames per second, one second’s worth of this video takes up 30 MB of space and one minute’s worth of this video takes up approximately 1.8 GB of storage space. Keep in mind that this calculation only takes into account the video portion of the clip—it does not account for any audio in the file. And if the clip were high-definition video, it would take up even more storage space. Clearly, despite decreasing memory prices, video compression techniques help us manage the ubiquity and popularity of video, especially if the video is to be transmitted through limited online bandwidths. Note that file size is only one aspect of compressed video as there is a need to balance file size with video quality. As compression increases, file sizes decrease, but video quality also suffers. To find a proper balance, being aware of two key aspects of video compression is helpful. Compressed video can broadly be classified into two basic schemes: spatial (otherwise known as intraframe) compression and temporal (otherwise known as interframe) compression. Spatial compression compresses video by analyzing individual video frames in turn, then finding patterns that best represent each individual frame without storing all of the data for each frame. Spatial compression looks at individual video frames without considering other frames that come before or after it—hence it is also called intraframe compression. Temporal compression compresses video by analyzing the pixels that remain the same from frame to frame within a video and creates keyframes that best represent the unchanged video pixels without storing all the data for each and every frame. Since temporal compression looks at the changes between frames, it is also called interframe compression. Thankfully, most modern compressed video handle spatial and temporal compression through codecs (compressor-decompressors) that control video encoding and playback. Entry-level users today usually need only adjust some sort of slider while looking at a preview window to balance video quality and file size. (Depending on the application, this may generate acceptable results, though it may not give consistent optimum quality without detailed tweaking.) Notably, since users must have the same codec on their computers as the codec used for the video they would like to view, the trick today lies in choosing codecs that not only afford good file size and quality, but are also popular and widely available to ensure proper playback. Related Terms: Frame rate, Full motion video, Animation, Compression Acronyms: Codecs
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COMPRESSION
Compression Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Compressing a digital file encodes and saves the file’s information using fewer bits. Compression programs thus employ algorithms that can reduce the size of digital files for storage and transmission. While making files smaller has its advantages (e.g., faster online transfers, able to fit more files on a single medium, consolidates numerous “loose” files into one file), compressing data files also necessarily entails uncompressing the files when they need to be viewed or used. This can be a time and resource consuming process and requires that both sender and receiver use the same compression and decompression scheme. Furthermore, the degree of effective compression differs depending on file type and format. In particular, graphic images, audio, and video files that have compression schemes already applied (e.g., JPG, VBR, codecs) may not benefit very much from additional data compression algorithms, though these may still be compressed to consolidate files for more efficient online uploads and downloads. Data compression algorithms can be categorized as either lossy or lossless. Lossy compression refers to a reduction of a file’s size through analyzing the file for patterns and eliminating data that is considered “redundant.” This dropping of data results in a lower quality when compared to the original, but depending on the amount of data loss, the perceptual quality may still be similar to the original. The commonly used JPG compression for images is an example of a lossy compression format. Other examples include the MP3 format for audio files, and the MPEG-2 compression scheme used for DVD video. Lossless compression schemes, on the other hand, retain all the data of the original, preserving quality and fidelity to the original. This high fidelity comes at a cost, however, because files cannot be compressed as much as with the lossy method (lossless compression results in generally lower compression ratios), and some files will not see any gains in compression at all. The TIFF and BMP formats are two commonly seen examples of lossless compression schemes for images and digital cameras. Lossless video and audio, on the other hand, are seldom used for final presentations or in the classroom setting because of the high demands on disk space and computer processing. Related Terms: Compressed video, Audio compression Acronyms: Codecs, VBR, JPG, MP3, MPEG, TIFF, BMP
Computer-adaptive testing Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A computer-based testing system that uses estimates of the ability of the test taker to choose additional questions that have the greatest potential to increase the accuracy of the ability estimate. These systems are typically designed to select questions from a calibrated item pool that are closest to the current estimated ability (using some appropriate protocol for deriving a starting estimate) while attending to the test specifications. These types of assessments are programmed to stop when the estimate of error falls below a prescribed threshold, or when the number of questions exceeds a certain limit. The estimate of ability measures and calibration of items depends upon the use of item response theory (IRT) or the Rasch model and the prior development, calibration, and validation of an item pool and measurement scale. References: Pelton, T., & Francis Pelton, L. (2006). Introducing a computer-adaptive testing system to a small school district. In S. Howell, M. Hricko, & D. Williams (Eds.) Online assessment and measurement: Case studies from higher education, K–12, and corporate. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Related Terms: Computer-based testing, Item response theory Acronyms: CAT, CBT, IRT Computer-assisted instruction Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Computer-assisted instruction is a narrow term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities offered either by themselves or as supplements to traditional, teacherdirected instruction. A general term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning. References: Davis, S. (2003). Observations in classrooms using a network of handheld devices. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(3), 298–307. Related Terms: Electronic learning, Education technology, Computer-based learning, Advanced learning technology Acronyms: CAI, ALT Computer-assisted learning Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Terminology more common in the 1980s and 1990s (as computer-assisted instruction), and covers a range of computer-based packages, from computerbased quizzes to software simulations of systems (such
COMPUTER CONFERENCING
as scientific, environmental, or financial) that are designed to reveal how the system works. The software aims to provide interactive teaching in a specific topic in a curriculum subject area. Much CAL predates the Internet and is now delivered online rather than through discrete media (computer disks) or is available in the form of learning objects. References: Rushby, N. (Ed.). (1981). Selected readings in computer based learning. London: Kogan Page. Related Terms: Computer-assisted instruction, Learning objects Acronyms: CAL Computer-based training Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Computer-based training is any training that uses a computer as the focal point for instructional delivery. With CBT, training is provided through the use of a computer and software, which guides a learner through an instructional program. Most CBT uses one or a combination of the following techniques: • Tutorial.The most common of all techniques is used to introduce new information that must be taught in a sequential manner. It is useful for teaching factual information, simple discrimination, rules, and simple application of rules. • Drill and Practice. It provides opportunities for practice when mastery of a new skill or information is desired. It should be used after initial instruction. • Training Games. Training games supplement other instruction and are used to provide motivating and engaging opportunities for practice after a skill or new information is taught. Training games capitalize on the competitive interests of learners and add entertainment value to instruction. • Simulation. This technique is most often used when practicing a skill in its real context is too costly or dangerous. It provides an opportunity for experimentation, and allows students to test assumptions in a realistic context. Simulations are also used to model real-world situations that are not physically dangerous or costly, in order to build realism and relevance into the training situation. • Problem Solving. One of the most challenging techniques used in CBT is problem solving. It helps students develop skills in logic, solving problems, and following directions, and is generally used to augment higher-order thinking skills.
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• Demonstration/Presentation. This technique is best used to support the introduction of new information. It can also be used as a review tool. Most computer-based training incorporates one or more of these techniques. A training game, for example, might have some of the elements of drill and practice; a tutorial might use problem-solving questions. References: Bixler, B., & Bergman, T. (1997). Selecting and implementing computer-based training. Washington, DC: National Alliance of Business. Overbaugh, R. C. (1994). Research based guidelines for computer based instruction development. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 27(l), 29–47. Related Terms: Computer-assisted instruction, Computer-aided instruction, Computer-aided testing, Computer-based instruction, Courseware, Webbased training Acronyms: CBT Computer conferencing Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. An approach to distance teaching using computers to assist in the presentation of teaching materials or to assist learners to work through an already prepared learning program. The term computer conferencing has the following meanings: (1) teleconferencing supported by one or more computers, (2) an arrangement in which access by multiple users to a common database is mediated by a controlling computer, and (3) the interconnection of two or more computers working in a distributed manner on a common application process. Instant messaging and chat systems are multicasting approaches for computer conferencing. Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Computer conferencing is a style of computer-mediated many-to-many communication and allows two or more participants to communicate synchronously and mutually with each other. It may take place using different communication modes, for example, audio conferencing, videoconferencing, chat, or instant messaging. Besides this, participants of a computer conference may share applications, for example, a whiteboard or any other desktop application. Shared applications allow participants to work collaboratively with one application, either concurrently or consecutively—depending on the respective application and the settings for the conference. There
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COMPUTER CRIME
are many different settings that can apply computer conferencing, such as virtual meetings, virtual communities of practice, or ecollaborative knowledge construction. These computer conferences with a clear number of participants usually allow all participants to provide contributions. However, large-scale conferences with many participants may be structured by a moderator who passes the floor to participants willing to contribute. They are applied, as teacher-centered but interactive lectures, and allow students to raise their hands to pose questions and make comments. References: Finn, K. E., Sellen, A. J., & Wilbur, S. B. (Eds.). (1997). Video-mediated communication. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Related Terms: Videoconferencing, Audio conferencing, Chat, Instant messaging Computer crime Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A general term that is characterized by the use of a computer to commit an illegal activity. Terms such as computer crime, cybercrime, electronic crime, and so on all refer to this same concept, but there is a distinction if the computer is the source of the crime, or the target of the crime. Many activities fall under the category of computer crime, for example, electronic fraud, electronic stalking or cyberstalking, unauthorized access of information, illegal reproduction, altering/modifying data, and sending malicious software are all categories in which computer crime is a factor. Computer crime is evolving over the years with more instances of identity theft and unauthorized access taking precedence. Financial losses have more than doubled between 2006 and 2007 to an average annual loss per company of over $350,000. However, even these figures may be a little misleading, since (1) not all computer crime is reported, and (2) many times individuals or corporations do not know they were victims of a crime, until much later, and therefore figures may be unreliable then. The four biggest categories of computer crime consist of financial fraud, virus attacks, unauthorized access to data, and the theft of proprietary information. References: CERT. (2007). How the FBI investigates computer crime. US-CERT Coordination Center. Retrieved on February 6, 2008, from www.cert.org/tech_tips/ FBI_investigates_crime.html. U.S. Department of Justice. (2007). United States Department of Justice, Computer Crime & Intellectual Property Section. Retrieved January 5, 2008, from www.cybercrime.gov/. Related Terms: Cybercrime, Electronic crime
Computer forensics Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Forensics is the application of a large diverse area of sciences that helps to answer questions in a certain field, for example, forensic accounting, forensic criminalistics, forensic toxicology, and so forth. Computer forensics, then, is the science of applying computer skills in examining and uncovering data in computer systems. A full understanding of computer forensics would include the act of acquiring, preserving, examining, collecting, retrieving, and presenting data that has been collected electronically. It is the application of a computer investigation that will help to uncover evidence where the interest is to determine the admissibility of evidence in a court of law. Computer forensic investigators also have the additional task of being deliberate in their discovery and handling of the electronic data and make inferences as to the nature of that data to be admissible in a court of law. A forensics investigation would include protecting the system, discovery, recovery, access, analysis, and providing documentation and expert testimony. Unfortunately, at the present time, computer forensics is not necessarily considered a science like the former forensics fields, but rather a practice that is done by experience practitioners, and a field where several states are considering implementing licensing requirements for anyone who claims he or she is a computer forensics expert. References: U.S. Department of Justice. (2000). Recovering and examining computer forensic evidence. Forensic Science Communications, 2(4). Retrieved January 10, 2008, from www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/fsc/backissu/ oct2000/computer.htm. Related Terms: Digital forensics, Electronic evidence Computer forensics investigator Taxonomy: Technology Citation. An individual who works to gather, preserve, and analyze evidence recovered from computers or other electronic devices such as cell phones or PDAs. Computer forensics investigators are often law enforcement officers or members of the military who are highly skilled in areas of technology and undergo continuous training. Investigators may also work for private companies and provide services to law enforcement agencies or others needing to analyze digital evidence. Where a crime has been committed, investigators work closely with law enforcement agencies and the judicial system, and may be required to testify in court.
COMPUTER FRAUD AND ABUSE ACT
Other tools used to gather evidence in criminal cases include subpoenas and search warrants, which must be issued by a court. Subpoenas allow investigators to obtain information from Internet service providers or other entities that may be needed to identify an individual responsible for illegal activity conducted over computer networks or the Internet. Information produced may lead to a suspect by revealing customer records, and in cases involving a computer, an Internet protocol (IP) address, which can often lead to a specific computer. Search warrants may be used to locate physical evidence such as computer hard drives or other data storage devices. Investigators may also conduct surveillance and undercover operations in order to gather evidence. Because of the sensitive nature of digital data, investigations must be handled with care and procedures carefully followed in order to preserve the integrity and authenticity of evidence. Electronic data is fragile and can be easily altered or erased. However, because it is very difficult to completely destroy or eliminate all evidence of a computer file or electronic communication, a computer forensics investigator may use specialized software and investigative techniques to recover data that has been previously deleted. Incidents that might require the skills of a computer forensics investigator include cases involving fraud, theft, unauthorized access to computer systems, terrorism, stalking or harassment, software piracy, child pornography, or any other unlawful activity where evidence is transmitted or stored on a computer or electronic device. References: Bell, S. (2004). Computing, forensic. In Encyclopedia of Forensic Science (p. 72). New York: Facts on File. U.S. Department of Justice. (2007). Investigations involving the Internet and computer networks (NCJ 210798). Retrieved from ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ nij/210798.pdf. Acronyms: CFI Computer fraud Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Computer frauds are activities that seek to alter, change, or steal unauthorized data and use that information to commit illegal activities. It typically involves the use of a computer to commit these illegal activities, and is rapidly expanding with the spread of computer technologies and Internet access becoming more common. The goal of fraud is to deprive an individual or corporation of the rightful use
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of their assets for ill-gotten gains. For example, denial of service attacks, malicious code, unauthorized access to data, email hoaxes, product and service schemes, and so on are all forms of computer fraud. In addition, computer fraud is also caused by internal employees, for example, the intentional modification of data entry, and the unauthorized use of data by employees with limited access clearance. Many security experts recommend rotation of duties and forced vacations to minimize computer fraud committed by internal employees. There are a number of laws that have been passed to reduce computer fraud, including the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (1986), the Electronic Communication Privacy Act (1986), the Fraud and Related Activity in Connection with Computers Act (1986), and the USA Patriot Act (2001) to name just a few. References: Davis, H., & Braun, R. (2004). Computer fraud: analyzing perpetrators and methods. CPA Journal, 74(7). U.S. Department of Justice. (2007). Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. In Prosecuting Computer Crimes (chap.1). Retrieved on January 15, 2008, from www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cyber crime/ccmanual/01ccma.pdf. Related Terms: Internet fraud, White collar crime Computer Fraud and Abuse Act Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act was originally passed in 1986 to reduce hacking of computers. Prior to this act, prosecutors did not have any legal recourse to try anyone for computer crimes because no such laws existed. The Internet had only been around for about three years and control of inappropriate behavior was needed. As with any new technology, laws always lag behind. This act made it against the law to knowingly access a computer without authorization to obtain national security data, financial institution records of individuals, information on file in any consumer reporting agency, information from any department or agency of the United States, and from any protected computer if the conduct involves interstate or foreign communications. The term computer encompasses any electronic, magnetic, optical, electrochemical, or other high-speed data processing device that performs logical, arithmetic, or storage functions but does not include an automated typewriter, a portable handheld calculator, or other similar devices. This act also made it against the law to knowingly access a computer with the intent to defraud or obtain anything of value unless it is the use of the computer
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COMPUTER HARDWARE
and the value of use is not more than $5,000 in any one-year period. The Computer Fraud and Abuse Act made it illegal to knowingly cause the transmission of a program, information, code, or command that could damage or intentionally access a computer without authorization causing damage resulting in loss to one or more persons during a one-year period aggregating at least $5,000 in value; the modification or impairment, or potential modification or impairment, of the medical examination, diagnosis, treatment, or care of one or more individuals; physical injury to any person; a threat to public health or safety or damage affecting a government computer system (knowingly and with the intent to defraud); trafficking in a password or similar information through which a computer may be accessed without authorization if such trafficking affects interstate or foreign commerce; or such computer is used by or for the government of the United States. The penalties include fines and imprisonment up to twenty years. The original act was amended in 1994, 1996, and in 2001 by the USA Patriot Act. The first person convicted in 1989 was Herbert Zinn for breaking into the Department of Defense. Because he was only eighteen, he was sentenced to only nine months in prison and fined $10,000. References: U.S. Department of Justice. Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. § 1030. Fraud and related activity in connection with computers. Retrieved from www .usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/1030_new.html. Computer hardware Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The physical components of a computer system, both internal and external. Internal hardware includes components such as the central processing unit (CPU), motherboard, RAM chips, and video card (graphics adapter), while external hardware includes monitors, mice, keyboards, printers, and so on. Acronyms: CPU, RAM Computer-managed learning Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A term predating the Internet that describes a type of computer-based learning system. On the basis of computer-based test results the system managed the assessment results and provided feedback to learners on their mastery of content, and where further study and revision was required. The study resources themselves were not necessarily computer based. An approach superseded by management information systems where both content and assessment is online.
References: Rushby, N. (1987). Technology-based learning. Selected readings. London: Kogan Page; New York: Nichols Publishing Company. Rushby, N., & Anderson, J. (1977). Computer managed learning in the 1980’s. (Technical Report 16). National Development Programme for Computer Assisted Learning. London: Council for Education Technology. Related Terms: Computer-assisted instruction Acronyms: CML Computer-mediated communications Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Broadly defined as any form of data exchange across two or more networked computers. More frequently, the term is narrowed to include only those communications that occur via computermediated formats (i.e., instant messages, emails, chat rooms) between two or more individuals (Wikipedia). Loosely defined as any type of human interaction using networked computers. The study of computermediated communication identifies the mediational processes of the tools, the technology, and their impact on the communication processes of humans. Sociocultural learning theories look at mediation as a developmental process involving language, symbols, and tools such as technology that impact the movement of learners through the zone of proximal development and, thus, learning. References: Wertsch. J. (1991). Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wikipedia. computer-mediated communications. Retrieved January 25, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Computer-mediated_communication. Acronyms: CMC Computer-mediated engagement Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Engagement that occurs within a computersupported environment and is mediated by networked computers, the Internet, and satellite transmission technologies. Computer-mediated engagement has been considered crucial to learning communities of teachers and educators and generally denotes participation, interaction, collaboration, and apprenticeship in building online communities. It refers to the genuine form of communication that goes beyond simple transmissionlike exchange, as measured in terms of discourse and structural characteristics. Discourse aspects of computer-mediated engagement capture the ways in
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
which utterances are incorporated and used in ongoing discussion, as reflected in its orientation toward dialogicality and using others’ texts, or utterances, as thinking devices to create new meanings. Structural aspects describe the use of broader interaction features, including the development of extended discussions and topics, and participant activity. Computer-mediated engagement can transform learning and practice through social interaction and meaning negotiation through transitions from novice toward experienced or expert membership of an online learning community. References: Hui, D. (2006). Engagement in supporting new teachers: A role for computer mediated communication in teacher learning within informal professional communities. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Washington University in St Louis, Missouri. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Related Terms: Computer-mediated communication, Engagement, Online engagement Computer security Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Computer security is part of a larger series of activities in the computer area that addresses the security of the behavior of computer objects. Objects in computer security can be people, applications, and data that is found and accessed on a computer system. A system of checks is used to enforce the behavior of these objects when attempts are made to access data on the system. This system of checks is sometimes referred to as a security policy. Computer security is often associated with a model of protection that tries to address the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information by making sure data that is confidential is only accessed by the appropriate user, the integrity of the data will ensure that the data is correct, and the data is available as needed. Although computer security is often thought of in the same sense as a user’s home or work computer, it is part of a much broader area that can include the storage, transmission, and processing of data, which is often referred to as information states. Several computer security models exist, such as the access control model, role-based access model, the Bell-LaPadula model, the Clark-Wilson model, ISO/IEC27001:2005, and the information systems security (infosec) model of security. References: Maconachy, W. V., Schou, C. D., Ragsdale, D., & Welch, D. (2001). A model for information assurance: An integrated approach. In Proceedings of
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the 2001 IEEE Workshop on Information Assurance and Security (306–10). New York: United States Military Academy, West Point. Retrieved December 20, 2007, from www.itoc.usma.edu/ Workshop/2001/Authors/Submitted_Abstracts/paper W2C3(55).pdf. NIST. (2002). History of computer security: Early computer security papers, Part I. Retrieved January 8, 2008, from csrc.nist.gov/publications/history/. Related Terms: Information security Computer simulation Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. As the expression computer simulation is intended, it offers the chance to use a personal computer to replicate a concept or environment that involves a large number of variables. Computer simulation is best applied when the real-world conditions are too time-consuming, too costly, or too dangerous to duplicate. Computer simulation is widely used for didactic classroom and online training, and in computer-based training. Most computer simulation theory is divided into four unique systems: reality, physical, artificial, and hypothetical. Reality systems can be easily reproduced and are used (within the educational field) for convenience. Physical systems are present in the natural world, such as the biological systems, that since are very complex are reproducible in a round down way. Artificial systems are created by humans that reproduce artifacts or situations, while hypothetical systems do not find a correspondence in the real world but can be used to anticipate decisions. The computer simulation can be used beyond the model manipulation, to illustrate in a dynamic way the decisions recoil taken by individual or by a group in a simulated environment. References: De Jong, T., & Van Joolingen, W. (1998). Scientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual domains. Review of Educational Research, 68, 179–201. Related Terms: Interactive simulation, Computerbased training, Modeling Computer software Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Set of instructions in the form of a program that tells the computer’s hardware what to do. Various schemes have been developed to categorize the types of software, but many recognize the simple categories of operating systems, applications, and device drivers.
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COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK
Computer-supported cooperative work Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Term used to describe how people work together using computer technology. Typical CSCW tools/applications include email, awareness and notification systems, videoconferencing, chat systems, multiplayer games, and real-time shared applications (such as collaborative writing or drawing). These software tools are used in a community of practice (CoP) for knowledge capture, storage, and sharing. Acronyms: CSCW Computer-supported intentional learning environments Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. An online learning environment based on the proactive learning instructional methods such as inquiry and problem solving. CSILE occurs on a LAN and is a collaborative learning process that includes a communal database that allows students to communicate and dialog concerning common topics using “nodes” of relevant ideas. Students can create interactive dialogs on topics of interest and develop new ideas and topics of study. Marlene Scardamalia and Carl Bereiter at the Ontario Institute developed CSILE for Studies in Education. CSILE has since been developed into the online Knowledge Forum with more advanced graphic and interactive features. References: Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1993). Technologies for knowledge-building discourse. Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, 36(5), 37–41. Related Terms: Knowledge forum Acronyms: CSILE, OISE Computer-supported learning environment Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A computer-supported collaborative learning environment means more than just applying computers for learning; the term comprises four different aspects: 1. Computer support for learning, which means that the computer provides communication channels and tools. 2. Collaborative learning that allows learners to construct their knowledge collaboratively. 3. A learning environment that provides a learning task, learning material, and methods of instructional design. 4. Instructional support that facilitates learners’ knowledge construction and collaboration.
In computer-supported collaborative learning environments, the computer may enable learners’ communication synchronously by computer conferencing, or asynchronously by newsgroups, discussion boards, wikis, or similar tools. Besides simply providing these tools, the computer also provides learners with the opportunity to share the interface of the learning environment. This allows learners to work in the same learning context and have a shared screen of the learning environment. Learners use the computer support for constructing their knowledge collaboratively. This requires learners to work actively and highly interactively on establishing a shared knowledge base. The learning environment provides the context for learning, a particular learning scenario (e.g., case solving, inquiry, decision tasks), and an instructional framework for learners’ activities. Finally, the instructional support relates to particular instructional tools that facilitate learners’ collaboration (e.g., collaboration scripts), or content-specific aspects of collaboration (e.g., tools for mapping, content schemes, or dynamic visualizations). References: Mandl, H., Ertl, B., & Kopp, B. (2006). Computer support for collaborative learning environments. In L. Verschaffel, F. Dochy, M. Boekaerts & S. Vosniadou (Eds.), Instructional psychology: Past, present and future trends. Sixteen essays in honor of Erik De Corte (pp. 223–37). Amsterdam: Elsevier. Related Terms: Computer-supported collaborative learning, Collaborative knowledge construction Acronyms: CSLE, CSCL Computer virus Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A malicious program (malware) that infects another computer program or file and propagates itself when the other program is executed or the file opened, carrying out whatever instructions it has been given. Some viruses are little more than pranks, while others may do extensive damage to a computer’s files and/or wipe hard drives. The most common way computer viruses are spread is through email attachments. Related Terms: Malware Concept mapping Taxonomy: General Citation. Concept mapping is a technique of using visual diagrams for exploring, gathering, sharing, and assessing information. Sources say that it was developed by Joseph D. Novak and his research team at Cornell University in the 1960s and 1970s. Concept maps are networks of concepts. The major categories
CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
of concept maps include spider concept maps, hierarchy concept maps, and flowcharts. There are a variety of such maps. However, a concept map typically consists of nodes that contain a concept; the links are labeled to explain the relationship between the nodes; and the links sometimes use arrow symbols to denote direction. References: Ditson, L. A., Kessler, R., Anderson-Inma, L., & Mafit, D. (2001). Concept-mapping companion. Washington, DC: ISTE. Related Terms: Idea mapping, Brainstorm, Graphic organizers Conceptual model Taxonomy: General Citation. Conceptual model in the relevant content area is described as a particular kind of learning object designed to supply a context that gives learners support for their mental modeling. The term model in this definition means a simplified representation of a real-world process or object. Conceptual models grow in importance, for instance, from the agent-based models, virtual learning environment, and so on. Since conceptual models are described in a formal manner, the information can be difficult to comprehend for users who aren’t familiar with the problem domains. References: Song, L., & Hill, J. R. (2007). A conceptual model for understanding self-directed learning in online environments. Journal of Online Interactive Learning, 1, 27–42. Xu, D. M., Wang, H. Q., & Wang, M. H. (2005). A conceptual model of personalized virtual learning environments. Expert Systems with Applications, 3, 525–34. Related Terms: Collaborative agent system architecture, Multi-agent systems, Mental model Concrete learners Taxonomy: Education Citation. A concrete learner is someone who has difficulty making the shift from the hands-on learning of early childhood to the symbolic world of abstract learning. Most adults are abstract thinkers who study relationships and unseen ideas and use intuition and imagination, while concrete learners record information received from their five senses of sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing, and view things in a tangible, factual, and literal way. All young children are by their nature concrete learners. Children with ADD usually learn better by concrete methods.
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References: Dunn, R. S., & Dunn, K. J. (1998). The complete guide to the learning styles inservice system. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Concrete operational stage Taxonomy: Education Citation. From Jean Piaget’s (Swiss psychologist) theory of cognitive development for humans. This theory is based on the premise that human cognitive development proceeds through four fixed stages: sensorimotor (birth to two years old), preoperational (two to seven years), concrete operational (seven to eleven years), and formal operational (eleven years to adulthood). Stages are sequentially arranged in ascending order, with each depending on the preceding stage. In the concrete operational state of cognitive development, children experience accelerated cognitive growth and begin to reason logically based on a conceptual view of the external world. Abstract thinking emerges on a limited scale, and egocentric forms of thinking, which were prevalent in the preceding preoperational stage, recede. Children develop the ability to classify objects into categories and arrange objects in sequential order in this stage. Further, they begin to solve problems; however, their thinking is linked to the perceived physical world. References: Gredler, M. E. (2004). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational psychology (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Related Terms: Jean Piaget, Theory of cognitive development Conditions of learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. A combined theory for instruction and learning that purports to identify the internal conditions of the learner and the external conditions of the instructional environment required for learning to occur. This theory was created by Robert M. Gagné. The first step in applying the theory is to specify desired learning outcomes, which can be designated as intellectual skills, verbal information, cognitive strategies, motor skills, or attitudes. The second step is to implement an instructional sequence known as the events of instruction that is based on an information processing theory for learning and the associated theoretical mental constructs: the sensory memory, the short-term or working memory, and the long-term memory.
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CONFERENCING
References: Schunk, D. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Related Terms: Instructional design, Learning theory Taxonomy: Education Citation. A set of factors that influence learning. Some conditions are external stimuli while other conditions are internal conditions. According to Gagné (1985), internal conditions are states of mind that the learner brings to the learning task. They are previously learned capabilities of the individual learner. These internal capabilities appear to be a highly important set of factors in ensuring effective learning. In enhancing quality of discussion groups in distance education, instructors need to create both external conditions of learning and internal conditions of learning. Using Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy is a good example of developing external and internal conditions of learning in distance education. Conditions of learning is the learning theory first developed by Robert Gagné that proposes a program for instructional design. References: Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives, the classification of educational goals— Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: McKay. Gagné, Robert M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction. (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. xv, 361 pages. Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A statement of governance related to the proper use of a wide range of products, such as computer software, libraries, movies, music, protocols, recordings, technologies, websites, as well as numerous others. These statements stipulate guidelines for correct use and indicate potential wrong uses. There is often a legal tenor to this term, in that the potential for legal retaliation associated with misuse of products, like illegal copying, is articulated. Related Terms: Terms and conditions of use, Acceptable user policies, End user license agreement Acronyms: AUP, EULA Conferencing Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A generic term that, thanks in large measure to the burgeoning technologies, is defined as formal or informal discussions for the purposes of exchanging opinions or ideas. From an educational perspective, conferencing also involves instruction between a teacher and a student or small group of students. Cur-
rent educational use reflects more of the interchange idea, with the student being an active participant in the discourse as well as a recipient of content. Conferencing has become more widely used as a classification of teaching at a distance. For example, computer conferencing, audio conferencing, teleconferencing, web conferencing, and videoconferencing are all manifestations of the idea that instruction can be delivered not as a one-way didactic presentation but more effectively (especially for adults) as an interchange of ideas. The instructor takes on a more facilitative role; the learner a more active participant role. Conflict resolution Taxonomy: Education Citation. The purposes of conflict resolution are to provide an environment in which learners feel physically and psychologically free from threats and danger and seek out opportunities to work and learn with others for the mutual benefit of all concerned. The diversity of the school’s population is respected and celebrated. Conflict resolution is particularly appropriate in adult education. A report entitled, “Conflict Resolution Education: A Guide to Implementing Programs in Schools, YouthServing Organizations, and Community and Juvenile Justice Settings,” a joint report from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and the Office of Elementary and Secondary Education defines four basic approaches to conflict resolution education: • Process Curriculum. This approach is characterized by teaching conflict resolution as a separate course, a distinct curriculum, or a daily lesson plan. • Mediation Program. Selected individuals (adults and/or students) are trained in the principles of conflict resolution and mediation to provide neutral third-party input to assist others in reaching resolution to a conflict. • Peaceable Classroom. This approach integrates conflict resolution education into the curriculum and classroom management strategy. • Peaceable Schools. Built on the peaceable classroom approach, this strategy uses conflict resolution as a system for managing the school as well as the classroom. • Every member of the school community, including parents, learns conflict resolution principles and processes Connectionism Taxonomy: Education Citation. A movement in a variety of fields, including artificial intelligence, cognitive science, neuroscience,
CONSTRUCTIVISM
and philosophy. Its central tenet is that human intellectual abilities can be described by networks of neurons, considered the most basic building block of the brain. The neuron has six functional properties, including integrating and manipulating input, conducting integrated information, sending output to other neurons or cells, computing/mapping one type of information into another, and forming internal representations in the brain (Dudai, 1989). Networks of neurons are often referred to as neural networks, simplified models of the brain that show connections between units and the relative strength of these connections. These networks may provide a new way “for understanding the nature of the mind and its relation to the brain” (Garson, 2007). There are many different models of connectionism, parallel distributed processing (PDP) models probably being the best-known ones. PDP models have eight essential properties: a set of processing units, a state of activation, an output function for each unit, a pattern of connectivity among units, a propagation rule for propagating patterns of activities through the network of connectivity, an activation rule for combining the inputs impinging on a unit with the current state of that unit to produce a new level of activation for the unit, a learning rule whereby patterns of connectivity are modified by experience, and an environment within which the system must operate. These properties have been reduced and generalized by Bechtel and Abrahamsen (1991) in order to use them to distinguish between various connectionist models. They include the connectivity of units, the activation function of units, the nature of the learning procedure that modifies the connections between units, and how the network is interpreted semantically. References: Bechtel, W., & Abrahamsen, A. (1991). Connectionism and the mind: An introduction to parallel processing in networks. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Dudai, Y. (1989). The neurobiology of memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Garson, J. (2007). Connectionism. In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved May 27, 2008, from plato.stanford.edu/entries/connectionism/. Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L., & PDP Research Group (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed processing, Vol. 1: Foundations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Related Terms: Artificial intelligence, Mental representation, Neural networks Consortium Taxonomy: General Citation. A group of organizations that come together for any one of a number of specific purposes: pooling
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resources, leveraging greater buying power, information sharing, and so forth. Libraries and schools typically form consortia to pool resources such as books and personnel, and electronic resources such as databases or servers, as well as to receive discounted pricing for member organizations. Constructed response Taxonomy: Education Citation. Assessment questions that require the reader to take the data or situation presented, analyze it, and create an answer in written form. Constructed response questions are not any of the following types of responses: multiple-choice answers, answers generated from a word bank, or true/false answers. The essence of a constructed response is that it requires the respondent to generate his or her own ideas. References: NCTE/NCATE. Research project on the Assessment of the Preparation of Teachers English Language Arts. Submitted by the National Council of Teachers of English (2001). Downloaded: July 2009. URL: www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Groups/CEE/ NCATE/NPEAT-FinalReport.pdf. Related Terms: Constructed answers, Open-ended questions, Constructed response questions Acronyms: CRQ Constructionism Taxonomy: Education Citation. A theory or model for learning that includes the ideals of constructivism, but encompasses these ideals within a process of creating an artifact that is public (a model of a volcano, robot, a theory of learning). It is the stepping away from the direct instruction model of learning and the embracing of an approach that engages learners in a rich authentic context that supports the individual in constructing understanding and knowledge. Papert pointed out how oxymoronic it would be to define constructionism, “since after all constructionism boils down to demanding that everything be understood by being constructed” (1991). References: Papert, S. (1991). Situating constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.) Constructionism. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing. Related Terms: Constructivism Constructivism Taxonomy: Education Citation. A theory of knowledge acquisition that contends that individuals actively make meaning based on current knowledge and experiences. Making
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meaning is seen as a cognitive activity that produces mental models that represent perceptions of reality. Representations vary among individuals. In addition, perceptions may or may not be accurate but, over time, will be adjusted to move continually closer to reality. Learning occurs when mental models are adjusted to accommodate or assimilate new experiences. Adjustment takes place as learners interact with others and reflect on new information and experiences. Educators assist students in making connections by scaffolding new information to extend prior mental models and provide opportunities for learners to interact with both content and each other. Constructivist activities revolve around authentic experiences and social interaction. Learning tasks are important to the learner and connect to prior knowledge and experiences. Constructivism emphasizes frequent formative assessment where the teacher acts as facilitator for students as they engage in learning. Constructivist teachers provide multiple representations of content to strengthen mental models. A common misconception is that constructivism is synonymous with active learning or discovery learning. In reality, the umbrella of constructivism covers a variety of strategies that promote high levels of both mental engagement and social interaction. References: Doolittle, P. (1999). Constructivism and online education. Retrieved May 27, 2008, from edpsychserver .ed.vt.edu/workshops/tohe1999/text/doo2s.doc. Fosnot, C. T. (Ed.). (2005). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. Related Terms: Constructivist, Constructivist learning theory Taxonomy: Education Citation. A perspective that considers knowledge as a “construction” according to the particular experiences, ideas, and bias of the learner. Thus knowledge is not granted any external “transcendent” reality, that is, it is not integral, but rather is premised on conventional acceptance perception, assumption, and social experience. It is also a widely held pedagogic theory espoused by many respected researchers and practitioners such as John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Herbert Simon. A theory of learning that views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. That is, learning involves constructing one’s own knowledge from one’s own experiences. A philosophical theory that defines realitybased experiences and individual interpretations of those experiences to construct reality. In education,
constructivism is the concept that requires reflection and connection to a larger reality to be effectively adopted by the learner. Constructivism is a set of assumptions about learning that guide many learning theories and associated teaching methods. This is a theory concerned with learning and knowledge, which suggests that human beings are active learners who construct their knowledge from personal experiences and on their efforts to give meaning to these experiences. This refers to the process whereby perceptual experience is constructed from, rather than being a direct response to the stimulus. This approach to teaching and learning is based on a combination of a subset of research within cognitive psychology and a subset of research within social psychology, just as behavior modification techniques are based on operant conditioning theory within behavioral psychology. The basic premise is that an individual learner must actively “build” knowledge and skills and that information exists within these built constructs rather than in the external environment. Constructivist learning theory Taxonomy: Education Citation. A theory of knowledge acquisition. Constructivist learning theory contends that knowledge is constructed by the learner through mental activity. Learners are actively making meaning, not passively receiving information. Constructivist learning theory is rooted in the work of Dewey and Piaget. Dewey believed that learning is based on experience. He believed that students must be actively involved in authentic experiences to build meaningful learning. Piaget furthered the movement toward constructivist approaches by describing learning as a cognitive process in which learners engage in constructing knowledge. He described learning as the process of assimilating and accommodating new knowledge based on experience. When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing framework without changing that framework. Accommodation, on the other hand, occurs when individuals’ experiences conflict with their mental models. According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one’s mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. Representations vary among individuals as perceptions are subjective. In addition, individual perceptions may or may not be accurate but, over time, will be adjusted to move continually closer to reality. While constructivist learning theory views knowledge acquisition as an individual cognitive event, it recognizes that social and cultural interactions influence cognitive activity. Constructivists emphasize active engagement in which
COOKIES
the learner acts in a social environment and the social environment acts on the learner in order to create new understandings. Educators facilitate the connections between learner and content within a learning community by scaffolding information and providing multiple representations of information. Some specific constructivist strategies include: 1. Advance organizers: motivational and “scaffolding” (understandings that provide a framework for study) activities. 2. Chunking: organizing content into related “chunks,” making it easier to remember. 3. Mnemonics: memory techniques such as “30 days hath September, April, June, and November.” 4. Framing: a technique for organizing content to make it easier to remember. 5. Semantic mapping (or semantic web): a technique for clarifying relationships. (Smith, 2008). References: Doolittle, P. (1999). Constructivism and online education. Retrieved May 27, 2008, from edpsychserver .ed.vt.edu/workshops/tohe1999/text/doo2s.doc. Piaget, J. (1971). Science of education and the psychology of the child. New York: Viking Press. Reiser, R. A., & Dick, W. (1996). Instructional planning. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Smith, K. (2008). Instructional design theory. University of Arizona. Retrieved June 15, 2008, from www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/edp511/isd1.html. Related Terms: Behaviorism, Cognitivist, Constructionist, Directed instruction, Instructional systems design, Learning theory, Constructivism Consulting Taxonomy: General Citation. An ongoing process of two-way communication between client and consultant(s). This process includes identifying and analyzing the client’s needs and problems. Consultants provide a service based on an expertise in a specific skill set. Often the consultant has experience and/or an educational background in the subject. Frequently a company or school will hire a consultant from outside of the organization to provide insight into a situation or provide a needed service. Consumer-to-consumer Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Typically involves electronically facilitated transactions between consumers through some third party. A common example is the online auction, in which a consumer posts an item for sale and other con-
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sumers bid to purchase it. The most common version of this is the popular online auction site eBay. References: Solomon, M. R., Marshall, G. W., & Stuart, E. (2006). Marketing: Real people, real choices (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Related Terms: eCommerce, Business to consumer Acronyms: C2C Continuous presence Taxonomy: General Citation. Continuous presence refers to the display of the video images of participants in a multipoint videoconference and is characterized by images of multiple participating sites being visible throughout the entire conference. In multipoint videoconferences continuous presence settings are generally determined by the multipoint conference unit (MCU) and images are arrayed using split screen configurations. In pointto-point videoconference, continuous presence means that the images of both participants are continually visible and hence the participants are virtually continuously present. Related Terms: Videoconference, Multipoint control unit, Multipoint videoconference Cookies Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A program place on a computer’s hard drive after a user visits a webpage. This program monitors the activities of a user as he or she navigates through the webpage that placed the cookie. This provides the page’s webmaster with information about the site’s users. Other versions of cookies track the activity of computer users during their entire Internet browsing session. Often cookies are placed on a computer by a website to offer users the convenience of stored login information. Cookies are often placed without the knowledge of the user. These are not programs, even though many people think that they have viruses or spyware in them. Instead, cookies consist of information that is sent by the browser to a web server and back. They are very useful because they store information about the website one has visited and make it easier and faster to load the website the next time one visits. Some learning management systems require cookies in order for the user to log in or have access to certain sites. Other applications such as shopping carts used in ecommerce also use cookies. Cookies are used to track web-browsing patterns and behaviors. They are also used to monitor a person’s activities. For that reason, cookies have been held out as examples of how one’s privacy can
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COOPERATIVE LEARNING
be violated in the Internet. Bits or pieces of information stored on a user’s hard drive that are used to help websites better cater to the interests of the web surfer. The information is embedded in the HTML as a text string and is sent between the web server’s and the user’s computers. Cookies are not typically harmful but allow the company’s server to recollect customized information to better serve and improve the experience of the client. References: Caldwell, W. (2003). Computer security sourcebook. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics. Cooperative learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. A variety of learning activities to improve the understanding of a subject by students of different levels of ability. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it. Only under certain conditions can cooperative efforts be expected to be more productive than competitive and individual efforts. The five elements of cooperative learning include: • • • • •
Positive interdependence. Face-to-face interaction. Individual and group accountability. Interpersonal and small group skills. Group processing.
Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members: • Gain from each other’s efforts. • Recognize that all group members share a common fate. • Know that one’s performance is mutually caused by oneself and one’s team members. • Feel proud and jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement. References: Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publishing. Related Terms: Heterogeneous groups Acronyms: CL Taxonomy: Education Citation. One of the best researched of all teaching strategies. The results show that students who have opportunities to work collaboratively learn faster and
more efficiently, have greater retention, and feel more positive about the learning experience. Cooperative learning utilizes small group tenets that call for students of different levels of ability to use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is given responsibility for learning the content material and for helping peers learn as well, creating an atmosphere of both achievement and interpersonal fulfillment. Cooperative efforts often have beneficial side effects that mutually increase from the expended efforts of the team (i.e., the whole is greater than the sum of its parts), from the realization that the team shares a common fate regarding success or failure (i.e., sink or swim), individual performance is mutually inclusive (i.e., the team cannot succeed without everyone’s contribution), and pride in success results from group achievement (i.e., a characteristic to be found later in life). Copyright Taxonomy: General Citation. A name given to a bundle of rights that exists in a work that qualifies for protection under copyright law. Copyright protection exists in an original work from the moment it is fixed in a tangible medium. Copyright law is protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to the authors of “original works of authorship,” including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual works. Federal copyright protection is available to both published and unpublished works. Copyright applications are processed through the Copyright Office of the Library of Congress. References: Kozak, E. (1990). Every writer’s guide to copyright and publishing law. New York: Henry Holt and Company (p. 10, 16). Library of Congress, United States Copyright Office. Copyright basics. Retrieved January 10, 2008, from www.copyright.gov/circs/circ01.pdf. Related Terms: Copyright law, Copyright office Acronyms: © (copyright symbol) Correspondence course Taxonomy: Education Citation. A course offered by a correspondence school that allows students to complete coursework toward a degree or certificate program with material often distributed through a postal service. These programs often are found in technical fields. The coursework is completed independently, at a pace the student determines. Once the coursework is completed it is sent to the correspondence school to be evaluated. In
COURSE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
the current education climate correspondence courses are delivered by radio, cassettes, telephone, television, microcomputer, electronic mail, or satellite. References: Adams, J. (2007). Then and now: lessons from history concerning the merits and problems of distance education. Simile, 7(1), 1. Retrieved April 29, 2008, from Academic Search Premier. Related Terms: Correspondence education Correspondence education Taxonomy: Education Citation. Commonly defined as a method of providing education to nonresident students, who receive lessons and exercises through the mail and, upon completion, return them to the college or university concerned for analysis, criticism, and grading. It is increasingly used by students, business and industry in training programs, men and women in the armed forces, and the governments of many nations as part of their educational programs. It supplements other forms of education and makes independent study programs readily available. Refers to a method in which educational institutions offer a course so a nonresident of the school can participate in a course to earn college credit. Traditional correspondence education takes place through the mail. Students receive lessons from the instructor, and return the lesson upon completion for assessment. Tests, in most cases, must be proctored at an educational institution near the student’s residence. Communication between the instructor and student often occurs through electronic technology media. Course load Taxonomy: Education Citation. The number of courses taken or credits earned within a period of study (semester, term, quarter, etc.). In order to be eligible for financial aid and grants, students may be required to take a minimum number of credits during a semester. At many institutions, a minimum of twelve credits per semester is considered full-time and a minimum of six credits per semester is considered part-time. Students should be advised that dropping a course may change their status from full-time to part-time and may have an effect on future financial aid. Course management system Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. An online portal that is used to assess student work, communicate with students, and collaborate
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either synchronously or asynchronously. A CMS also allows for the blending of activities into the classroom through various tools. For example, a teacher is able to distribute handouts, set assignment deadlines, collect assignments, and give quizzes from one location. A well-developed CMS also has an administrative component that allows teachers to spend more time interacting with students and addressing higher-level thinking skills. Enhanced communication between the teacher and students is another administrative benefit gained from using a CMS. A teacher can distribute material to the class ahead of time, as well as archive previous material, allowing the flexibility for students to work at their own pace or refer back to previous content. Course management systems also assist teachers in assessing student learning. Instant feedback can reinforce learning a lesson being taught and gives the teacher an opportunity to reach a student that may have missed a concept. A useful feature of a CMS is the ability for teachers to easily create quizzes. No programming or HTML knowledge is necessary because the CMS provides a quiz function. An added advantage of the quiz function in a CMS is the ability to offer multiple quizzes and tests for the students to use for practice. The CMS collects, grades, and records the score of the quizzes and tests, saving valuable time for a teacher. With a password, each student can access his or her individual grades. A parent could have a password, as well, to monitor the progress of his or her child by going online at any time of the day. The software, usually web based, is used by colleges and universities, as well as corporations and government, and facilitates distance learning by centralizing the development, management, and distribution of instructional-related information and materials. A CMS provides faculty with a set of tools that allows the easy creation of course content—syllabi, course modules, lecture notes, assignments, tests and quizzes, and so on—and is the framework in which they teach and manage the class. To an online student, a CMS is simply the vehicle by which you, the instructor, and your fellow learners interact using asynchronous discussion boards and live chat tools; access course information and materials; submit assignments; check your grades, and so forth. References: Schmidt, K. (2002). The Web-enhanced classroom. Journal of Industrial Technology, 18(2). Zirkle, C. (2003). Course Web site enhances classroom. Kappa Delta Pi (Winter).
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Courseware Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Functions as a virtual classroom that can either replace the traditional classroom in purely online classes or supplement the traditional classroom in hybrid or strictly on-ground classes. These mostly commercial products furnish instructors with the prepackaged technology that allows them to manage a typical college course within the secured web-based environment, or course shells, without having to create the system from scratch. Instructors can customize their course shells by altering the shell’s appearance, modifying the shell’s organization, and posting course content like lecture notes and assigned readings. Common classroom activities like discussions and exams have been considered by the courseware designers, and the ability to continue these same educational activities in a digital classroom has been built into the software. Instructors can both post asynchronous discussion questions as well as conduct synchronous chats. Timed exams can be given and graded online. Although some aspects of the traditional classroom experience, like face-to-face contact with other students and the faculty, cannot be completely replicated, courseware has created an environment that, for the most part, can serve the same function as a lecture and discussion space for students unable to attend traditional lectures in traditional lecture halls. In effect, courseware provides students with the digital classroom as a single learning space easily accessible from any location at any time. As a result, many distance education programs utilize courseware as the main medium for teaching. Related Terms: Learning management systems, Course management systems Acronyms: LMS, CMS Credit hours Taxonomy: Education Citation. A system of measuring credit by the number of hours spent in class per week, or a numeric measure of academic credit derived from the number of hours spent in class during a semester. Traditionally, this was measured by the amount of time spent in the classroom on a weekly basis. For example, a three-credit class meets for approximately forty-five hours over the course of a semester (i.e., MWF, one hour for fifteen weeks). However, with the alternative course delivery methods, course hours may include equivalent instructional activities—supplement activity performed in lieu of face-to-face learning or hours that are intended to supplement face-to-face contact time. Tuition is typically based on the number of credits taken. These
numeric units (credits) count toward the completion of program requirements Related Terms: Equivalent instructional activities, Credit Acronyms: EIA Criterion-referenced assessment Taxonomy: Education Citation. Assessments that include items that are directly linked to the learning outcomes to be measured. If the learning tasks are easy, then test items will be easy. The difficulty of the assessment is connected only to the difficulty of the learning outcomes. The main goal of the criterion-referenced assessment is to gain an accurate description of the knowledge and skills each student can demonstrate. This information is useful for planning both group and individual instruction. References: Linn, R. L., & Gronlund, N. E. (2000). Measurement and assessment in teaching (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Related Terms: Authentic assessment, Criterionreferenced tests, Learning outcomes, Norm-referenced tests Taxonomy: Education Citation. Assessments that compare student performance to a predetermined set of standards or criteria. Each student’s performance is independent of the performance of his or her peers. Criterion-referenced tests are effective tools to measure the expertise of a student in a given subject or task. Criterion-referenced assessments are developed from a well-defined set of standards or criteria. Student performance is compared to these standards to determine achievement levels. Criteria are based on operational domains (such as cognitive, psychomotor, and affective) and the level of expertise that is expected of the performer. In designing an instructional program, not every task or content area must be mastered to the same level of expertise for the student to successfully reach the goal of the instructional unit. The standard is set in relation to the importance of the skill to succeeding at the program goal. Criterion is often misinterpreted as a synonym for cut-off score. Cut-off scores indicate the level of success that will be accepted by a given program. Since program passing levels can be set at any given point for a given assessment, this implies that criteria are variable. This is incorrect. The criterion represents a specific standard; the cut-off score is the value that is
CRITICAL REFLECTION
attached to that standard. Cut-off scores for criterion are sometimes called criterion levels. The domain levels determine the type of assessment that is most appropriate for the given standard. For example, a requirement that a student list the procedural steps in changing a flat tire is a lower-level cognitive task. Requiring that the student actually change a flat tire is a higher-order task. Lower-level tasks (such as recall) may be effectively evaluated using objective style tests. Higher-order tasks (such as application skills) are often best assessed using qualitative measures such as observations and performance exams. It is possible to design a criterion-referenced assessment that tests higher-order skills using an objective format but the further the assessment is removed from the actual performance, the greater the concern with validity. One method of clarifying these terms is to consider them in relation to the performer. The criterion is what the performer will be able to do. The domain level is the mastery that the performer will exhibit when he performs the required action. The criterion level is the level of expertise that is required by the specific program. References: Bott, P. A. (1996). Testing and assessment in occupational and technical education. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Related Terms: Mastery learning, Standards-based learning Taxonomy: Education Citation. Students tested on performance standards or specific learning objectives. Criteria for the test questions in this form of assessment are predetermined. The standards for passing are explained to the student prior to taking the test. With this form of test, students only compete against themselves as opposed to being part of a norm group of students either nationally or locally. References: Massachusetts Department of Education System for Adult Basic Education Support. Glossary of useful terms. Retrieved February 11, 2008, from www .sabes.org/assessment/glossary.htm. Related Terms: Learning objectives, Norm-reference assessment, Standards Critical content Taxonomy: Education Citation. Content or skills that would prevent the student from progressing to a more advanced understand-
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ing or proficiency if that content was not mastered. This content forms the core of the instructional design. Since mastering these skills or concepts is critical to all future success, these skills must be included in the design of student assessment tools. Critical content skills should be assessed on a dichotomous scale. Partial mastery of these skills is not likely to support the student as she moves to more complex material. These are the points in the curriculum that require remediation activities. Critical content is identified by performing a procedural analysis or a knowledge analysis. The intended outcome of the instructional program is broken into hierarchical components that are reviewed to determine which parts of the system are essential to success. Additional concerns can sometimes affect this analysis. In career and technical education, any skill that would result in physical injury if not successfully performed would also be a critical content point. Related Terms: Task analysis, Job analysis Critical reflection Taxonomy: Education Citation. The process of thinking about a previous experience or event. A key concept in transformative learning is critical reflection. Jack Mezirow identified and popularized three types of reflection: content reflection (an examination of the content or description of a problem), process reflection (checking on the problem-solving strategies), and premise reflection (questioning the problem). In general, transformative learning can be defined as individuals’ meaningmaking perspectives being transformed through a process of construing and appropriating new or revised interpretations of the meaning of an experience as a guide to awareness, feeling, and action. The three types of reflection relating to what, how, and why questions, in most cases, predetermine a learner’s level of reflectivity. The types of reflection interact with one another via what Confucius describes as “inner digging and drilling” to deepen one’s knowledge of the self or what Mezirow describes as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of one’s perspectives to “make meaning.” References: Wang, V. C. X. (2004/2005). Adult education reality: Three generations, different transformation, the impact of social context, three generations of Chinese adult learners. Perspectives: The New York Journal of Adult Learning, 3(1), 17–32. Wang, V. C. X., & King, K. P. (2007). Understanding Mezirow’s theory of reflectivity from Confucian perspectives: A model and perspective. In K. P.
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King & V. C. X. Wang (Eds.), Comparative adult education around the globe: International portraits and readings of the history, practice, philosophy, and theories of adult learning (pp. 253–75). Hong Zhou: Zhejiang University Press. Related Terms: Critical thinking, Silent reflection, Perspective transformation Acronyms: CR Critical thinking Taxonomy: Education Citation. “Critical thinking and thinking skills are terms used to connote problem solving and related behaviors . . . [and that they are forms] of intelligence that can be taught” (Paul, 1992). Paul contends that there are two crucial parts to critical thinking. He posits, “Critical thinking is not just thinking, but thinking which entails self-improvement” (para. 3). In order for this to occur, there must be a metacognitive component to what is happening in the classroom. Students must not only be thinking, they must be thinking about what they are thinking; they must be thinking about how they are thinking; and they must be thinking about why they are thinking what they are thinking. This is the very nature of scientific inquiry. The National Science Education Standards (NSES) even includes critical thinking as a fundamental ability that underlies Content Standard A: Science as Inquiry (National Research Council, 1996). The standards indicate that students should be able to think critically and logically to make the relationships between evidence and explanations. In order to prepare lessons that guide students through the critical thinking process, and to provide subsequent practice, it is imperative that teachers have an understanding of that process and are able to recognize its characteristics. Robert Ennis, as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins (2004), proposes thirteen attributes of critical thinkers, which may assist teachers in their lesson planning. Critical thinkers tend to: 1. Be open-minded. 2. Take a position (or change a position) when the evidence calls for it. 3. Take into account the entire situation. 4. Seek information. 5. Seek precision in information. 6. Deal in an orderly manner with parts of a complex whole. 7. Look for options. 8. Search for reasons. 9. Seek a clear statement of the issue. 10. Keep the original problem in mind. 11. Use credible sources.
12. Remain relevant to the point. 13. Exhibit sensitivity to the feelings and knowledge level of others. (p. 120) These critical thinking behaviors can be introduced, encouraged, and practiced in the classroom, but only if students are given opportunities to explore, to investigate, to inquire, and to respond. In order for this to materialize, children should encounter content through a variety of experiences that actively engage them in the construction and pursuit of ideas, the crafting and implementation of action plans, and the evaluation and interpretation of their results. Support for this position is found in the NSES (NRC, 1996), which states, “Inquiry into authentic questions generated from student experiences is the central strategy for teaching science” (p. 31). Furthermore, Donovan and Bransford (2005), in their publication How Students Learn: Science in the Classroom, assert that learning experiences need to develop from firsthand concrete experience and that “students need opportunities to learn and inquire in the discipline [of science]” (p. 512). This same school of thought applies to all disciplines. References: Donovan, M. S., & Bransford, J. D. (Eds.). (2005). How students learn: Science in the classroom. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. National Research Council [NRC]. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum foundations, principles and issues. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Paul, R. (1992). Critical thinking: Basic questions and answers. Foundation for Critical Thinking. Retrieved April 29, 2007, from www.criticalthinking .org. Taxonomy: Education Citation. According to the Foundation for Critical Thinking “critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.” It requires making judgments on evidence and being open-minded when analyzing or interpreting an issue or situation. Critical thinking goes beyond comprehension requiring the individual to examine issues and problems, taking a closer look with a more reflective approach. In the realm of teaching and learning, course
CURRICULUM
content should be taught through thinking and not content and then thinking. References: Foundation for Critical Thinking. Defining critical thinking, Retrieved June 26, 2008, from www .criticalthinking.org/aboutCT/define_critical_think ing.cfm. Related Terms: Creative thinking, Inquiry Taxonomy: Education Citation. The ability to consciously examine the elements of one’s own reasoning abilities, to assess another’s abilities, or to evaluate any reasoning against universal intellectual standards for clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, and logic. Critical thinking has five important components: skill, responsibility, sound criteria, sensitivity to context, and self-correction. Cultural diversity Taxonomy: General Citation. Includes the differing values, characters, beliefs, behaviors, and customs that direct an individual’s actions in life. Specifically, cultural diversity refers to the differences associated with social constructs that include gender, race, environment, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, religion, and social class. These constructs are considered forms of cultural diversity and each diverse variable/construct interrelates to influence behavior and attitude. References: Dein, S. (2006). Race, culture and ethnicity in minority research: A critical discussion. Journal of Cultural Diversity, 13, 68–75. Sheets, R. H. (2005). Diversity pedagogy: Examining the role of culture in the teaching-learning process. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. Related Terms: Culture, Diversity, Multicultural diversity Curriculum Taxonomy: Education Citation. A planned experience a learner or learners experience while undergoing a program of study. Such planned experience should be supported by learning theories and research evidence. Curriculum is related to instruction; therefore, curriculum must contain plans for methods of instruction, technological resources needed to implement the curriculum, and strategies for evaluating learning outcomes. References: Popham, W. J., & Baker, E. L. (1970). Systematic instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, p. 48.
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Saylor. J. G., Alexander, W. M., & Lewis. A. J. (1981). Curriculum planning for better teaching and learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, p. 8. Related Terms: Course of study, Program of study, Lesson plan Taxonomy: Education Citation. In its most basic sense, curriculum is a course, or set of courses, across a program, including its content. These courses are generally offered by an educational institution to develop its student body and consist of planned educational experiences. In addition to educational settings such as schools and universities, many businesses and corporations also offer curriculum in various subjects to further its staff’s development. Curriculum is usually a set of courses constituting an area of specialization. This can be a grade-level curriculum (e.g., second grade), or a subset of curricula within that grade (e.g., reading, mathematics, science). At the level of higher education it could include content for a specific course/subject, or a programwide curricula (e.g., courses required for attaining a bachelor’s degree in business administration). In a corporate training sense, curricula could include seminars to develop staff or faculty in areas important to best practices of that organization (e.g., safety, avoiding sexual harassment, or diversity training). Additionally, curriculum can also be described as an instructional approach or methodology. Schubert (1986) states that “a quick survey of a dozen curriculum books would be likely to reveal a dozen different images or characterizations of curriculum. . . . To analyze and discuss all of the images that have been advanced would be a massive undertaking, since more than eleven hundred curriculum books have been written in the present century. . . . What can be done more economically is to categorize major conceptions of curriculum: (a) curriculum as content or subject matter, (b) curriculum as a program of planned activities, (c) curriculum as intended learning outcomes, (d) curriculum as cultural reproduction, (e) curriculum as discrete tasks and concepts, (f) curriculum as an agenda for social reconstruction, and (g) curriculum as ‘currere’ (interpretation of lived experience)” (Todd, 2008). According to Cornbleth (1990), “Curriculum construction is an ongoing social activity that is shaped by various contextual influences within and beyond the classroom and accomplished interactively, primarily by teachers and students. The curriculum is not a tangible product but the actual, day-to-day interactions
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of students, teachers, knowledge, and milieu. The curriculum encompasses what others have called curriculum practice or the curriculum-in-use. Curriculum as product or object, the conventional view, is seen as one aspect of the context that shapes curriculum practice” (Todd, 2008). References: Cornbleth, C. (1990) Curriculum in context, Basingstoke: Falmer Press. Schubert, W. H. (1986). Curriculum: Perspective, paradigm, and possibility. NY: Macmillan Publishing Company. Todd, E. (2008). Curriculum development and instructional planning. Nederland, Texas. Nederland Ind. School District, p. 2. Retrieved June 14, 2008, from www.coe.ufl.edu/Courses/TODD/Curriculum.html. Related Terms: Content, Content criteria, Content objectives, Curricula (plural of curriculum), Instructional approaches, Learning outcomes, Planned instruction format, Program of activities, Subject matter Taxonomy: Education Citation. “A written plan outlining what students will be taught (a course of study). Curriculum documents also include detailed directions or suggestions for teaching the content. Curriculum may refer to all the courses offered at a given school, or all the courses offered at a school in a particular area of study. For example, the English curriculum might include English literature, literature, world literature, essay styles, creative writing, business writing, Shakespeare, modern poetry, and the novel. The curriculum of an elementary school usually includes language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, and other subjects.” References: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (2008). A lexicon of learning: What educators mean when they say . . . “curriculum.” Retrieved from www.ascd.org/Publications/Lexicon_ of_Learning/C.aspx. Related Terms: Course of study, Syllabus, Program of study Taxonomy: Education Citation. Curriculum can be defined broadly as an organized course of study or any educational experience. Much more specific definitions identify particular classes students must take in a course of study as well as standards, objectives, goals, learning activities, outcomes, assessments, and resources for those classes. Although the United States, unlike other countries, does not designate a national curriculum, American school curricula are created from a sense of what is
appropriate to teach, often stemming from national education concerns and the United States Department of Education’s programs. References: Kliebard, H. M. (2004). The struggle for the American curriculum 1893–1958 (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2004). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (4th ed.). New York: Pearson Education, Inc. Related Terms: Core curriculum, Instructional development, Learning activities, Unit of study Cyber academy Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Also known as a cyber school or virtual school, the cyber academy is a descendent of socalled correspondence schools that provided students the opportunity to complete academic courses on their own time, corresponding with instructors via postal mail and/or telephone. A cyber academy is a school that is not bound by the limits that time and place put on teaching and learning in brickand-mortar schools. Instead, all of its functions are handled online. School and class/course sizes can vary greatly, and there is a wide variety of instructional and enrollment models. Advantages of cyber academies include the possibility to learn anywhere and anytime at your own pace, and have access to a wide variety of digital materials to enhance learning. However, for a student at a cyber academy to be successful, he or she needs to be highly self-motivated to participate in the learning process, as learning in such a digital environment is much more studentcentered and student-initiated. Related Terms: Cyber school, Online learning, Virtual school Cyberbully Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Bullies often seen on the schoolyard are now taking their behavior online. A definition of cyberbullying involves a child, preteen, or teen who is tormented, threatened, harassed, humiliated, embarrassed, or targeted by another child, preteen, or teen through the Internet, interactive and digital technologies, or mobile phones. Methods used to cyber bully one another are limited by the person’s imagination and access to technology. Cyberbullying can involve sending threatening or vulgar email messages or images, posting sensitive or personal information about another person online, pretending to be someone else to make a child or teen look bad, or intention-
CYBERINFRASTRUCTURE
ally excluding someone from a group. Furthermore, children, preteens, and teens often change roles in these situations. A child could start off as being the bully harassing another child, and later become the victim when friends of the harassed child or outsiders become involved. References: Kowalski, R. M., Limber, S. P., & Agaston, P. W. (2008). Cyber bullying: Bullying in the digital age. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishers. Willard, N. E. (2007). Cyberbullying and cyberthreats: Responding to the challenge of online social aggression, threats, and distress. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Related Terms: Cyberbullies Cyber charter schools Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Cyber charter schools are diploma-granting institutions that, much like bricks-and-mortar charter schools, offer students a full-time alternative to traditional public schools. The curricula and instruction are delivered via computers and the Internet. Students can learn at their own pace, in a variety of environments (typically the home environment), and can engage in many classes at any time of day. Cyber charter schools are the technology-based version of charter schools. Charter schools operate on state department of education approved charters that utilize public funding. Charter schools began with Act 22 in 1997. Cyber charter schools present most, if not all, of their lessons through technology, which offers flexibility of time for the students. Technology is often delivered via a learning management system (LMS) such as Blackboard or WebCT that provides the instructor an online space to organize, disseminate, and assess his or her lessons. These schools utilize technology such as threaded discussions, videoconferencing, podcasting, and discussion threads in their classes. The schools are required to meet all federal laws and regulations, including the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). If the schools do not meet the goals that are established when they gain their charter, the school’s charter can be revoked. They can offer innovative curricula delivered in both synchronous and asynchronous formats. Cyber charter schools provide an alternative to the more traditional brick-and-mortar schools. Related Terms: Act 22, Charter schools, Learning management system, No Child Left Behind, Synchronous learning, Asynchronous learning, Podcasting, Brick-and-mortar school Acronyms: LMS, NCLB
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Cyberinfrastructure Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Cyberinfrastructure refers to the array of high-speed networks and advanced computational resources, applications, and expertise that connect researchers and educators around the world in a new digital environment for discovery and education. The encompassing definition of cyberinfrastructure also includes an array of complementary resources such as software services, tools, identity services (middleware), information resources, digitally enabled sensors, instruments, and virtual organizations. This infrastructure links colleges and universities, government agencies, and private companies into a knowledge grid that is generating major advances across a variety of fields. The term was used by a United States National Science Foundation (NSF) blue-ribbon committee in 2003. References: Broad, M. C. (2008). Realizing the promise of cyberinfrastructure. EDUCAUSE Review, 43(4). Retrieved August 26, 2008, from www.educause.edu/ EDUCAUSE+Review/EDUCAUSEReviewMag azineVolume43/RealizingthePromiseofCyber infr/163063 Report of the National Science Foundation BlueRibbon Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure. Retrieved August 28, 2008, from www.nsf.gov/od/ oci/reports/toc.jsp. Related Terms: Cyberenvironments, eScience, Internet2 Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The term cyberinfrastructure basically falls into two categories. The first one relates to the creation of the term by the U.S. National Science Foundation in 2003. The main goal was to remove obstacles that lessened the collaboration between researchers in the evaluation of rapidly increasing network technologies. It is the coordination of supercomputers, high-speed advanced networks, and large-scale data repositories to increase scientific and advanced research in the twentyfirst century. The main outcome behind cyberinfrastructure is to increase collaboration between researchers and scientists to assist in solving many of the problems faced by humankind. For example, climate change, black holes, healthcare delivery, and other pressing and urgent problems may be solved by increased improvements in information technology, more sophisticated software, visualization tools, and improved communications between groups working on these pressing problems. The term cyberinfrastructure also is discussed in another context when the government discusses protecting the
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nation’s critical infrastructure. It is assumed that any future attacks on U.S. soil would include attacks on the critical infrastructure, for example, the electric grid, transportation systems, the water supply, and our means of electronic communications between these important strategic resources. Taken together these two definitions of cyberinfrastrucutre include protection mechanisms in case of attack on any of the different areas of the U.S. infrastructure and the electronic communications within the United States. References: National Science Foundation. (2007). National Science Foundation Office of Cyberinfrastructure Vision for 21st Century Discovery. Retrieved January 27, 2008, www.nsf.gov/pubs/2007/nsf0728/nsf0728_4.pdf. Related Terms: eScience, Critical infrastructure protection Cyberlaw Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Indicates various laws and regulations that affect and govern issues with the use of electronic technology, most notably the Internet. Cyberlawyers try to apply their skills to current law in the Internet age. The field in which cyberlaw is applicable is large due to the unique nature of the Internet, and the many areas where it can be applied. Privacy, freedom of speech, and contracts are just some forms of activities that take on new meaning when used in cyberspace. Further, cyberlaws must address traditional criminal activity such as fraud and intellectual property rights when they are done electronically, for example, over the Internet. A major problem with cyberlaw is the jurisdiction issues. In the world of electronic communications, whose jurisdiction is it to prosecute a crime, and criminal activity is not the same worldwide, so different standards and punishments may apply. This jurisdiction issue borders on national sovereignty rights that many countries will not give up. Further, in other countries there may be severe penalties for violations of cyberactivity: the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Iran, and China have strict punishments for their citizens who violate published acceptable behaviors on the Internet. There are several laws in the United States that try to regulate the behavior with electronics communications, including the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (1998), the CAN-SPAM Act (2003), the Deleting Online Predators Act (2006), and many others; their success has had mixed results. References: Cyberlaw Times. (2007). Cyber law news: Cyber law statutes. Retrieved January 22, 2008, from www .cyberlawtimes.com/. Related Terms: Cyberspace law
Cyberpsychology Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Traditional psychology for the past century has dealt with the exploration and behaviors of individuals and the experiences they feel, such as thinking, feeling, addictions, and so forth. However, as society moves into the twenty-first century, and as many consider the digital age, these behaviors (e.g., addictions) are focused online, that is, the Internet. This new form of research seeks to uncover, explain, and identify individuals’ experiences as they move in the world of online living through various means such as email, chat rooms, blogs, websites, and so forth. This field of study links the study of the mind and behavior with that of the human-technology interaction, and seeks to explain this new phenomenon as it applies to the online world. A computer was always thought of as a tool; however, it is becoming clearer that a computer in many aspects is more than a tool, it serves as a portal to an increasing audience that could range in the millions, and the interactions that individuals could have with other individuals would have never been conceivable without this tool, and in many cases, computers, through the concepts of virtual reality, artificial intelligence, and so on, are now being looked at as an extension of the human mind, and as such, needs to be studied in much the same way traditional psychology has been for years and used to identify and explain individuals’ behavior patterns in this new online world. References: Suler, J. (2007). The psychology of cyberspace. Rider University, Department of Psychology. Retrieved January 30, 2008, from www-usr.rider.edu/~suler/ psycyber/psycyber.html. Related Terms: Online psychology, Cyberbullying, Second life
Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The study of the mind and behaviors of humans, both as individuals and as groups, as they interact with emerging technologies applied particularly to the Internet and cyberspace. Some research topics include online identity, personality types in cyberspace, Internet addiction, online dating, gender switching online, education, online self-help, and direct treatment. References: Gordo-López, J., & Parker, I. (1999). Cyberpsychology. New York: Routledge. Related Terms: Cyberspace
DASHBOARD
Cyber schools Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Cyber schools are typically full-time alternatives to traditional bricks-and-mortar schools. Key characteristics that all cyber schools share include some kind of online curriculum, guidance from a facilitator (either in person or via synchronous communication technologies), and performance tracking for students. The key component that distinguishes a cyber school from a cyber charter school is an administrative designation. Cyber schools offer a full-time alternative to traditional classroom instruction, but can be owned and operated by the same institution that oversees classroom instruction. Cyber charter schools offer a similar (if not identical) alternative to classroom instruction—but students receive a diploma from the cyber charter school. A third approach called a blended learning environment is often confused with cyber schools because a typical blended learning environment has many of the same operational characteristics as cyber schools and/or cyber charter schools. The key difference that separates blended learning environments from both types of cyber schools is that blended learning environments are designed to fit within, and complement, educational systems that utilize traditional classroom instruction. Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A cyber school combines visionary leadership and the highest-quality distance learning curriculum available today to provide an innovative, highly effective education for students. In many cases a cyber school is a state-approved public charter school. The curriculum provided is K–12, and is accessed via an online format such as Blackboard. In addition students will still experience many of the traditional methods, with materials—including books, CDs, and even bags of rocks and dirt—delivered right to the family’s doorstep. The instructional process at a cyber school consists of a student who will log into the school website during the school year to access his or her courses. Each student receives an individual program of instruction. Courses are taught by highly qualified teachers, who personally select curriculum used in the course. Students receive both textbooks and online materials. Students interact daily with their teachers, who create lessons and provide feedback and support for all schoolwork. References: Jones, G. (2006). Cyberschools. Cyber Publishing Group, Inc. Related Terms: Online learning, Cyberlearning
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Cyberstalking Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Cyberstalking has many definitions, but it primarily means initiating threatening or unwanted advances directed at another person using the Internet and other forms of online communication. Stalking laws vary by state. Some only require credible threats of violence against the victim, while others require that the stalker’s course of conduct include an direct threat. A common misperception exists about cyberstalking. Because physical contact is not involved, people assume that cyberstalking is less harmful than physical stalking. Some similarities between online and offline stalking is that the stalking usually occurs between two known parties, most victims are women and stalkers are men, and stalkers are motivated by the desire to control the victim. Differences include the unlimited geographical boundaries for stalking to occur online, the ability to get third parties involved to harass and/or threaten the victim, and the diminished barriers to harassment that allows stalking to intensify more quickly and abundantly. References: Bocij, P. (2004). Cyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet age and how to protect your family. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. National Center for Victims of Crime. (2008). Cyberstalking. Retrieved May 10, 2008, from www.ncvc .org/ncvc/main.aspx?dbName=DocumentViewer& DocumentID=32458. Related Terms: Cyberbully Dashboard Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Refers to a type of graphical user interface (GUI) that is a visualization of important information for computer functioning. The dashboard is a user interface that visually resembles the dashboard on a car. It visually organizes functions in an easy-tounderstand way and is interactive. References: SAP. (2008). SAP integrates pilot software into SAP solutions for performance management. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from www.sap.com/usa/about/press/ pilotsoftware/index.epx. SearchCIO.com. (2008). Definitions, “dashboard.” Retrieved June 23, 2008, from searchcio.techtarget .com/sDefinition/0,,sid182_gci804078,00.html. Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A control panel on a computer screen that utilizes a software application to allow instantaneous
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DATABASE
use of multiple inlets of data. Consolidates information to one main panel and allows the user to click on tools to access the common area of many databases. Often designed for use in the private sector or industry. Similar to the dashboard of a vehicle. References: Search Unified Communications.com. (2008). Definitions, “real-time communications dashboard.” Retrieved June 22, 2008, from searchunifiedcom munications.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid186_ gci1311744,00.html. Related Terms: Unified communications Acronyms: RTC, RTCD Database Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A collection of related data. The data are known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning. A database management system (DBMS) is a software package/system used to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a computerized database. A database system is the DBMS software together with the data itself. There are many types of databases stemming from their application: numerical and textual databases, multimedia databases, geographic information systems (GIS), data warehouses, and real-time and active databases. The multimedia databases are used to store and manage audio and video data. GIS stores and manages spatial data. Data warehouses are used for data mining. Real-time and active databases are used to store and manage time series and historical data. Other types of databases are based on the technology used in the DBMS and the world perspective used to build the database: the hierarchical, network, or relational models. References: Elmasri, R., & Navathe, S. (2004). Fundamentals of database systems (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education. Related Terms: Data, Database management system, Database system Acronyms: DB Data-based decision making Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Data-based decision making must begin with accurate data collection. If the data is not clear, it cannot be correctly organized or used to make the most effective choices. When the data collection has been completed, the end result is a way to decide what policies and procedures would be most beneficial by using actual results from the data.
References: Marsh, J. A., Pane, J. F., & Hamilton, L. S. (2006). Making sense of data-driven decision making in education: Evidence from recent RAND research. RAND. www.rand.org/pubs/occasional_papers/ 2006/RAND_OP170.pdf. Related Terms: Data-driven decision making, Action plan Acronyms: DBDM, DDDM Data gathering Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The process of collecting data of software measures to help improve an educational process. The purposes of data gathering include characterization (e.g., describing weaknesses and strengths), assessment (e.g., evaluating program effectiveness), evaluation (e.g., examining the quality of the educational process or learner outcomes), control, prediction, and improvement. Data is most effectively gathered according to specific objectives and a plan. Data gathered without a clear objective is unlikely to be useful. The choice of data to be gathered is based on a model or hypothesis about the process being examined, and the data gathering process must consider its impact on the entire organization, since it can be very expensive and time-consuming. Finally, effective data gathering has management support. Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Data gathering or data collection is the process of accumulating raw data to inform a research question or project. The process can be the result of a formal research investigation, and can be obtained through qualitative or quantitative methodologies. Examples of data gathering instruments include surveys or guided interviews. The raw data is frequently loaded into a database for analysis. References: National Center for Education Statistics. (1991). Standards for Education Data Collection and Reporting (SEDCAR). Retrieved August 29, 2008, from nces .ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=92022. Salkind, N. J. (2003). Exploring Research (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, p. 7. Related Terms: Data collection, Database, Database management, Data warehouse Data mining Taxonomy: Technology Citation. This field of study is at the confluence of database technology, machine learning, and statistics. It studies how to automate or partially automate
DESKTOP VIDEOCONFERENCING
(with a person in-the-loop) the efficient discovery of patterns in data. For example, from shopping basket data, it might be discovered that people who purchase product A generally purchase product B; these two products could then be displayed close to one another. Data mining techniques are generally used for efficient knowledge discovery in a database environment. While early techniques were developed for business environments, this field has expanded to discovering knowledge in the plethora of data being generated continuously by scientific instruments, such as satellite data, sensor data, and stock market data. Also known as knowledge discovery in databases (KDD), which is the process of automatically searching large volumes of data for patterns. Data mining is a fairly recent and contemporary topic in computing. Acronyms: KDD Dedicated line Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A telecommunications path between two points, available twenty-four hours a day, by designated users such as individuals or organizations. Dedicated telephone lines are usually leased for a specific term between specific points on a network, to provide certain services. Dedicated lines have increasingly been replaced with the growth of the Internet and the development of intranets. References: Wikipedia. dedicated line. Retrieved from en.wikipedia .org/wiki/Dedicated_line. Related Terms: Nonswitched line, Private line Default extension Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A file suffix appended to the end of the file name that indicates the format or usage of a file. It is the extension that data is saved to if no other file extension is selected (i.e., Microsoft Word by default will save its documents as .doc files). If a program recognizes that file extension, that program can be used to open or otherwise use or run the file. All programs and almost all data files use extensions, which are separated from the file name with a dot. Examples include: .exe—executable program .com—command file (program) .doc—Microsoft Word or WordPerfect document file .xls—Microsoft Excel file .pdf—portable document file (Adobe Acrobat), displayable with a web browser
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.c—C source code program .txt—ASCII text-formatted data .sas—SAS program file .wpd, .wp—WordPerfect for Windows document file .dll—Dynamic-link library file Delay Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Delay is the amount of time between the sending and receipt of an item. In two-way, or real-time communications technologies (telephone, videoconference, etc.) small delays may not impede communications but longer delays can render communications unproductive or completely destroy them. Network architects use quality of service measures to ensure minimum delays to some services. A maximum level of delay for successful communications is subjective. Some experts maintain that 200 milliseconds is the maximum, while others say up to half a second is acceptable. Related Terms: Real-time communications, Quality of service Desktop publishing Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Digital page layout is performed incorporating text and graphic files. Graphic files consist of photographic images and line art that are created in image editing (raster) or digital illustration (vector) applications and imported or placed in the page layout application. Page layouts are checked (preflight) before final printing. Preflight is a checklist process that is used to find errors in digital file setups before the printing process begins. Proofing is performed using low-resolution laser prints or high-quality contract proofs made from high-resolution film output. Final output can consist of a combination of deliverables including high-resolution film output for the purpose of making printing plates, laser or inkjet prints, or files sent direct to a digital printing press. References: Muir, P. (2000). Preflight: Avoiding costly printout problems through proper file preparation. San Diego: Windsor. Related Terms: Digital publishing, Electronic publishing, Prepress, Digital page layout, On demand publishing Acronyms: DTP Desktop videoconferencing Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A more economical option than traditional videoconferencing, with minimal initial investment
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DIALOGUE
and little ongoing maintenance as some programs can be freely downloaded from the Internet. Desktop videoconferencing is less place and time dependent as the learner can use it on his or her personal computer at home or work and can be Internet or intranet based. Internet-based videoconferencing uses the Internet as its major data carrier. An important note about desktop videoconferencing is that data can be delayed due to Internet congestion and latency. Thus, bandwidth and latency are two major problems facing Internet-based videoconferencing. Videoconferencing-based student consultation can be a more academically and economically viable option compared with telephone consultation. Instead of picking up a phone, the student can invite his or her teacher online to answer questions more effectively with built-in conferencing functions such as the Whiteboard, Sharing, and File Transfer. References: Passmore, G., & Goodman, W. (2005). Augmenting the teacher-training model with desktop videoconferencing. In P. Kommers & G. Richards (Eds.), Proceedings of world conference on educational multimedia, hypermedia and telecommunications 2005 (pp. 2684–89). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Wang, Y. (2004). Distance language learning: Interactivity and fourth generation Internet-based videoconferencing. CALICO Journal, 21(2), 373–95. Dialogue Taxonomy: General Citation. Dialogue is something more than and different from ordinary conversation. It differs from discussion by not being aimed at browbeating or convincing other participants in the conversation. The purpose of the dialogue is described as that of extending the boundaries, reaching further than the individual person can do unaided. In a dialogue one is not out to prevail over others; in a well-conducted dialogue everybody wins. Dialogue conversation is difficult and demands a competence that requires practice for most learners. Dialogue for the purpose of learning is based on different people having different ways of looking at things, different perspectives, because they have led different lives and acquired personal experience. In dialogue, that we think and feel more or less differently is both a precondition and an obstacle. Another important factor is the way in which the dialogue is conducted and how conscious the participants are of the role they themselves are playing in it. The electronic dialogue, like the face-to-face (f2f) variety, can be improved by the participants developing their dialogue competence.
Dialogue is understood as a normative ideal, comparable to Habermas’s concept of the ideal speech situation and to the concept of discourse in Mezirow’s transformation theory. In the context of transformation theory the use of dialogue is devoted to searching for a common understanding and assessment of the justification of an interpretation or belief. References: Fåhræus, E. R., & Döös, M. (2007). Competent Web dialogue: Thoughts linked in digital conversations. International Journal of Information and Communications Technology Education, 3(3), 14–24. Wilhelmson, L. (2002). On the theory of transformative learning. In A. Bron & M. Schemmann (Eds.), Social science theories in adult education research. Bochum Studies in International Adult Education, 3, 180–210. Münster: LIT Verlag. Related Terms: Conversation, Dialogue competence, Discussion Dial-up teleconference Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A telephone-based conference organized by a central switchboard or telephone to accommodate multiple callers. References: Willis, B. (Ed.). (1994). Distance education: Strategies and tools. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, Inc. Differentiated content Taxonomy: Education Citation. What the instructor wants the students to learn and the materials or mechanisms through which that is accomplished; the subject matter being taught; content is what we teach; input. Content is what a student should come to know, understand, and be able to do as a result of a given segment of study. Encompasses the means by which students will become acquainted with information (through textbooks, supplemental readings, videos, field trips, speakers, demonstrations, lectures, or computer programs). Content is differentiated when you preassess students’ skills and knowledge, then match learners with appropriate activities according to readiness, when you give students choices about topics to explore in greater depth, and when you provide students with basic and advanced resources that match their current levels of understanding.
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
References: Northey, S. (2003). Handbook on differentiated instruction. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education. Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Related Terms: Differentiating input, Differentiating subject matter Acronyms: DC Differentiated instruction Taxonomy: Education Citation. Today’s teachers need to meet the needs of a wide variety of students with physical, mental, emotional, and behavioral challenges, who may be in the same class with students who come from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds, are English language learners (ELL), are gifted, or who may simply be typical learners. By differentiating in the areas of interest, learning profile, or learning ability, teachers can help to bridge the learning gap. Through differentiated instruction, students can learn and demonstrate their knowledge in the way that best suits their individual needs. Teachers can differentiate through content, process, and product. Content includes the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that students should learn in class. To meet this need, teachers differentiate the ways that students take in information. For example, the teacher may present instruction via technology or in a hands-on way. Process includes implementation of the activities and strategies. Teachers can choose to differentiate the ways that students interpret and make sense of the information in order to meet students’ needs in the area of processing. The teacher may encourage students to work in small groups, complete web quests, or perform work based on an agreed upon individualized learning contract with the student. Product is how students demonstrate their learning. Providing choices through a variety of projects and other ways of exhibiting understanding from creating dioramas to dramatic presentations can differentiate the product. Differentiated instruction also includes other techniques such as flexible grouping, anchor activities for students who have finished their regular work, and tiered instruction (i.e., teachers create the lesson plan for the typical student and then extend or remediate it). By differentiating instruction, teachers can better meet the needs of their students. Related Terms: Inclusion, Special education, Socioeconomic status, Learning profile, Process, Product, Content, Learning contract Acronyms: SES, ELL
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Taxonomy: Education Citation. Differentiated instruction suggests creating multiple paths so that students of different abilities, interests, or learning needs experience equally appropriate ways to succeed in the classroom. Differentiation can occur in the content (knowledge, skills, and attitudes taught), process (varying instructional activities or strategies to provide appropriate methods for learning), product (working below, at, or above grade level), or environment (learning styles) in the classroom. Differentiating instruction allows students to take greater responsibility and ownership for their own learning, and provides opportunities for team teaching and cooperative learning. Taxonomy: Education Citation. A form of instruction that seeks to “maximize each student’s growth by meeting each student where she is and helping the student to progress. In practice, it involves offering several different learning experiences in response to students’ varied needs. Learning activities and materials may be varied by difficulty to challenge students at different readiness levels, by topic in response to students’ interests, and by students’ preferred ways of learning or expressing themselves” (Kiernan, 2000). Wikipedia defines differentiated instruction (sometimes referred to as differentiated learning) as a way of thinking about teaching and learning. It involves teachers using a variety of instructional strategies that address diverse student learning needs. Students are placed at the center of teaching and learning, and student needs drive instructional planning, as opposed to more traditional education methods of teachers, text materials, or curriculum determining what students should be learning. Differentiated instruction is a way to enhance learning for all students by engaging them in activities that respond to particular learning needs, strengths, and preferences and is effective in addressing the needs of gifted or high-achieving students, students with special needs, as well as second language learners who are in the same classroom. References: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (2008). A lexicon of learning: What educators mean when they say . . . “differentiated instruction.” Retrieved June 23, 2008, from www.ascd.org/Publi cations/Lexicon_of_Learning/D.aspx. Kiernan L. (2000). Lesson 1: What is differentiated instruction? In Differentiating Instruction, an ASCD PD online course. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
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DIFFERENTIATED QUALITIES
Wikipedia.org. Differentiated instruction. Retrieved June 22, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Differentiated_instruction. Related Terms: Differentiated teaching, Differentiated supervision Acronyms: DI Taxonomy: Education Citation. An approach to teaching and learning that recognizes individual students’ differing readiness, backgrounds, interests, and learning styles. In differentiated instruction, students have a variety of options in how they take in and make sense of information. Differentiated instruction requires teacher flexibility; rather than expecting students to adapt to the curriculum, teachers should develop multiple ways of presenting information to reach all students individually. Teachers who differentiate often use flexible grouping: for different activities, students may work alone, in pairs, or in small groups on tasks that may be based on readiness, interest, learning style, or a combination. There are three main ways teachers differentiate: content, process, and product. Differentiating content involves identifying students’ strengths and weaknesses and planning remediation and acceleration activities as necessary. Differentiated processes are individual and group learning activities, questioning techniques, teaching methods, and thinking skills geared to individual students’ needs. Differentiating the product means varying the format and complexity of the assessment used to demonstrate mastery of a concept. References: Hall, T. (2002). Differentiated instruction. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from www.cast .org/publications/ncac/ncac_diffinstruc.html. Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Related Terms: Compacting, Flexible grouping, Independent study, Jigsaw, Learning centers, Learning contracts, Portfolios, Problem-based learning, Tiered activities Acronyms: DI Differentiated qualities Taxonomy: Education Citation. A dialogical group conversation has both integrating and differentiating qualities. DQ is made up by closeness to self and distance to others; the participant is able to separate between perspectives and to analyze and penetrate problems in more depth.
Contributing toward differentiation means problematizing and questioning on the basis of one’s own experience and knowledge, contributing one’s own viewpoints and experiences, with personal integrity. The friction arising out of difference provides an opportunity of getting to the bottom of things and scrutinizing one’s own and other people’s conceptions. References: Wilhelmson, L. (2002). On the theory of transformative learning. In A. Bron & M. Schemmann (Eds.), Social science theories in adult education research. Bochum Studies in International Adult Education, 3, 180–210. Münster: LIT Verlag. Related Terms: Dialogue competence, Integrating qualities Acronyms: DQ Differentiated schooling Taxonomy: Education Citation. A diversified education program that allows students an opportunity to grow and learn based on their strengths and needs. Using a wide range of instructional methods to ensure the needs of all academic diverse learners are met. Differentiation is simply a teacher attending to the learning needs of a particular student or small group of students, rather than teaching a class as though all individuals in it were basically alike. Teachers must find and embrace ways to differentiate curriculum, assessment, and entry points to understanding in order to make all students successful. References: Fetler, M. A method for the construction of differentiated school norms. www.eric.ed.gov/ ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_ 01/0000019b/80/1f/91/97.pdf. Fogarty, R. J., & Pete, B. M. (2007). How to differentiate learning: Curriculum, instruction, assessment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Tomlinson, C. A., & Demirsky-Allan, S. (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools & classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Related Terms: Differentiated instruction, Differentiated curriculum Differentiated supervision Taxonomy: Education Citation. Differentiated supervision provides feedback on teacher performance from a variety of different sources. These sources may include not only the school administrator, but also colleagues and students. This provides the instructor with multiple views of performance centering on the goal of continuing pro-
DIGITAL CONVERSATION
fessional growth that will improve student learning. The objective is to help meet the individual needs of the teacher by providing supervision tailored specifically for the individual. Teachers can choose the form of supervision that they desire and have more involvement in their professional development. References: Glatthorn, A. A. (1984). Differentiated supervision. Alexandria, VA.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Related Terms: Teacher assessment, Teacher observation, Differentiated instruction, Differentiated teaching, Instructional supervision, Supportive supervision, Peer observation, Peer coaching, Informal supervision Differentiated teaching Taxonomy: Education Citation. A method for teachers to implement techniques, strategies, and lessons so that students can meet and exceed the standards developed by the state. Students should be grouped based on their abilities and learning styles. Teaching styles must be varied to address the needs of the students and a range of different materials, tasks, and activities should be incorporated. Three areas should be differentiated: content (what is being taught), process (how the information is perceived), and product (the way the students express what they know). References: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (2008). A lexicon of learning: What educators mean when they say . . . “differentiated teaching.” Retrieved June 26, 2008, from www.ascd.org/Publi cations/Lexicon_of_Learning/D.aspx. Levy, H. (2008, March). Meeting the needs of all students through differentiated instruction: Helping every child reach and exceed standards. Clearing House, 81(4), 161–64. Retrieved June 26, 2008, from Academic Search Premier database. Related Terms: Differentiated instruction, Individualized education, Individualized instruction Acronyms: DifT Digital Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A general term that can refer to anything that is represented in a numeric form, although it usually implies a binary format. This includes everything from numbers and machine instructions to music, pictures, and video. Information stored digitally is necessarily discrete and this creates some challenges. Any value that is continuous in reality cannot be fully represented in digital form. It is impossible, for example, to store
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some real numbers exactly in digital form. This is because there are an infinite number of real numbers. There are also an infinite number of numbers between every two whole real numbers (such as 1.0 and 2.0). Further, a value such as one-third (1/3) results in an infinite (unending) decimal fraction when converted to a digital form (either binary or decimal). None of these types of numbers can be represented exactly in digital form. When accuracy of calculations is crucial, one must compensate by increasing the precision of the fractional part. Analog signals such as sound can’t be stored completely either so they are converted to digital form by taking samples (“snapshots”) at regular time intervals. A common sampling rate for music is 14,000 samples per second. Related Terms: Analog, Continuous, Discrete Digital conversation Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Conversations are means for us to better understand various issues. Digital conversations are conversations taking place on electronic, computerized arenas. Conducting a conversation on the Web is a matter of linking thoughts. Talking in writing must be termed essentially alien to our human nature, and yet it is common enough. Digital exchange in the learning context involves exchanging one’s thoughts, not just exchanging words. Computer conferences have become a new way of meeting, and people now have the possibility of also being dialogue competent in digital conversations. In order to achieve learning qualities in these digital conversations, the interlocutors need to wise up on the digital interchange of thoughts as a form. The lack of common images, that is, similar understanding of what digital conversations can be, is an important basic precondition that will have to be taken into consideration for many more years to come. Dialogue does not come easily, even when people see and hear each other. A group dialogue requires practiced skills, but its learning potential (i.e., the possibility it affords) in the company of others, of increasing one’s understanding and pondering one’s experience, makes it worth the trouble. There are a large number of factors influencing the way in which a group conversation on the Web develops and how much the participants get out of it. The nature and wording of the task, the choice of subject, the size and composition of the group, and the participants’ private situations and attitudes to the task make a difference to motivation and activity. This in turn makes a difference to what and how much different people learn and how they allow themselves to
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DIGITAL DASHBOARD
be influenced. Another important factor is the way in which the dialogue is conducted and how conscious the participants are of the role they themselves are playing in it. The electronic dialogue, like the face-toface (f2f) variety, can be improved by the participants developing their dialogue competence. Ability to link thoughts together in digital conversations makes a substantial addition to learning, for example, in the case of distance learning. As a participant in digital conversations one needs to cultivate the ability to conduct learning conversations and also think about creating good preconditions both for oneself and for others. The person planning and conducting a course, for example, also has great possibilities of influencing how instructive the digital conversations become and the extent to which they attain qualities concerned with linking thoughts between and within the individuals taking part. This is primarily a question, not of intervening in the actual conversation but rather of course planning, and of course leaders and teachers understanding why, and by what means, a digital conversation proves successful. In this way they can contribute toward positive opportunities and conditions in the form of tasks, group composition, and requirements. References: Döös, M., Fåhræus, E. R., Alvemark, K., & Wilhelmson, L. (in press). Competent web dialogues: Textbased linking of thoughts. In L. A. Tomei (Ed.), Information and communication technology for enhanced education and learning: Advanced applications and development. Hershey, PA: IGI-Global. Fåhræus, E. R., & Döös, M. (2007). Competent web dialogue: Thoughts linked in digital conversations. International Journal of Information and Communications Technology Education, 3(3), 14–24. Related Terms: Conversation, Dialogue, Dialogue competence, Web dialogue Digital dashboard Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A software-based control panel for one or more applications, network devices, or industrial machines. It displays simulated gauges and dials that are designed in a similar fashion to an automobile dashboard. A digital dashboard is a customized solution for knowledge workers that consolidates personal, team, corporate, and external information and provides single-click access to analytical and collaborative tools. It brings an integrated view of a company’s knowledge sources to an individual’s desktop, enabling better decision making by providing immediate access to key business information.
Digital divide Taxonomy: Technology Citation. In 1995, the U.S. National Telecommunications Infrastructure Administration (NTIA) issued the first of four reports under the title Falling Through the Net. These reports disclosed the existence and particulars of a digital divide in America that refers to the gap between people who have and people who don’t have access to digital/modern information technology. Variables often investigated in the context of a digital divide include socioeconomic (rich/poor), racial (white/minority), or geographical (urban/rural). Recent studies view the digital divide as a symptom of a larger and more complex problem—the problem of persistent poverty and inequality. The divide persists because of market forces, unequal investment in infrastructure, discrimination, insufficient policy efforts, and culture and content. A framework of reconceptualizing and analyzing the digital divide contains four sets of related resources: 1. Physical resources, which encompass access to computer and telecommunication connections. 2. Digital resources, which refer to digital material that is made available online. 3. Human resources, which revolve around issues such as literacy and education (including the particular type of literacy practices that are required for computer use and online communication). 4. Social resources, which refer to the community, institutional, and societal structures that support access to information and communication technology. The term global digital divide refers to differences in technology access between countries. References: Servon, L. (2002). Bridging the digital divide: Technology, community, and public policy. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Warschauer, M. (2003). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Related Terms: Global digital divide, Information society, Knowledge divide, One Laptop per Child, Open standard, Open source software Digital game-based learning Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A digital game is a form of interactive computer simulation, and is played on a computer, which could include personal computers, digital game consoles, and mobile devices like PDAs (personal digital assistants) and cell phones. At the core of all computer
DIGITAL STORY
games is the simulation of a situation, a person, a set of objects, and/or a set of rules for relating these. A computer game has a video and audio display and an interface that allows interaction with the computer so as to manipulate the simulated situation. Strictly speaking, digital games include only those games that require a computer in order to play them. Thus a game like computer solitaire or chess would not be included, as it is simply a computer version of the traditional game. An exact definition for digital games does not yet exist. That having been said, most digital games include an enumerable set of rules and one or more distinct goals or win states. The difficulty in stating a precise definition for digital games is exacerbated by the fact that those objects we typically refer to as computer or console games include everything from Tetris, which is more of a puzzle than a game, to The Sims, which has very few rules: the conflict is optional, and there is no identifiable win state. The definition most commonly cited in education is still that of Margaret Gredler, but which is now unfortunately outdated. Among other things, she makes a clear distinction between simulations and games (Gredler, 2004) and defines games as “competitive exercises in which the objective is to win and players must apply subject matter or other relevant knowledge in an effort to advance in the exercise and win.” She also claims that “bells and whistles” should be minimal and fulfill no important purpose, and finds it problematic when learners are led to enter incorrect answers for the sounds or graphics, which implies that trying some action in order to “see what happens” is undesirable. These distinctions create a division between both the applicability and perceived value of a digital program used for instruction that depends on whether it is categorized as a game or as a simulation rather than its merits as a learning object. Jesper Juul states that “a game is a rule-based system with a variable and quantifiable outcome, where different outcomes are assigned different values, the player exerts effort in order to influence the outcome, the player feels emotionally attached to the outcome, and the consequences of the activity are optional and negotiable.” References: Gredler, M. E. (2004). Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Lawrence Erlbaum. Juul, J. (2005). Half-real: Video games between real rules and fictional worlds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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Related Terms: Computer game, Console game, Simulation, Educational game Digital imagery Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Bitmap and vector graphics created or manipulated using digital imaging or digital illustration software such as Adobe Photoshop or Adobe Illustrator. Computer-generated image (CGI) composed of pixels (picture elements) or object-oriented vectors, and saved as various file formats for print, web, broadcast, or mobile output. Print file formats include .psd, .eps, and .tif; web file formats: .png, .jpg, and .gif; broadcast (movie) file formats: .mov, .tga, .avi. References: Muir, P. (2000). Preflight: Avoiding costly printout problems through proper file preparation. San Diego: Windsor. Related Terms: Computer graphics, Digital painting and drawing, Computer graphics imagery Acronyms: PSD, CGI, EPS, TIF, PNG, GIF, AVI Digital literacy Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Knowledge and application of basic computer concepts and skills that enable people to use computer technology in everyday life, including using the Internet, sending email, creating a résumé, developing a website, and managing computer desktops and digital files. It is exemplified by a technology-centered approach to gathering, managing, and archiving one’s own personal information using digital tools and processes, and results in general knowledge of digital devices, technology trends, and ubiquitous computing. References: Microsoft Digital Literacy Curriculum Website. Retrieved January 10, 2008, from www.microsoft.com/ About/CorporateCitizenship/Citizenship/giving/pro grams/UP/digitalliteracy/default.mspx. Related Terms: Computer literacy, Information literacy Digital story Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Combines the ancient art of storytelling with modern digital tools to create, record, and share stories using a variety of media formats, including graphics, photos, video, animation, text, and audio. The term is most often used within the context of stories by and about ordinary people, “capturing lives and creating community” (Lambert, 2007). Digital stories can take on many different forms and don’t have to follow a linear format due to their electronic format. Examples
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range from the millions of daily blog posts and videos posted on YouTube to stories that are created in massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) and chat rooms (text or image based). More professionally created digital stories often come to us in the form of documentaries or as items in television news magazines. References: Lambert, J. (2007). Digital storytelling: Capturing lives, creating community. Berkeley, CA: Center for Digital Storytelling. Related Terms: Blogging, Documentary, Massively multiplayer online role-playing game Acronyms: MMORPG Digital video transport system Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The digital video transport system (DVTS) is a simple and inexpensive method of transmitting high-quality video and audio over the Internet. DVTS brings Internet video production within reach for a broad range of organizations that would not otherwise have the necessary money or know-how. References: Internet 2. (2008). Digital video transport system. Retrieved September 2, 2008, from apps.internet2 .edu/dvts.html/. Acronyms: DVTS Digitizing Taxonomy: Technology Citation. When a continuous signal is translated into a form that can be stored digitally, the process is called digitizing. Analog images are digitized by sampling the color at specific points, which then get converted into pixel data. When sound such as music is digitized, it is usually done by sampling the continuous signal at many specific time intervals. When an analog signal is digitized, some information is always lost—the key to high fidelity is to make sure we don’t notice what has been lost. In order to recognize a particular sound wave the sample rate must be at least two times the frequency. This is the Nyquist sampling theorem, which states that for “lossless” digitization, the sample rate must be at least twice the maximum frequency. This is because it is not possible to describe a wave when there is only one sample. Samples (snapshots, measurements) are taken at regular intervals, and the rate is measured in hertz (samples/second). This means if the highest frequency is 22,000 hertz (the highest frequency typically audible to humans), we will need to sample at 44,000 samples/second. This in turn means we will end up
with 44,100 readings (samples) per second, or 44,100 numbers for each second of sound. If we have stereo (two channels), we must double this (88,200). Then we must decide how many bits to allow for each sample. The implications of choosing an 8-bit sample depth are that we can represent a maximum of 256 distinct samples. Dimensions of change Taxonomy: General Citation. Dimensions of change is a theoretical construct that seeks to explain the various components of a change process. These components include content (objectives, purpose, and goals)—what; process (implementation)—how; context (the internal and external environment)—where. The dimensions of change construct emphasizes the continuous interplay between these change dimensions. As described by Pettigrew and Whipp (1991), the implementation of change is an “iterative, cumulative and reformulation-in-use process.” The dimensions of change model also presents five central interrelated factors, integral to managing strategic change successfully. These include environmental assessment, human resources as assets and liabilities, linking strategic and operational change, leading the change, and overall coherence. Environmental assessment is defined as environmental scanning to analyze and identify elements of the internal and external environments. Human resources as assets and liabilities emphasizes the importance of communicating trust and value to employees. Linking strategic and operational change focuses on the importance of connecting day-to-day activities with long-range strategic goals. Leading the change describes those leadership qualities that are considered essential for implementing and sustaining a change process including vision, values, and organizational culture. Overall coherence emphasizes consistency and consonance with regard to goals and environment. References: Pettigrew, A., & Whipp, R. (1991). Managing change for competitive success. Ames, IA: B. Blackwell. Related Terms: Strategic change, Change process, Learning organization Direct instruction Taxonomy: Education Citation. Direct instruction has a long and welldocumented history in the traditional classroom. Lectures, demonstrations, drill and practice, Socratic instruction, storytelling, and workbooks continue to be an important teacher-centered strategy for the traditional learner. Highly structured, the direct infor-
DISCUSSION BOARD
mation delivery method often relies on drills, repetition, and scripted materials and provides the teacher with a strong, structured framework for imparting information and tracking learning outcomes. Taxonomy: Education Citation. Used in the areas of math, reading, writing, spelling, and language. Direct instruction is most commonly seen as a standardized curriculum that is used to systematically teach concepts within a subject area. Key components of direct instruction include the following: (1) promoting an explicit teaching of general problem-solving strategies to be applied across multiple problems whenever possible, (2) emphasizing small group instruction as opposed to students working alone, (3) using a systematic method of correction procedures, (4) promoting a focus on cumulative review of previously learned materials, and (5) insisting on mastery of the learning process and previous materials before progressing to new materials (Gersten, 1985). Many teachers have not utilized this teaching approach because of its rote and systematic style of delivery, thus limiting the creativity and potential for spontaneous learning opportunities in their classroom. References: Gersten, R. (1985). Direct instruction with special education students: A review of evaluation research. Journal of Special Education, 19(1). Related Terms: Structured teaching Acronyms: DI Disability Taxonomy: General Citation. Disabilities are impairments that limit major life activities. There are a variety of types of disabilities that range from physical to mental challenges. Students with learning disabilities struggle in a specific area academically such as in writing and/or math and have a discrepancy between their IQ and achievement. Physical disabilities include conditions that limit one or more basic physical activities such as walking. Students who are “other health impaired” have limited vitality, alertness, or strength, which is due to acute or chronic health problems such as cancer. Emotional/behavioral disabilities (E/BD) include anxiety disorders, conduct disorders, mood disorders, oppositional defiant disorder, and schizophrenia. Other exceptionalities include students who are deaf or hearing impaired, blind or vision impaired. Those students who have mental retardation (MR) struggle to meet developmental milestones due to low IQs. Students with disabilities in the schools have individualized education
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programs (IEPs), which determine their current levels, annual goals and objectives, and accommodations that should be made in the classroom. The federal civil rights law Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) prohibits discrimination against and provides accessibility to individuals with disabilities. Related Terms: Exceptionalities, Deaf, Hearing impaired, Blind, Vision impaired, Physical disabilities, Emotional/behavioral disability, Mental retardation, Americans with Disabilities Act Acronyms: E/BD, MR, IEP, ADA, IQ Discourse community of learners Taxonomy: Education Citation. Networks that form to work toward sets of common linguistic or communicative goals. Often these goals are related to identity construction or to exploding assumptions surrounding privileged methods of discourse. Members of a particular discourse community share both the language (genre) and the communicative goals of that community. The formulation of discourse communities of learners grew out of democratic ideals of teaching and learning, and coupled with the advent of computer-mediated communication, resulted in the expansion of coparticipation in the construction of learning opportunities among and between educators and students. The development of discourse communities of learners occurs through negotiation and consensus building and often challenges master narratives. The democratic nature of discourse communities of learners results in the presence of a shared language among participants and the dedication to the generation of meaningful learning. References: Gee, J. P. (1996). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. London and New York: Longman. Schon, D. (1988). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Related Terms: Discourse community, Genres, Constructivism Discussion board Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Asynchronous collaboration tools that host an individual’s posted comments or questions. Other individuals who are members of the same discussion board are permitted to read the posted comments/questions and respond with their own remarks as they see fit. A discussion board is a general term for any online bulletin board. Some discussion boards are controlled and the posts monitored by a moderator before the
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posts are uploaded. From a historical perspective, the first major implementation of the discussion board on the Internet was hosted by Usenet, who ultimately provided thousands of discussion boards before moving to the World Wide Web for its platform. A discussion board is similar to email without the need for a specific user account or the demands of storing and organizing the content. A discussion board comprises various forums—folders established by the contributing users containing messages on a particular subject. Related Terms: Discussion group, Discussion forum, Message board, Online forums Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The forum on a website designed for any specific topic discussion. It is an asynchronous communication tool. When a threaded discussion topic is posted, students can provide their responses or comments to the topic. Threaded discussion is a great way for communication and discussion in an online learning environment. References: Virginia Tech (n.d.). You’ve got a discussion board, so what are you going to do with it? Retrieved May 15, 2008, from www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/ocs/ discuss.html. Related Terms: Discussion forum, Discussion thread, Discussion group, Bulletin board, Message board Acronyms: DB Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A discussion board is an application on the World Wide Web for holding discussions. A sense of virtual community often develops around forums that have regular users. Discussion boards are also commonly referred to as web forums, message boards, Internet forums, discussion forums, discussion groups, bulletin boards, or simply forums. A method of asynchronous online communication or an electronic message center. Users connect with the center via a modem or other devices; they can read messages posted by others and respond or leave messages on other topics. Discussion group Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. An environment on the World Wide Web for holding discussions, or the web application software used to enable these discussions. Web-based forums, which date from the mid-1990s, are also commonly referred to as web forums, message boards, discussion boards, discussion forums, discussion groups, and bulletin boards. Similar to other elements of the early World Wide Web, online discussion groups were built around
common interests, with participants self-selecting membership in a particular online community. These early discussion groups focused on technical aspects of online environments, early self-referential and technical discussions related to the nature, construction, and maintenance of the World Wide Web itself. The content of these early discussions was determined by the nature of these early adopters. As use of the Internet gradually permeated society, the use and content of online discussions evolved as well. A principal area of interest in the current use of online discussion groups is in education. While corporations and other business forms make use of online forums, the evolving and increasing integration of online discussions into educative efforts, enhanced by the proliferation of online education, makes education the area most impacted by this relatively recent development in communication. References: Jonassen, D. H. (2000). Transforming learning with technology: Beyond modernism and postmodernism or whoever controls the technology creates the reality. Educational Technology, 40(2), 7–23. Paloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace—effective strategies for the online classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Related Terms: Bulletin board, Discussion boards, Discussion forums, Discussion groups, Message boards, Newsgroup, Online discussion group, Web forums Distance education (learning) Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. A generic term that includes the range of teaching/learning strategies used by correspondence colleges, open universities, distance departments of conventional colleges or universities, and distance training units of corporate providers. It is a term for the education of those who choose not to attend the schools, colleges, and universities of the world but study at their home, or sometimes their workplace. “Distance education, or distance learning, is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy and andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that aim to deliver education to students who are not physically ‘on site.’ Rather than attending courses in person, teachers and students may communicate at times of their own choosing by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through technology that allows them to communicate in real time. Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the taking of examinations is considered to be a hybrid or blended course of study” (Wikipedia).
DUAL ENROLLMENT
The types of available technologies used in distance education are divided into two groups: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous technology is used in distance education lessons in which learning is occurring in different places but at the same time. Asynchronous technology is used in lessons in which learning is occurring in different places but also at different times. References: Keegan, D. (1996). Foundations of distance education (3rd ed., pp. 34–36). Retrieved May 2008, from books.google.com/books. Wikipedia. distance education. Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_education. Related Terms: Correspondence education, Teaching at a distance, Home study, Independent study Acronyms: DE Distance education (teaching) Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Requires planning, preparation, hard work, and enough knowledge to know what to do (and what not to do) for your labor to yield an abundant harvest. Online instruction is new to many instructors in higher education, and for good reason. In just a few years, it has grown from an academic experiment to a recognized alternative to traditional classroom learning. In fact, even traditional classes have embraced many of the teaching methods popularized by online education. References: Shelton, K., & Saltsman, G. (2004). Tips and tricks for teaching online: How to teach like a pro! International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Learning, 1(10). Retrieved May 2008, from www.itdl.org/Journal/Oct_04/article04.htm. Related Terms: Teaching at a distance Acronyms: DE Distributed community of practice Taxonomy: General Citation. A group whose members are distributed (possibly over countries); work is done in a core group, members meet face-to-face occasionally, and communication is maintained via electronic media. Its members are interacting with the real world, and learning takes place in the real world. Acronyms: DCOP Diversity Taxonomy: General Citation. Refers to differences among people that include ethnicity, race, socioeconomic factors, so-
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cial standing, gender, sexual orientation, physical abilities, age, religion, political affiliation, culture, and language. Students come to school with varied backgrounds. When recognizing this diversity the individual’s differences should be taken into account when planning the most appropriate lessons to meet the student’s needs. References: Trail, K. (2000). A changing nation: The impact of linguistic and cultural diversity on education. SED (Southwestern Educational Development Laboratory) Letter, 12(2). Walker, K. (2007). Cultural proficiency. Research brief from the Principals’ Partnership, Union Pacific Foundation. Retrieved from www.principalspartner ship.com. Related Terms: Cultural proficiency, Multiculturalism Download Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The process of receiving or copying files from the Internet, file server, or any network device to a personal device. Files can be downloaded to numerous devices such as computers, MP3 players, and cell phones to just name a few. Download speeds will vary depending on the type of Internet or network connection you have along with the size of the file being downloaded. The most common way to download files from file servers is referred to as file transfer protocol or FTP. FTP files can be downloaded without connecting to the Web. References: Norton, P. (2003). Computing fundamentals (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. Solomon, A. (2004). Introduction to multimedia. Woodland Hills, CA: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. Related Terms: File transfer protocol, Network, Upload Dual enrollment Taxonomy: Education Citation. Describes a program where students are encouraged to enroll in two different educational institutions at the same time. Usually, this refers to an agreement between a high school and a local institution of higher education where a student will enroll in and complete college-level courses for credit while still in high school. This strategy is intended to help students successfully make the transition to college while at the same time allowing them to begin earning credit toward a degree. Colleges or community colleges may offer courses at a local high school for a selected
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group but more frequently students enroll in regularly scheduled courses on the college campus. Distance education is also an option through online web-based courses or by using videoconferencing technology for live interaction. Dual enrollment programs are funded in a variety of ways, but tuition costs are usually covered by a combination of the following sources: parent contributions, funding from the local school district, tuition waivers from the college, grants from federal, state, or local governments, and scholarships from businesses or private organizations. References: National Center for Education Statistics. (2005, April). Dual enrollment of high school students at postsecondary institutions: 2002–03. Retrieved from nces .ed.gov/pubs2005/2005008.pdf. Dynamic host configuration protocol Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Originally specified in RFC 1531 in October 1993. This request for comment (RFC) defined the operations of an application layer protocol applicable to both clients and servers in order to automatically assign TCP/IP stack information to a client device from a server. This information could include IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, domain name system (DNS) servers, and potentially time services. Traditionally, TCP/IP address information was manually assigned to individual network devices on a permanent time frame. This approach was the source of several issues with maintaining addressing information, such as address utilization and address management. The information that can be assigned by a DHCP server resolves these problems by providing a time-sensitive lease, where a client is assigned specific TCP/IP information for a specified period of time from a pool of potential addresses. At the conclusion of the lease, the client will lose network connectivity if there is not a request to renew the existing lease or receive a new lease. The exact operations of DHCP have been updated and enhanced in multiple subsequent RFCs, with the latest being ratified in May 2008. References: Goldman, J., & Rawles, P. (2000). Local area networks: A business-oriented approach (2nd ed., pp. 328–30). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Olifer, N., & Olifer, V. (2006). Computer networks: Principles, technologies and protocols for network design (A-List Publishing, Trans., pp. 609–13). New York: John Wiley & Sons. (Original work published 2005). Related Terms: Bootstrap Protocol, Windows Internet Name Service, Address Resolution Protocol
Acronyms: DHCP, DNS, TCP/IP, RFC, BOOTP, WINS, ARP Dynamic hypertext markup language Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Dynamic hypertext markup language (DHTML, as it is more commonly known) is the name given to the combination of HTML and other web technologies such as JavaScript, CSS (cascading style sheets), and DOM (domain object model). DHTML combines these elements to present webpages that have varying degrees of dynamic presentation, with such common effects as pop-ups, drop-downs, and rollovers. Related Terms: Hypertext markup language, Cascading style sheets, Domain object model, JavaScript Acronyms: DHTML, CSS, DOM eBooks Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Handheld devices that allow users to view text and graphics that have been downloaded from the Internet. This information is provided by publishers in the form of books, journals, magazines, and newspapers. The device allows for the portability of this information and to retrieve new information quickly by downloading new content. These devices will grow in popularity as more individuals are interested in the flexibility offered by these devices. Books available in electronic format, most often downloadable from the Internet. eBooks should be distinguished from shorter online articles. The process of accessing and effectively reading significant parts of a book onscreen needs careful investigation in order to see if the electronic format can support the development of information literacy skills. References: Poremba, S. M. (2008). Take a look at today’s vibrant Ebook market. EContent, 31(2), 32–37. Related Terms: Electronic books Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Electronic versions of traditional books, eBooks exist in a variety of formats including those that can be accessed online via a personal computer like netLibrary and those that are downloaded onto a specific eBook reading device like Kindle. Educational technology Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Refers to the use of hardware, software, media, and web-based technologies that are often combined with student-centered and project-based
ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE
approaches to teaching and learning. Educational technology affects all components of education including administration, subject programming, curriculum design, student assessment, and instructional methodology. Educational technology also encompasses the management and use of educational resource databases and the use of assistive technologies used to ameliorate disabling conditions in learners. The integration of educational technology is a recent phenomenon, related to the proliferation of computing and media devices. Early models of educational technology focused on the use of occupational technologies and teaching about their uses in career contexts. The increasing prevalence of educational technology and its efficacy at improving student academic outcomes has highlighted the disadvantages confronting underserved rural and inner-city learners who lack meaningful and regular access to technology. References: Eraut, M. (Ed.). (1989). The international encyclopedia of educational technology. New York: Pergamon Press. Unwin, D., & McAleese, R. (Eds.). (1988). The encyclopedia of educational media communications and technology (2nd ed.). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Related Terms: Instructional technology, Educational media Edutainment Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A word in use since 1983, edutainment described a package of software games made available in the United Kingdom as a stand-alone home learning computer installation. In the context of online learning, the term edutainment is now used to describe a more integrated educational program of learning that is embedded in an entertaining real-time interactive operating system mounted on a remote server, which users may log into from school, a public library, at home, or anywhere else in the world, via the Internet. One example of such a system is the online-learning platform e@Leader, the world’s first online edutainment system to be integrated into core-school curricula (designed in 2006), and which incorporates real-time autoregulatory psychometrics and other testing tools for teachers, parents, and students to monitor enhancements of pupils’ knowledge growth and intelligence. This new field of educational-entertainment combines essential knowledge acquisition opportunities and learning theory, with communications, brain development, and educational theories to deliver a curriculum that is educational, engaging, and amusing to students
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(while they are essentially playing computer games), and especially so for younger children, who are as yet to develop significant language and social skills. References: Dickinson, A. R., & Yung, Y. (2008). Being gifted: Enhancing school performance via online educational games. Proceedings of the Xth Asia-Pacific Conference on Giftedness. Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Hewit, I. E. (1998). Edutainment: How to teach language with fun and games. McHenry, IL: Delta Systems Co. Inc. Related Terms: Online learning platform, Educational gaming, Learning assessment Acronyms: OL, CML, CMC, mCDA, eLos, MMORPG, MUDs Electronic data interchange Taxonomy: Technology Citation. The computer-to-computer exchange of strictly formatted messages between companies. The formatted data representing the documents may be replaced from originator to recipient via telecommunications or physically transported on electronic storage media. The purpose of EDI consists in replacing paperbased transactions that require a great deal of human interaction by automating the process fully. Because of increased use of the Internet as a communications medium, EDI standards for communication have been developed. EDI standards include the rules on the application level for structuring the user data and the associated service data in the interchange of messages in an open environment. There are four major sets of EDI standards: UN/EDIFACT, ANSI ASC X12, TRADACOMS, and ODETTE. The first of them is maintained by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe that agreed on syntax rules for EDI for administration, commerce, and transport (EDIFACT). Trading partners are free to use any method for the transmission of documents. In the past one of the more popular methods was the usage of a bisync modem to communicate through a value added network (VAN). VAN, in its most basic form, acts as a regional post office. References: National Institute of Standards and Technology. (1999). Electronic data interchange (EDI), Federal Information Processing Standards Publication, 161-2. Retrieved from www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/ fip161-2.htm. Related Terms: American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) network, Modem Acronyms: EDI
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ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIO
Electronic portfolio Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. An electronically formatted document of a student’s education, work experience, volunteer service, goals, interests, and personal accomplishments. Specifically, the portfolio documents the student’s written assignments and exams. Students use digital data, pictures, videos, audios, PowerPoint presentations, and other electronic documents to highlight their accomplishments and experiences throughout their undergraduate tenure as a student. The electronic portfolio is a learning tool that provides a great way to generate and document learning. References: Basken, P. (2008, April 25). Electronic portfolios may answer calls for more accountability. Chronicle of Higher Education, p. A30. Related Terms: Resume, Portfolio Electronic whiteboard Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A whiteboard with the capability to capture pen strokes. There are three generations of this technology. The first generation electronic whiteboards had scannable surfaces and produced a hard copy of what was written on the board. The second generation consisted of a receiver and transmitter that were used with a standard whiteboard. When the transmitter was placed on the side or corner of the board and the pens were enclosed in transmitting sheaths, pen strokes were captured to an attached computer. The third generation of this technology has touch sensitive surfaces. The last two generations of electronic whiteboards can be used in two different modes: capture and projection. In capture mode the pen strokes are captured to a connected computer. In projection mode a computer desktop is projected onto the board and users can take advantage of the touch sensitivity and let their finger operate as a computer mouse. Further, in projection mode computers connected to second or third generation electronic whiteboards can be networked, thus facilitating interaction between remote students. Related Terms: Learning technology, Distance education Elluminate Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. An online learning management system that provides a way for online learning using voice over the Internet and interactive functionality. Elluminate is a way to teach online in real time and includes the following features: (1) shareable, interactive whiteboard to import images and PowerPoint slides, can illustrate
in real time with built-in drawing tools; (2) clear, twoway audio over the Internet; (3) push-to-talk hot key makes live voice communication easy; (4) universal access works with Windows, Macintosh, broadband, and dial-up; (5) intuitive, easy-to-use interface so participants quickly get up to speed and are then free to focus on the conference; (6) designed with pedagogy in mind and not just as a web conferencing application. Elluminate was designed for teaching and learning with 24/7 support by telephone and online around the clock. In addition, Elluminate features moderator tools that allow instructors to monitor and control the conference environment, poll students for immediate feedback, direct text messaging with instant public and private messaging during conferences, and provide accessibility tools for special needs students. References: Elluminate. (2008). Retrieved May 29, 2008, from www.elluminate.com. Related Terms: Elluminate Live! eGovernment Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. “The use of technology, particularly the Internet, as a means to deliver services to citizens, businesses, and other entities. E-Government offers the potential to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of government services and resources provided to the public, but may also create issues for individuals who use or need these services. E-Government provides an alternative to paper-based and/or direct agencyprovided services and affects the ways in which individuals interact with agencies to access needed services. Using E-Government forms, services, and webbased contact with government, personnel can present a range of challenges for users who need assistance with technology, government programs, applications, and other requirements for successful E-government interactions.” References: Information Use Management and Policy Institute. What is e-government? E-government for public librarians. Retrieved from www.libraryegov.org/ egov.html. Related Terms: Online government, Electronic government Acronyms: E-gov eLearning Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Allows for Internet-enabled learning or distance education over communication networks. It
ELEARNING SYSTEMS
involves the use of network or Internet technologies to create, deliver, and facilitate learning anytime and anywhere. Some notable examples of elearning institutions include online universities such as University of Phoenix, Kaplan University, and Devry University. eLearning allows delivery of individualized, comprehensive, complex, and dynamic learning content in real time, aiding the development of communities of knowledge and linking learners and practitioners with experts. It has been reported that about 3.5 million students participated in elearning at institutions of higher education in the United States as of 2006. Furthermore, many institutions of higher education, especially those that are for-profit institutions, offer online classes; whereas, only about half of private or nonprofit schools offer elearning. However, as globalization continues, private institutions may become more involved as they will be forced to compete for students to increase their global reach with online presentations and also as a cost-cutting measure. For effective elearning, there needs to be properly trained staff to make it work and to help students online. Finally, as a smorgasbord of new communication technology develops to facilitate interactivity via Web 2.0 or semantic web, attention to how to best facilitate students’ learning will need to take center stage in elearning. References: Olaniran, B. (2006). Challenges to implementing e-learning in lesser developed countries. In A. L. Edmundson (Ed.), Globalized e-learning cultural challenges. (pp. 18–34). Hershey PA: Idea Group. Ruiz, J. G., Mintzer, M., & Leipzig, R. M. (2006). The impact of e-learning in medical education. Academic Medicine, 81(3), 207–12. Related Terms: Distance learning eLearning 2.0 Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The term elearning 2.0 was coined in 2005 by Stephen Downes. eLearning 2.0 differs from traditional elearning. In the traditional model of elearning, learning content is provided by courseware authors, structured into courses by learning management systems (LMS), and consumed by students. This approach is often driven by the needs of the institution/corporation rather than the individual learner. Instead of learners simply receiving, reading, and responding to learning content in traditional elearning, eLearning 2.0, on the other hand, allows learners to create content and to collaborate with peers to form a learning network with distribution of content creation and responsibilities. In addition, elearning 2.0 allows learners to easily access content through search, aggregation, and tagging.
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eLearning 2.0, therefore, is evolving to one of the most exciting, dynamic, and challenging fields involving teaching and learning. With the advent of Web 2.0, elearning has the potential to become far more personal, social, and flexible. eLearning 2.0 “takes a ‘small pieces, loosely joined’ approach that combines the use of discrete but complementary tools and web services—such as blogs, wikis, and other social software—to support the creation of ad hoc learning communities” (O’Hear, 2006). eLearning 2.0 can capitalize on many sources of content aggregated together into learning experiences and utilize various tools including online references, courseware, knowledge management, collaboration, and search. References: Downes, S. (2005). E-learning 2.0. eLearn Magazine. Retrieved May 26, 2008, from www.elearnmag.org/ subpage.cfm?section=articles&article=29-1. O’Hear, S. (2006). E-learning 2.0—how Web technologies are shaping education. Retrieved May 26, 2008, from www.readwriteweb.com/archives/ e-learning_20.php. Related Terms: Computer-based learning, Electronic learning, Distance education, Web 2.0 eLearning systems Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Software packages that can implement Internet-based learning modules or courses, usually on a large scale. They consist of a variety of tools for student enrollment and management, content delivery, synchronous and asynchronous communication and collaboration, and assessment. eLearning systems are usually modular and flexible in structure, and instructors can add and remove elements as they see fit at any time. eLearning systems are also very flexible in use, in that online course delivery makes it possible for learners to access course materials, assignments, peers, and instructors at any time and in any place. In addition, elearning systems are often used to support and enhance classroom-based courses, creating a blended learning environment in both physical and digital spaces. Examples of elearning systems include commercially available ones such as WebCT/Vista and their free, open source counterparts like Moodle. References: Ma, Z. (2006). Web-based intelligent e-learning systems: Technologies and applications. Hershey, PA: IGI Global, Information Science Publishing. Related Terms: Blended learning, Course management system, Learning management system, Online learning Acronyms: CMS, ELS, LMS
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ELECTIVE COURSES
Elective courses Taxonomy: Education Citation. Institutions typically require a core group of courses that must be taken by the student in order to be eligible to graduate; most offer elective courses as well so that the student has a choice. The student can select from a list of course alternatives and determine which one would best meet his or her own academic and interest needs. Many universities require that students take a predetermined amount of electives. Related Terms: Core classes, Graduate courses Electronic mail Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Abbreviated email or e-mail, is a store-andforwarding method of composing, sending, receiving, and storing messages over electronic communication media. To send or receive electronic mail (email), first you must have an email client, such as Outlook Express (software program) or Gmail (web program) and then you need an Internet service provider (ISP). The email client is used to receive, compose, send, and store email. The ISP is used to communicate over the network infrastructure. Regardless of the email client used, they all display message headers in your mailbox. The header displays the sender, subject line, size of the message, date/time it was received by your ISP, and attachments, if any. There are informal rules of appropriate manners for email. For example, it is consider yelling and bad manners to type in all CAPITAL LETTERS. See netiquette for more information. There are two general types of electronic mail services, post office protocol (POP3) and Internet mail access protocol (IMAP). The POP3 server connects to your email client through port 110 and generally issues a series of commands to download copies of email messages to your local computer and then delete the messages from the server unless it has explicit instructions to leave a copy of each email on the server. Messages may be organized into folders on the local computer. The advantage to users is that they do not need to be continually online to work with their email messages. The disadvantage is that once an email message is downloaded to a specific computer, it must be read and replied to from that machine. IMAP is a more advanced protocol that solves this problem. With IMAP, email messages stay on the email server allowing access from any computer; email can be organized into folders, and all the folders remain on the server as well. The advantage is the ability to access email from any computer. The disadvantage is the computer must be online the entire time while working with email messages. Also, the email provider must provide
enough disk space for each email address to leave messages on the server. Electronic mail is often used to deliver bulk unsolicited messages or “spam,” resulting in special filtering programs to delete or isolate this type of message. See spamming for more information. In addition, phishing—a type of spam, has also become a problem. See phishing for more information. Related Terms: Spam, Netiquette, Phishing Electronic mailing list Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A comprehensive list of individual email addresses that are combined to allow easy distribution of information or online discussions to all individuals that subscribe or join the list, which is usually formed around a topic of interest or those who are deemed members of a specific population. Distribution is completed through using a single contact email address where all members who subscribe to that list receive a copy of every message that is sent. Related Terms: eList, Listserv, Mailing list, Reflector Electronic reading media Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The equivalent of a book delivered through electronic means. This format is commonly known as an ebook, and has become popular in elearning because it can be quickly and easily distributed through downloads. eBooks also offer enhanced search ability and do not require the storage space of traditional books. Special devices have been developed for reading this media format. One of the major issues with electronic reading media is that they can be distributed illegally. References: McKnight, C., & Dearnley, J. (2008). Making e-books available through public libraries. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 40(1), 31–43. Related Terms: eBook, Electronic books Electronic text Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Written text in digital format. In 2009, these forms may include web-based hypertext, audio books, digitized documents, which have been scanned and presented in original format or processed through optical character recognition. Libraries, corporations (e.g., Microsoft and Google), government agencies, and individuals are involved in the development of electronic texts for a plethora of reasons. These reasons may include digital archives that are searchable and accessible at any time, preservation of original
EMODERATING
documents, wider distribution of content, distribution of forms and information, document management for archives, and preservation and search ability of all sorts of paperwork (e.g., insurance forms; patient, student, and client records; bills; receipts; taxes; reports; and so on). One of the early public electronic text initiatives was the Project Gutenberg (www.gutenberg .org/wiki/Main_Page), which was started in 1971 by Michael Hart. This project undertook archiving, cataloging, posting, and hosting on the Web classics texts that were in the public domain. The purpose was to increase the availability of these texts for the widest possible audience. In circa 2006 this project partnered with the audio effort of LibriVox (www.librivox.org) to make books, poems, and short stories that are in the public domain available in audio format. The world of publishing, as well as library services, has had to change to keep abreast of public demand for electronic texts in formats that are open and widely available. References: Hart, M. (1992). Gutenberg: The history and philosophy. Retrieved on May 30, 2008, from www.guten berg.org/wiki/Gutenberg:The_History_and_Philos ophy_of_Project_Gutenberg_by_Michael_Hart. Kichuk, D. (2007, September). Metamorphosis: Remediation in early English books online (EEBO). Literary and Linguistic Computing, 22(3), 291–303. Related Terms: Audio books, Creative commons, Digital text, Digital books, Digital collections, Digital media, Digital media copyright, Fair use, Project Gutenberg, Kindle, LibriVox, Multimedia, Online books, Online journals, Online publications, Scanning Acronyms: eText, eBook, eRes, PDF Electronic textbooks Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Electronic textbooks, unlike the traditional text used as a tool for learning in a classroom, refer to information about an area of study or a topic that is in digital form rather than paper form. Advantages of an electronic textbook include unique access to related information through active links within the text and access to adjustments needed by students with disabilities. Disadvantages of an electronic textbook include problems that come with technological difficulty and the need for all students participating in the class to have access to a computer and often the Internet. Embedded librarian Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Librarians that serve as part of an online course to assist students with their library needs and to help faculty answer questions related to library ser-
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vices and resources. A way to service distance learning students within their courses/program. The librarian is embedded within the actual course; accessible to students via a discussion board in the course shell. Students could access the librarian throughout the semester as questions surface. The embedded librarian monitors and responds to student questions and concerns as it relates to the library. They conduct ongoing interactions throughout the course with students and personalize the connection with their virtual library hours. Embedded librarians serve as a guide, informing students about the various resources available with the library and provide instruction on how to utilize the resources. These include but are not limited to the library webpage introduction, distance learning, online catalog access, access to education databases, use of university cards and full-text journal finders, electronic resources, information about plagiarism, style guide tips, access to interlibrary loans/document delivery, and more. References: Braidic, S., Denny, W., & Maddas, T. (2008). Faculty and student impressions of the strengths and challenges of having an embedded librarian in an online, graduate-level, research course. (April 15–17, 2008). Presented at the TCC Worldwide Online Conference. Ramsay, K., & Kinnie, J. (2006). The embedded librarian. Library Journal (April 1). Related Terms: Online librarian, Integrated librarian, Entrenched librarian Acronyms: EL eModerating Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The term emoderating was coined in 2000 by Gilly Salmon in her book E-moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning Online. In the book, Salmon defines an electronic moderator or emoderator as an individual who presides over an electronic meeting or conference. eModerating must be effectively integrated into both synchronous and asynchronous computermediated conferences (CMCs). The essential role of the emoderator is promoting human interaction and communication through the modeling, conveying, and building of knowledge and skills. The five-stage model for emoderating includes access and motivation, online socialization, information exchange, knowledge construction, and development.
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EMOTIONAL LITERACY
Each stage is further segmented into technical skills and emoderating skills. References: Salmon, G. (2000). E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online. London: Routledge. Related Terms: eLearning facilitating, Online moderating
created. Detailed information, personal notes, and any associated files (PDFs, images, documents, or URLs) may be saved and attached to each reference. After a collection of references has been generated, EndNote can create a bibliography based on one of several thousand available styles including popular styles used in different disciplines as well as formats used by specific journals. The Cite While You Write function allows researchers to use word processing software along with EndNote to insert references and generate a bibliography. EndNote, produced by Thomson Scientific, must be installed locally on a user’s computer to access the full functionality of the program. A web-based version with limited functionality is also available and is known as EndNote Web. References: Wikipedia. EndNote. Downloaded July 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EndNote. Related Terms: RefWork
Emotional literacy Taxonomy: General Citation. The ability to identify and communicate experienced emotions with precision. Individuals with high levels of emotional literacy are able to identify, control, and communicate their emotions as well as recognize the emotional states, needs, and responses of others. Central to the concept of emotional literacy are delayed gratification and self-control. Social, financial, and academic successes have been linked to emotional literacy and emotional intelligence, which has contributed to the inclusion of these concepts in educational and management programs. In education, emotional literacy often focuses on assisting students with situational difficulties in developing coping skills. Some tension exists in assigning higher value to the intellect and lower value to emotions, leading some educators to express the opinion that teaching students about their emotions diverts instructional time and resources from traditional academic pursuits. References: Goleman, D. (1997). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than I.Q. New York: Bantam Books. Salovey, P., & Sluyter, D. J. (1997). Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications. New York: Basic Books. Related Terms: Caring community, Character education, Conflict resolution, Emotional intelligence, Selfunderstanding, Social problem solving
Endpoint Taxonomy: General Citation. The term endpoint has meanings in biology, geometry, and in communications technology. All of them are similar as they occur at the end or beginning of something. In computer and communications technology endpoints are devices (usually hardware and software) at which some encoding and decoding occurs. For example, a telephone handset encodes the outgoing voice and decodes the incoming. Videoconference endpoints include coder-decoder units (sometimes referred to as compressor-decompressors) that are referred to as codecs. A networked computer can be thought of as an endpoint as it receives information from the network, decodes and displays it, as well as encodes and sends information. Related Terms: Coder-decoder, Videoconference
EndNote Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A popular citation management software used by researchers and students for managing bibliographies. EndNote saves groups of references in files called libraries. References can be added manually or imported from numerous research databases or other citation management programs. The software supports entry of references for many different types of sources, including commonly used formats like books, articles, and URLs as well as less commonly used items such as personal communications, theses, maps, or statutes. Within each EndNote, library references can be sorted or searched and additional groups of references can be
Enrichment Taxonomy: Education Citation. In the educational arena, enrichment education is designed to excite the students about learning and to make the learning relevant. In addition, enrichment education should work at the student’s ability and pace. The intent is to help the students problem solve and connect the subjects: science, reading, writing, math, history, geography, arts, and social skills. Some enrichment programs are specifically designed to help students to become leaders and take responsibility in their learning while still able to become team players. Enrichment education is frequently associated with gifted and talented education programs.
EPORTFOLIO
References: Renzulli, J. S. (1978). The enrichment triad. Storrs Mansfield, CT: Creative Learning Press. Related Terms: Gifted education, Alternative education, Motivational instruction Taxonomy: Education Citation. Providing additional content, beyond the standard curriculum, to students who show particular aptitude for a subject. While beneficial to those students, enrichment can be controversial: some feel that the benefits to a small group of gifted students do not justify reallocating limited resources away from others. References: Roberts, J. L. (2005). Enrichment opportunities for gifted learners. In F. A. Karnes & K. R. Stephens (Eds.), Practical strategies series in gifted education. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Enterprise resources planning Taxonomy: General Citation. An industry term for the broad set of activities facilitated by multimodule application software that includes modules providing financial, order management, production and materials planning, and related functions. Usually, an ERP software system is integrated with a relational database system at the back end. ERP systems tend to support best business practices and are focusing on global planning of business processes and execution across the whole enterprise. References: Modrák, V. (2007). Functionalities and position of manufacturing execution systems. In L. A. Tomei (Ed.), Online and distance learning: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications, vol. 5. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Reference. Moon, Y. B. (2007). Enterprise resource planning (ERP): A review of the literature. International Journal of Management & Enterprise Development, 3, 235–64. Related Terms: Computer software, Industrial technology, Data gathering Acronyms: ERP ePedagogy Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. The study of teaching via the Internet, or the study of online instruction. Technology gives educators a platform that allows them to reach anyone anywhere. ePedagogy is the study of instructional techniques and tools for effective distance learning. ePedagogy shares with conventional pedagogy a focus
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on means to the end, that is, content management and information transmission. With epedagogy, technology reinforces intuitive understanding and the ways in which we learn and know (Cuthell, 2008). References: Cuthell, J. P. (2008). Learning theory and e-pedagogy. Retrieved February 13, 2008, from virtual learning .org.uk/changemanage/pedagogy_practice? Learning. Related Terms: E-learning, Distance learning, Webbased education, Online instruction ePortfolio Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. An authentic assessment tool that enables learners to chronicle their learning by giving them a medium for organizing, storing, and displaying their skills, academic and career goals, and professional potential. The eportfolio is an instrument that facilitates mobility and acknowledges formal and informal learning over a lifetime in a particular career or vocation. For example, the concept of teacher as learner, teacher as expert, and teacher as scholar answers the question of who would be using the portfolio. Educators display characteristics of three different natures over the span of a thirty-year career in education. An internal assessment of where the portfolio user is in an academic career must be considered before the correct format of the portfolio can be developed. ePortfolios have a multitude of uses. They can be used to assess communication skills such as writing; provide evidence of student learning outcomes; track learner progress toward coursework, program, institutional, district, state, and national standards; serve as a platform for authentic classroom assessment; maintain an unofficial record of academic performance, credentials, certification, and career development; and link a learner to peers and colleagues. Categories or components of an effective eportfolio include collecting folders in which artifacts are stored initially as the learner gathers content area materials, classroom resources, library resources, and World Wide Web sites; working folders where new skills are acquired as the learner seeks to make connections, reflect and self-assess, prepare learning projects, and apply lessons learned; and showcase folders that contain permanent artifacts of service, teaching, scholarship, and professional achievement (Wilcox & Tomei, 1999). References: Wilcox, B., & Tomei, L. (1999). Professional portfolios for teachers. Norwood, MA: ChristopherGordon Publishers.
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EQUITY
Equity Taxonomy: General Citation. Conformity, sameness, or things being equal. In education, equity means that all students should have equal opportunities to learn. Ideally, this means that all students should have access to an education that is equal with respect to the quality of services offered. Equity means equal educational opportunities regardless of gender, disability, ethnicity, race, social, or economic status. Equity in education may mean that more resources may be required for those students who need them to accommodate their learning needs. The landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas is an example of a Supreme Court decision legislating equity in education. The decision in that case ended legally segregated education in the United States. A more recent example of equity applied to an educational setting through federal legislation is the Women’s Educational Equity Act (WEEA), which makes it illegal to discriminate against women in education. This federal legislation was passed primarily to protect women in the elementary and secondary school environments. References: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Equity and excellence. Retrieved from www.ncrel.org/ sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/sc2eqex .htm. Wikipedia. Women’s Educational Equity Act. Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_ Educational_Equity_Act. Related Terms: Equality, Fairness eReserves Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. An “electronic” version of traditional library reserve material where copyrighted content is made available to approved users in a protected online environment allowing for remote access to the data. Ergonomics Taxonomy: General Citation. The multidisciplinary field that addresses the need to remove barriers for health, safety, human performance, productivity, and quality in humanmachine environments. These settings include not only workplaces requiring physical labor such as factories, production, and construction, but also office and technological workplaces requiring computer use, repetitive tasks, and long hours sitting at a desk. Graduate study is needed to prepare the best professionals in this field; their work draws on a wide variety of disciplines including both physics
and engineering and health and medical science, utilizing professionals such as doctors, physical therapists, occupational therapists, nurses and chiropractors, and safety experts. Today, many government agencies are involved in identifying and enforcing ergonomic and workplace safety regulations (see the U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA). However, an increasingly machine-based and technological society means our lives include multiple interfaces with ergonomic needs and challenges. References: Budnick, P. (2001, May 30). What is ergonomics really about? Ergonomics Today, Ergoweb. Retrieved on May 28, 2008, from www.ergobuyer.com/ resources/faq/glossary.cfm. Kroemer, K. H. E. (2002). Definition of ergonomics. National Safety Council. Retrieved June 7, 2006, from www.nsc.org/issues/ergo/define.htm. Related Terms: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Occupational injury, Musculoskeletal disorder, Repetitive strain injury, Repetitive motion injury, Upper-Extremity Cumulative Trauma Disorder, Work Related Upper Limb Disorder Acronyms: NIOSH, OSHA, MSD, RSI, RMI, UECTD, WRULD eSchooling Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Originally referred to the commercialization of distance learning courses, sold online, such as the use of the World Wide Web as an extension of a school’s educational and organizational infrastructure. Now more broadly defined as a process in which an entire schooling system uses information and communications technology (ICT) to transform learning in a way that links schooling to key social and economic goals to ensure that learners are helped to become citizens, with the skills and knowledge to find employment and nurture lifelong learning. The concept has four important characteristics: (1) it sees schools as learning organizations, and (2) requires an alignment of policy and technology; (3) eschooling depends on sustainability, and (4) implies a constructivist view of learning. References: Anderson, J., & Austin, R. (2007, July). E-schooling: Global messages from a small island. London: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group. Austin, R. & Anderson, J. (2006). Re-schooling and information communication technology: A case study of Ireland. In L. W. H. Tan & R. Subramaniam (Eds.), Handbook of research on literacy in
ETUTOR
technology at the K–12 level. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Essential question Taxonomy: Education Citation. A question that requires the student to develop a plan or course of action or a question that requires the student to make a decision. The essential question should force the student to critically analyze and develop an answer based on an inquiry approach. The answers to essential questions cannot be found. However, students should develop their own answers to the posed question. Essential questions should have multiple correct answers. Writing appropriate and proper essential questions takes practice to formulate because these questions should not have one true answer. Essential questions should spark curiosity among students, which could take time to answer. An example of an essential question could be “What can NASA do to ensure the safety of astronauts while flying to Mars?” This question forces the student to think creatively since there is not one true, correct answer. References: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Essential Questions—A Doorway to Understanding. Downloaded July 2009 from www.ascd .org/professional_development/institutes/PD10G D037.aspx. Ethernet Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Physically wired network technology comprising either pulled copper wire or fiber-optic cable connections, invented and developed in 1972, by the Xerox Corporation’s Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). The world’s first truly operating local area network (LAN), the Ethernet principally serves as a closed circuit broadcast medium allowing communications to take place between any authorized computer users directly connected to its network by an Ethernet cable (typically within a single building, or group of buildings serving a single institution). References: Rybczynski, T. (2003, August 12). The maturing wireless LAN. Internet Telephony. Retrieved May 14, 2008, from www.poweroverethernet.com/articles .php?article_id=22. Spurgeon, C. E. (2000). Ethernet: The definitive guide. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly & Associates. Related Terms: Wired networks, Closed-loop connections Acronyms: LANs, IEEE 802.3, StarLAN
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eTutor Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. This term refers to a brand new professional figure that came from the development of elearning. It is a figure not yet well defined but who presents some significant elements of discontinuity in respect to tutoring forms of the in-site didactic, connected to the features of different formative environments that are now outlining within virtual reality. The etutor is defined as a professional figure that is not just a simple didactical advisor/consultant, but rather the administrator of the educational processes, often of collaborative type, based on the intensive use of data transmission technology. Therefore, the etutor is a figure that, without overlapping on other roles and using specific abilities and strategies, intervenes typically as a moderator between instruction, formation contents, and students. Even within this definition the role of the etutor aims to diversify according to the teaching/learning model on which the formative activity is arranged and to put on specific connotations, which are individuated within a scheme partake by many authors. This scheme has a triple role articulation in terms of instructor, facilitator, and moderator. The first attitude is more oriented to the content work; the instructor tutor, therefore, guides learners toward the comprehension of concepts that they have to study, clarifying and interpreting them; giving support material on the contents, general information on the formative aims, and information on the didactical methodology used. The second attitude is better referred to as the methodological and organizational support function within the online formation path connected with the learners’ needs; the facilitator tutor incites the students to reflect on the studying path, on the way their knowledge and competences are evolving and modifying in respect to the aims estimated, gives clues and advice necessary to better manage the time, and provides possible advice on studying modalities and on the strategies to use. The third attitude is referred to as the organization and management of online discussion groups; the moderator/animator tutor thus assumes the role of intellectual stimulus, takes care of group dynamics within the communication, analyzes relationships, and tries to resolve potential conflicts. References: Collins, M. P., & Berge, Z. L. (1996, June). Facilitating interaction in computer mediated online courses. Background paper presented at the FSU/AECT Distance Education Conference, Tallahassee, FL.
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ETWINNING
Trentin, G. (2004). Il tutor di rete. FOR-rivista per la formazione. Gennaio-Marzo, n. 58, pp. 31–40. Related Terms: Tutor, eLearning eTwinning Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Coined in Europe for an initiative of the European Commission’s Lifelong Learning Program to link pupils in schools across Europe by email and the Internet for the purposes of cooperative learning for international citizenship education. References: European Commission Education & Training. (n.d.). eTwinning, part of the Lifelong Learning Programme. Retrieved from www.etwinning.net. Evaluation level of the KARPE model Taxonomy: Education Citation. The KARPE model began as a way of explaining to adult learners the inherent differentiation between teaching adults at the postsecondary, graduate, and postgraduate levels of higher education. Evaluation involves several key questions that must be considered before infusing technology into the assessment equation. First, is technology-based assessment an effective modality for evaluating student learning outcomes? Consideration of cost, time, and staffing resources are in order. A good learning assessment program includes a rubric against which the results can be compared, a measurement instrument that is both valid and reliable, and a reporting procedure to broadcast the results of the evaluation. Opponents of assessment argue that poor quality tests cause a disconnect between the material presented to the learner (i.e., the curriculum) and the assessment instrument. They also express considerable concern surrounding the expense of the process, from instrument to analysis. Integrating technology into the assessment does not necessarily ensure either quality or economics. Second, how will the use of technology impact the delivery of the assessment tool? For example, the use of a computer instead of paper and pencil might interfere with the learner’s ability to express their level of learning. Students may indeed perform differently across different modality types of assessment. Third, does the performance of different population groups vary because of the method of delivery? Populations are stratified by age, sex, education level, or level of computer experience. As some instructional technologies favor the learning styles of specific populations of students, using technology to assess should also be expected to prefer one group of students over
others and, thereby, produce significantly different results. Finally, what are the operational challenges of administering technology-based assessments? To assess using technology requires technology to be available to the designer, the instructor, and the respondent. Online assessments, for example, are easier to administer, cost less per application, and produce viewable analyses much faster than the traditional paper and number two pencil instrument. However, students must have access to computers to enter the survey instrument online and instructors must have the technology to retrieve and display the results. Assessment takes many forms in education and training. As a result, assessment can also run the gamut of available technologies. Objective assessments (usually multiple choice, true/false, short answer) are best for testing recall of facts and are easily automated. Objective tests assume that there are verifiably correct answers and that all students are held responsible to learn the same facts, details, and specific information. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) provides a programmed sequence of information followed by objective questions that serve as the gateway to further instruction. Answer the question correct, and the learner passes to the next module; make a mistake, and the learner is returned to the beginning of the lesson for relearning, review, and reassessment. In subjective assessments, the instructor relies on personal judgment to assess the outcome of the learning experience. Essay tests and personal evaluations are examples of how an instructor can build an assessment focusing on more complex concepts. Not many technologies support subjective evaluations; word processing software with features that include edit tracking, spelling and grammar checking, and commenting (such as those available in Microsoft Word) offer the most help to the subjective evaluator. Self-assessments help learners determine for themselves whether they have mastered a topic. These technologies measure learning progress, permit multiple attempts, inform the learner (and, optionally, the teacher), and offer feedback regarding the mastery of the expected outcomes. They include online or webbased practice quizzes; computerized games, simulations, and other interactive exercises; and practice written assignments/logs/thinking journals. Finally, authentic assessments include portfolios (electronic, in our case), educational software (and the built-in evaluations), and virtual experiments vis-à-vis traditional (and often costly and dangerous) laboratory experiments.
EXPERT SYSTEM
References: Tomei, L. A. (2008). The KARPE model revisited. In Adapting information and communications technologies for effective education. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers. Related Terms: KARPE model, Knowledge level, Application level, Research level, Practice level Event-based simulation methodology Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A simulation structure and the basic concept of the event scheduling method are to advance time to the moment when something happens next (that is, when one event ends, time is advanced to the time of the next scheduled event). An event usually releases a resource. The event then reallocates available objects or entities by scheduling activities in which they can now participate. Many simulation packages adopted event-based approaches, among them Supply Chain Builder (www.simulationdynamics.com), Factory Explorer (www.wwk.com), GoldSim (www.goldsim .com), and ShowFlow (www.showflow.co.uk). References: Pidd, M. (1998). Computer simulation in management science (4th ed.). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Related Terms: Simulation, Modeling, Simulation methodologies Exemplar Taxonomy: Education Citation. One that serves as a model or example (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2008). In education, an exemplar is a model example of a performance task, student project, paper, and the like. Teachers often utilize exemplars in the classroom to demonstrate how to perform a task requiring a student to demonstrate knowledge attainment. The use of an exemplar coupled with a rubric allows a teacher to set an expectation on how to perform the performance-based assignment. References: Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. exemplar. Retrieved from www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ exemplar. Taxonomy: Education Citation. One that serves as an ideal or typical example of a concept. In education, exemplars are used to show students how a final product should appear. In science, exemplars are the fundamental concepts pertaining to a particular discipline that most, if not all, practitioners would be expected to know.
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References: Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Related Terms: Scientific consensus, Paradigm, Model Experiential education Taxonomy: Education Citation. According to the pioneer in educational theory, John Dewey (1938), “All genuine education comes through experience.” Experiential education engages students in authentic experiences as they learn through doing. Some programs that utilize experiential education include based lessons wherein students build trust and community through team activities. The lessons include direct experience and build in time for reflection. An accreditation and information disseminating organization for this type of education is the Association for Experiential Education (AEE). References: Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier. Related Terms: Authentic experiences, Experiential learning Acronyms: AEE Expert system Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A term used in reference to a computer software program that uses nonnumerical, domain-specific knowledge to solve problems with a competence comparable with that of human experts. Examples might include those specifically designed to assist with medical diagnosis (MYCIN), psychotherapy (ELISA), or geographical/demographic analyses (GIS). Most expert systems were originally written using the PROLOG, LISP, FORTH, or CLIPS software programming languages, but may now be built from any number of software developments. A user of an “expert system” will typically enter a series of data entry points or target questions, which are then processed by preprogrammed patternmatching algorithms, in order to provide a text-based output comprising putative conclusions and solutions. The accuracy and usefulness of such expert systems (sometimes also called intelligent knowledge-based systems, or IKBS), will vary in efficiency according to their evolving database and/or neural-network “trained” recognition complexity and sophistication. References: Boden, M. (1977). Artificial intelligence and natural man. New York: Basic Books.
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Buchanan, B. G. (Au.), & Wilkins, D. C. (Ed.). (1992). Readings in knowledge acquisition and learning: Automating the construction and improvement of expert systems. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. Related Terms: Intelligent systems, Knowledge systems, Interactive databases, Data mining Acronyms: IKBS, MYCIN, ELISA, GIS Extensible markup language Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A metamarkup language that, inspired by the principles of descriptive markup, provides directions for the syntax of markup languages whose documents are oriented for use on the Internet. It is a subset of its predecessor, the standard generalized markup language (SGML). Since its definition in 1998, the extensible markup language has exceeded its original scope, and is now used in a variety of contexts including (but not limited to) archival/retrieval, input/output, and transcoding of data onto different computing devices. References: Bray, T., Paoli, J., Sperberg-McQueen, C. M., Maler, E., & Yergeau, F. (2006). Extensible markup language (XML) 1.0 (4th ed.). W3C Recommendation. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Related Terms: Standard generalized markup language Acronyms: XML Facebook Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. A social networking website launched in 2004. Users can join networks organized by city, workplace, school, and region to connect and interact with other people. People can also add friends and send them messages, and update their personal profile to notify friends about themselves. The website’s name refers to the paper facebooks depicting members of a campus community that some American colleges and preparatory schools give to incoming students, faculty, and staff as a way to get to know other people on campus. References: Towner, T. L., & VanHorn, A. M. (2007). Facebook: Classroom tool for a classroom community? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Palmer House Hotel, Chicago, IL. Retrieved from www.allacademic .com/meta/p197133_index.html. Yadav, S. (2006). Facebook: The complete biography. Retrieved from mashable.com/2006/08/25/face book-profile/.
Face-to-face Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Traditional forms of education require that a student attend a physical class at a predetermined day and time. This physical class meeting allows students to see their instructor and vice versa. With the advent of distance education through correspondence coursework and online, students no longer have to see their instructor to take a class. This term differentiates between the learning that takes place in a physical classroom and the learning that takes place at a distance. Related Terms: Face-2-face Acronyms: F2F Facilitative tools Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Any instrument or media that can be used to support learning. These include a wide range from grade books to learning objects and interactive exercises. They can be specific to a lesson or used across multiple contexts to support different purposes. Facilitative tools are commonly used to improve access, socialization, information exchange, knowledge construction, and learner development. One growing trend in this area is simulations, which offer alternative lesson perspectives. References: Odin, J. (2003). E-tivities: The key to active online learning. On the Horizon, 11(1), 33–34. Related Terms: Simulations, Learning objects, Exercises Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Techniques and practices of instructors in an online learning environment or course. Due to the student-centered character of online learning, the term instructor is often replaced by the term facilitator since the instructor facilitates the students’ efforts to achieve the learning objectives of the online course. The facilitator focuses on the creation of reliable tools, such as detailed syllabi, written lectures, discussion questions, and evaluation forms, to guide students’ learning. References: Betz, M. (2002). A case study of essentials of practice at an online university. United States Distance Learning Association Journal, 16(10). Retrieved from www.usdla.org/html/journal/OCT02_Issue/ article08.html. Facilitator Taxonomy: Education Citation. An individual who leads a group of people in a constructive discussion. The main job of this person
FIBER-OPTIC CABLE
is to promote an open dialogue, raise discussion questions, and keep order during a group discussion. The main objective is to keep the conversation moving, discourage combative dialogue, and assist with critical thinking and the creation of new ideas. References: Case, R. (1994). Stewart on teaching versus facilitating: a misconstrued dichotomy. Canadian Journal of Education, 19(3), 287–298. Facsimile Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A facsimile (to “make like”) refers to the reproduction of a manuscript or print item. A fax (abbreviation for facsimile) is a telecommunications technology used to transfer copies (facsimiles) of documents through a telephone network. A fax machine usually consists of a modem, image scanner, printer, and photocopier. References: Wikipedia. fax. Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Fax. Related Terms: Modem, Image scanner, Printer, Photocopier Fair use Taxonomy: General Citation. Fair use is a section (section 107) in the copyright laws that specify when other people’s work can be copied. It allows for the legal use of copyrighted materials without seeking consent from the owner of the works. It is important to note that the user cannot only use the copyright material temporarily. The fair use concept is based on the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. There are four guidelines that one must adhere to in order to determine whether fair use applies and whether the copyrighted materials can be used. These include: 1. The intended use of the copyrighted material, specifically is it for profitable or educational purposes? 2. The type of the copyrighted material, that is, whether it is fact or fictional. The aim of this criterion is to ensure that information that should be made available to the public is not privately owned. 3. The extent or quantity of the copyrighted material to be used. 4. The impact of the use of copyrighted materials on the business worth of copyrighted work. As an additional note, the use of photocopies and media for educational purposes is not considered an
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infringement of copyright law considering the four criteria mentioned above. However, there may be an issue of fair use in terms of criteria 3, which refers to the quantity of the copyrighted materials used. The application of fair use is not entirely clear but the criteria listed above are guides to avoid breaking copyright laws. References: Fair use adds to economic growth. (2007). American Libraries, 38, 11–12. Lever-Duffy, J., McDonald, J. B., & Mizell, A. P. (2005). Teaching and learning with technology (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. Related Terms: Copyright Feedback Taxonomy: General Citation. Actions taken by an external agent to provide information regarding some aspect of one’s task performance. We concentrate here on feedback intervention given to the student by an external agent (the teacher) as regards certain aspects and outcomes of the learning process. The process in which part of the output of a system is returned to its input in order to regulate its further output. Often this is done intentionally, in order to control the dynamic behavior of the system. Fiber-optic cable Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Made of bundled glass or plastic fibers (threads) with a cable connector at each end (invented in 1955 by Narinder Kapany). Fiber-optic cables are designed to direct signal-modulated light transmissions along a nonrectilinear path, and have been in commercial use since 1965. For the purpose of facilitating communication between telephone and computational devices, fiber optics is principally used to convey messages as digitally modulated signals of light waves, which “travel” along the fiber-optic cables by means of their “internal reflection.” Requiring much less energy per unit distance than copper wires of comparable length, fiber-optic cables are capable of faster and more efficient transmission of high-density information. Although relatively expensive to manufacture and install, the fact that glass is not an electrical conductor allows it to be used where electrical isolation is needed (e.g., close to high magnetic fields such as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging equipment, or areas requiring cross-bonding to eliminate differences in earth potentials). Fiber-optic cables also pose little or no direct threat in dangerous environments such as chemical plants where a spark might trigger an
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explosion. Assisting enhanced security aspects, it is relatively difficult to “tap into” a fiber-optic cable in order to read the data signals being transmitted along its length. References: Hecht, J. (1998). Understanding fiber optics (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Messadie, G. (1991). Great modern inventions. New York: W & R Chambers. Related Terms: Cable connections, Network wiring, Optical signals, Optical fibers Acronyms: FL, FOB, LED Fiber optics Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Physical connection devices made of bundled glass or plastic fibers (threads) with a cable connector at each end to direct light along a nonrectilinear path. The technique was invented in 1955 by Narinder Kapany and has been in commercial use since 1965. For the purpose of facilitating communication between telephone and computational devices, fiber optics is principally used to convey messages as digitally modulated signals of light waves, which “travel” along fiber-optic cables. The cables used to carry such signals are both much thinner and lighter than the metal wires required to convey signals of comparable bandwidth. The optical fiber itself takes the form of a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. Fiber-optic cables are thus faster and more efficient for use with systems needing high-density information transmission, and although more expensive to lay and maintain if damaged, may be preferred in environments close to high-flux electromagnetic fields (such as electrical power transmission transformers or functioning magnetic resonance imaging [FMRI] equipment). References: Hecht, J. (1998). Understanding fiber optics (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Messadie, G. (1991). Great modern inventions. New York: W & R Chambers. Related Terms: Optical fiber, Optical communication, Endoscopy, Cold light, Fiber link, Fiber-optic bundle, Light-emitting diode Acronyms: FL, FOB, LED File transfer protocol Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Commonly referred to as FTP. This is the standard by which files are transferred from one computer to another computer over the Internet. When files
can be transferred without regard to the file’s format or the operating system in which the file was created. The process of transferring the file is also known as uploading. References: Loshin, P. (1999). TCP/IP clearly explained. San Diego, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. Related Terms: Uploading Acronyms: FTP Firewall Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A security hardware or software program that restricts access between two networks. Firewalls were once only installed on large networks; however, it is common now for personal computers to include a firewall. Information both retrieved and sent passes through the firewall so that the information can be screened to determine if any risk is present. Commonly, a firewall allows for users behind a firewall to access the Internet while protecting the network from being viewed by unknown individuals on the Internet. References: Barile, I. (2006). Protecting your PC. Boston, MA: Charles River Media. Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A combination of hardware and software that limits the exposure of a computer or group of computers to an attack from outside its network. The most common use of a firewall is on a LAN connected to the Internet; without a firewall LANs are vulnerable. Firewalls are systems or combination of systems that enforce a boundary between two or more networks. There are several types of firewalls, including packet filter, circuit gateway, application gateway, or trusted gateway. Networks now have firewalls to protect internal data from internal and external hazards. In order to videoconference over an IP network with a firewall, ports are assigned to handle the video. H.323 specifies the dynamic ports within a specific range. Flame Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A heated verbal interaction between Internet users, generally found in written communications such as email, bulletin boards, or text-based synchronous chats. Believed to have originated with the comic book character the Human Torch, early users of asynchronous communications would often include the character’s signature lines “flame on” and “flame off” in their responses to indicate emotional content, the inclusion of angry words, or upcoming heated or sar-
FLEXIBLE GROUPING
castic content. The related verb, flaming, refers to the creation or continuation of such heated topics. Taxonomy: Technology Citation. Hostile and insulting interaction between communication technology users including email, chat, and posting on the Internet. An Internet user typically generates a flame response to other posts or users posting on a site, and such a response is usually not constructive, does not clarify a discussion, and does not persuade others. Such interactions are insulting and abusive in tone and nature. It is believed that the intention of the flamers is to assert their authority, or establish a position of dominance over other participants. At times, a flamer believes he or she carries the only opinion that matters. This leads him or her to personally attack those who disagree. Other times, however, flamers want to upset and offend other members in a discussion forum. The word flaming is also sometimes used for long, intensive, and heated discussions, even though specific insults may not occur. References: Lea, M., O’Shea, T., Fung, P., & Spears, R. (1992). Flaming in computer-mediated communication. In M. Lea (Ed.), Contexts of computer-mediated communication (pp. 89–112). Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Siegel, J., Dubrovsky, V., Kiesler, S., & McGuire, T. W. (1986). Group processes in computer-mediated communication. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 37, 157–87. Related Terms: Rude or aggressive behavior Flash memory Taxonomy: Technology Citation. A form of EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read only memory) that is nonvolatile, meaning that it can hold its contents without the need for a power supply (Computer User, 2007). Flash memory is commonly used in memory cards (such as for digital cameras), USB flash drives, MP3 players, and mobile phones; in some cases, a large flash device can be used instead of a disk drive, an alternative that is growing in use by the computer industry, particularly in laptops and other portable devices. References: Computer User. (2007). Online technology dictionary, s.vv. “flash memory.” Retrieved January 18, 2007, from www.computeruser.com/resources/dic tionary/. Related Terms: Memory Acronyms: USB
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Flexibility Taxonomy: Education Citation. A teaching technique that requires one to use various techniques and strategies in order to meet the needs of students. This could include changes made to daily or even yearly curriculum expectations and strategies in order to meet the cognitive development of students. These teaching modifications are made when the expectations are beyond the student’s level of ability. The adjustments could be very minimal or complex depending on the student performance level and mastery of the content. References: Wood, E., Woloshyn, V. E., & Willoughby, T. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction for middle and high schools. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Related Terms: Accommodations, Modifications, Teaching techniques, Pacing Flexible grouping Taxonomy: Education Citation. The purposeful reordering of students into working groups to ensure that all students work with a diverse population of individuals and in a wide range of contexts during a lesson or course setting. Flexible small groups are within class grouping in which membership varies according to ability (same ability, mixed ability), interest or questions, or learning style. Groups can be teacher selected, student selected, purposeful, or random. Flexible grouping occurs when there is a whole group assessment or instruction initially, and then the students are divided by their need for review, reteaching, practice, or enrichment. Such groupings could be for a single lesson or objective, a set of skills, a unit of study, or a major concept or theme. Flexible grouping creates temporary groups for an hour, a day, a week, or a month. It does not create permanent groups. Flexible grouping is a critical management strategy in the differentiated classroom. It allows a better instructional match between students’ needs and what teachers want students to know, understand, and be able to do. It lets instructors tailor learning activities according to students’ needs and learning preferences, and, in the process, gives instructors the time to provide additional instruction or extend learning experiences to particular students or groups. References: Heacox, D. (2001). Differentiating instruction in the regular classroom. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing. Tomlinson, C. A., & Strickland, C. A. (2005). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide for differentiating
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curriculum. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Related Terms: Grouping, Varied groups Flexible learning and teaching Taxonomy: Education Citation. Coined to describe the development of a new model of education (hybrid), particularly in the higher education sector (Webb, Gill, & Poe, 2005). Flexible learning offers flexibility in the time, place, and pace of the study; the content; and including at times, flexible entry and exit and differing assessments. It also allows for different learning styles and the option to collaborate or work independently. It can include recognition of prior learning, and learning can employ a range of technologies such as online teaching and learning as well as the more traditional methods of face-to-face and distance print-based learning. This model originated in response to the growth of an increasingly competitive higher educational environment caused by factors such as globalization, changing student demographics, the demand for increased and constantly changing employment knowledge, decreasing governmental and increasing private funding for universities, and the improvement in communication technology. References: Ling, P., Arger, G., Smallwood, H., Toomey, R., Kirkpatrick, D., & Banard, I. (2001). The effectiveness of models of flexible provision of higher education. Department of Education, Training, and Youth Affairs, Australia. Webb, H. W., Gill, G., & Poe, G. (2005). Teaching with the case method online: Pure versus hybrid approaches. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 3(2), 223–50. Related Terms: Flexible learning, Blended learning, Hybrid learning and teaching Acronyms: FL&T Flexible scheduling Taxonomy: Education Citation. Flexible scheduling is discussed as a means for achieving individualized instruction in the classroom. Scheduling, in general, is presented as a compromise among four elements: (1) individualizing the educational program for each student, (2) utilizing available facilities, (3) utilizing available staff, and (4) capitalizing on staff competencies. Variable schedules, or blocks of instruction time, are also examined as they lend themselves to instruction cycling. Flexible modular scheduling, or schedules of small blocks of time,
is discussed finally in relation to both alternative and traditional forms of scheduling. References: Education World. Strong Libraries Improve Student Achievement. Downloaded July 2009 from http:// www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin 178.shtml. Related Terms: Course organization, Flexibility, Scheduling, Curriculum development Folksonomy Taxonomy: Distance Education Citation. Created by Thomas Vander Wal in 2004 when he suggested this denotation for the outcome of the process of collaboratively assigning keywords to resources or items on the Internet. In this context folksonomy is often used synonymously with the terms social classification, social indexing, or social tagging. Folksonomy consists of the words folk and taxonomy. However, the denotation is controversial, due to the reference to taxonomy. A classification scheme like taxonomy is strictly hierarchic and contains relations, unlike a folksonomy, which consists of a flat namespace. Vander Wal characterizes a folksonomy as the outcome of individual free tagging of Internet resources in a social environment for one’s own retrieval. The vocabulary is not predetermined; instead the users describe the information and items within their own understanding. The objective is rather an assistance to connect items and to express their meaning in a personal understanding than a categorization. The literature distinguishes two different types of folksonomies. In broad terms, folksonomies describe the same item with a term of their personal vocabulary. Hence many similar or different tags are assigned to the object. By contrast, there are few tags in narrow folksonomies, mostly provided by the content creator and a small group of people. Due to this, the number of tags and tagging persons is significantly lower than in broad folksonomies. Today folksonomies are implemented in various fields. Besides a high diffusion in Internet Web 2.0 services, folksonomies are used for corporate applications as well, for example, for indexing corporate blogs or in social corporate bookmarking. Further, folksonomies are used in public facilities such as art museums or public library catalogues. References: Gordon-Murnane, L. (2006). Social bookmarking, folksonomies, and Web 2.0 tools. Searcher—The Magazine for Database Professionals, 14( 6), 26–38. Marlow, C., Naaman, M., Boyd, D., & Davis, M. (2006). HT06, tagging paper, taxonomy, Flickr,
FOUNDATION OF TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION
academic article, to read. In U. Wiil, P. Nürnberg, & J. Rubart (Eds.), Hypertext and Hypermedia 2006, Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia (pp. 31–40). New York: Association for Computing Machinery. Related Terms: Tagging, Collaborative tagging, Social classification, Social indexing, Social tagging Forensics Taxonomy: General Citation. “The application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system. This may be in relation to a crime or to a civil action.” The use of “the term forensics in place of forensic science could be considered incorrect; the term forensic is effectively a synonym for legal or ‘related to courts’ [from Latin, it means ‘before the forum’]. However, it is now so closely associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science.” Computer forensics is more the technological, systematic inspection of the computer system and its contents for evidence or supportive evidence of a civil wrong or a criminal act. In addition, computer forensics requires specialized expertise and tools that go above and beyond the normal data collection and preservation techniques available to end users or system support personnel. References: Wikipedia. forensics. Retrieved February 12, 2008, from en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forensics &oldid=143942865. Formal operations stage Taxonomy: Education Citation. Derives from Jean Piaget’s (Swiss psychologist) theory of cognitive development for humans. This theory is based on the premise that human cognitive development proceeds through four fixed stages: sensorimotor (birth to two years old), preoperational (two to seven years), concrete operational (seven to eleven years), and formal operational (eleven years to adulthood). Stages are sequentially arranged in ascending order, with each depending on the preceding stage. In the formal operations stage, children as youth supersede dependence on connections between thinking and the physical world and develop the abilities to think hypothetically and to solve complex problems. The cognitive developments from earlier stages continue to develop and strengthen leading to an adolescent egocentrism derived from focusing on personal thoughts, and that can lead to utopianism. Piaget and
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other psychologists agree that the attainment of formal operations cognition is not unanimous for all people and is more likely to be present for individuals in special areas of interest and fields of study. References: Gredler, M. E. (2004). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational psychology (9th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. Related Terms: Jean Piaget, Theory of cognitive development Formative assessment Taxonomy: Education Citation. Evaluation that occurs before or during the course of instruction rather than after it is completed. The purpose of formative assessment is to provide teacher feedback on what, how much, and how well students are learning. There are several formative assessment techniques that can be employed to monitor student learning. Formative assessments include basic questioning during the lesson to written checks for understanding. For example, students can be asked to write for one minute, known as the minute paper, about what they have learned during the lesson. Likewise, students can complete a K-W-L chart identifying what they (K) know, what they (W) want to know, and what they have (L) learned. Since formative assessment is utilized in planning and diagnosing learning, it is almost never graded and is usually anonymous. Teachers are trying to ascertain how the entire class is doing as a whole and make adjustments in strategies if learning is impeded. References: Angelo, T., & Cross, K. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Santrock, J. (2006). Educational psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Related Terms: Assessment, Summative assessment, Formative evaluation Foundation of technology integration Taxonomy: Instructional Technology Citation. Recognition that technology is not implemented in a vacuum but is based on philosophical and psychology theories including learning principles upon teaching and learning are rationalized. Educators and practitioners must take into consideration the economic underpinning of technology integration. A philosophical foundation provides justification for using technology to facilitate instruction; a psychological foundation addresses the methods and strategies
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FRAME
of using technology to teach and learn. The economic foundation provides the guidelines for selecting instructional technology that has economic value both to the learner and to the economy. References: Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J., & Smaldino, S. E. (2002). Instructional media and technologies for learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Shelly, G. B., Gashman, T. J., & Gunter, G. A. (2004). Integrating technology in the classroom. Boston, MA: Thompson Course Technology. Related Terms: Philosophical base of technology integration, Psychological base of technology integration, Economic base of technology integration Frame Taxonomy: Technology Citation. In information and communication technologies, frame can acquire two general meanings: 1. An area on a screen a. A frame within a webpage is an area of the screen that can display a webpage independently from other areas of the screen. Frames were supported in the original HTML 1.0 specification through the
