Color Blindness - A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References

COLOR

BLINDNESS A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R EFERENCES

J AMES N. P ARKER , M.D. AND P HILIP M. P ARKER , P H .D., E DITORS

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ICON Health Publications ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, 4th Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Copyright ©2003 by ICON Group International, Inc. Copyright ©2003 by ICON Group International, Inc. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1

Publisher, Health Care: Philip Parker, Ph.D. Editor(s): James Parker, M.D., Philip Parker, Ph.D. Publisher's note: The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained in this book are not intended for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. As new medical or scientific information becomes available from academic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies may undergo changes. The authors, editors, and publisher have attempted to make the information in this book up to date and accurate in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of this book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised to always check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dosage and contraindications before prescribing any drug or pharmacological product. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs, herbal remedies, vitamins and supplements, alternative therapies, complementary therapies and medicines, and integrative medical treatments. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parker, James N., 1961Parker, Philip M., 1960Color Blindness: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References / James N. Parker and Philip M. Parker, editors p. cm. Includes bibliographical references, glossary, and index. ISBN: 0-597-83836-4 1. Color Blindness-Popular works. I. Title.

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Disclaimer This publication is not intended to be used for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not engaging in the rendering of medical, psychological, financial, legal, or other professional services. References to any entity, product, service, or source of information that may be contained in this publication should not be considered an endorsement, either direct or implied, by the publisher, editors, or authors. ICON Group International, Inc., the editors, and the authors are not responsible for the content of any Web pages or publications referenced in this publication.

Copyright Notice If a physician wishes to copy limited passages from this book for patient use, this right is automatically granted without written permission from ICON Group International, Inc. (ICON Group). However, all of ICON Group publications have copyrights. With exception to the above, copying our publications in whole or in part, for whatever reason, is a violation of copyright laws and can lead to penalties and fines. Should you want to copy tables, graphs, or other materials, please contact us to request permission (E-mail: [email protected]). ICON Group often grants permission for very limited reproduction of our publications for internal use, press releases, and academic research. Such reproduction requires confirmed permission from ICON Group International Inc. The disclaimer above must accompany all reproductions, in whole or in part, of this book.

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Acknowledgements The collective knowledge generated from academic and applied research summarized in various references has been critical in the creation of this book which is best viewed as a comprehensive compilation and collection of information prepared by various official agencies which produce publications on color blindness. Books in this series draw from various agencies and institutions associated with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and in particular, the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), the Administration on Aging (AOA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Healthcare Financing Administration (HCFA), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Indian Health Service (IHS), the institutions of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Program Support Center (PSC), and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In addition to these sources, information gathered from the National Library of Medicine, the United States Patent Office, the European Union, and their related organizations has been invaluable in the creation of this book. Some of the work represented was financially supported by the Research and Development Committee at INSEAD. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, special thanks are owed to Tiffany Freeman for her excellent editorial support.

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About the Editors James N. Parker, M.D. Dr. James N. Parker received his Bachelor of Science degree in Psychobiology from the University of California, Riverside and his M.D. from the University of California, San Diego. In addition to authoring numerous research publications, he has lectured at various academic institutions. Dr. Parker is the medical editor for health books by ICON Health Publications. Philip M. Parker, Ph.D. Philip M. Parker is the Eli Lilly Chair Professor of Innovation, Business and Society at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France and Singapore). Dr. Parker has also been Professor at the University of California, San Diego and has taught courses at Harvard University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and UCLA. Dr. Parker is the associate editor for ICON Health Publications.

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About ICON Health Publications To discover more about ICON Health Publications, simply check with your preferred online booksellers, including Barnes & Noble.com and Amazon.com which currently carry all of our titles. Or, feel free to contact us directly for bulk purchases or institutional discounts: ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, Fourth Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Fax: 858-546-4341 Web site: www.icongrouponline.com/health

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Table of Contents FORWARD .......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON COLOR BLINDNESS.................................................................................... 3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 3 Federally Funded Research on Color Blindness ............................................................................. 3 The National Library of Medicine: PubMed .................................................................................. 9 CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND COLOR BLINDNESS .......................................................................... 21 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 21 Finding Nutrition Studies on Color Blindness............................................................................ 21 Federal Resources on Nutrition ................................................................................................... 22 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND COLOR BLINDNESS.................................................... 25 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 25 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.................................................. 25 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 29 General References ....................................................................................................................... 30 CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON COLOR BLINDNESS ..................................................................... 31 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 31 Dissertations on Color Blindness................................................................................................. 31 Keeping Current .......................................................................................................................... 32 CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON COLOR BLINDNESS ................................................................................ 33 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 33 Patents on Color Blindness .......................................................................................................... 33 Patent Applications on Color Blindness ...................................................................................... 37 Keeping Current .......................................................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON COLOR BLINDNESS .................................................................................... 43 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 43 Book Summaries: Online Booksellers........................................................................................... 43 The National Library of Medicine Book Index ............................................................................. 43 Chapters on Color Blindness........................................................................................................ 44 CHAPTER 7. MULTIMEDIA ON COLOR BLINDNESS ......................................................................... 47 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 47 Video Recordings ......................................................................................................................... 47 CHAPTER 8. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON COLOR BLINDNESS ...................................................... 49 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 49 News Services and Press Releases................................................................................................ 49 Academic Periodicals covering Color Blindness .......................................................................... 51 APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES ............................................................................................ 55 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 55 NIH Guidelines............................................................................................................................ 55 NIH Databases............................................................................................................................. 57 Other Commercial Databases....................................................................................................... 59 APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES ................................................................................................. 61 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 61 Patient Guideline Sources............................................................................................................ 61 Finding Associations.................................................................................................................... 63 APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES .................................................................................. 65 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 65 Preparation................................................................................................................................... 65 Finding a Local Medical Library.................................................................................................. 65 Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada ................................................................................... 65

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ONLINE GLOSSARIES.................................................................................................................. 71 Online Dictionary Directories ..................................................................................................... 71 COLOR BLINDNESS DICTIONARY.......................................................................................... 73 INDEX ................................................................................................................................................ 97

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FORWARD In March 2001, the National Institutes of Health issued the following warning: "The number of Web sites offering health-related resources grows every day. Many sites provide valuable information, while others may have information that is unreliable or misleading."1 Furthermore, because of the rapid increase in Internet-based information, many hours can be wasted searching, selecting, and printing. Since only the smallest fraction of information dealing with color blindness is indexed in search engines, such as www.google.com or others, a non-systematic approach to Internet research can be not only time consuming, but also incomplete. This book was created for medical professionals, students, and members of the general public who want to know as much as possible about color blindness, using the most advanced research tools available and spending the least amount of time doing so. In addition to offering a structured and comprehensive bibliography, the pages that follow will tell you where and how to find reliable information covering virtually all topics related to color blindness, from the essentials to the most advanced areas of research. Public, academic, government, and peer-reviewed research studies are emphasized. Various abstracts are reproduced to give you some of the latest official information available to date on color blindness. Abundant guidance is given on how to obtain free-of-charge primary research results via the Internet. While this book focuses on the field of medicine, when some sources provide access to non-medical information relating to color blindness, these are noted in the text. E-book and electronic versions of this book are fully interactive with each of the Internet sites mentioned (clicking on a hyperlink automatically opens your browser to the site indicated). If you are using the hard copy version of this book, you can access a cited Web site by typing the provided Web address directly into your Internet browser. You may find it useful to refer to synonyms or related terms when accessing these Internet databases. NOTE: At the time of publication, the Web addresses were functional. However, some links may fail due to URL address changes, which is a common occurrence on the Internet. For readers unfamiliar with the Internet, detailed instructions are offered on how to access electronic resources. For readers unfamiliar with medical terminology, a comprehensive glossary is provided. For readers without access to Internet resources, a directory of medical libraries, that have or can locate references cited here, is given. We hope these resources will prove useful to the widest possible audience seeking information on color blindness. The Editors

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From the NIH, National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ten-things-to-know.

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CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON COLOR BLINDNESS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to locate peer-reviewed references and studies on color blindness.

Federally Funded Research on Color Blindness The U.S. Government supports a variety of research studies relating to color blindness. These studies are tracked by the Office of Extramural Research at the National Institutes of Health.2 CRISP (Computerized Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects) is a searchable database of federally funded biomedical research projects conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. Search the CRISP Web site at http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen. You will have the option to perform targeted searches by various criteria, including geography, date, and topics related to color blindness. For most of the studies, the agencies reporting into CRISP provide summaries or abstracts. As opposed to clinical trial research using patients, many federally funded studies use animals or simulated models to explore color blindness. The following is typical of the type of information found when searching the CRISP database for color blindness: •

Project Title: ANALYSIS OF COLORBLIND MUTANTS Principal Investigator & Institution: Kainz, Pamela M.; Molecular and Cellular Biology; Harvard University Holyoke Center 727 Cambridge, Ma 02138 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-OCT-2001 Summary: The goal of the proposed study is to identify and understand the function of genes involved in color vision. Zebrafish will be the animal model, and the approach

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Healthcare projects are funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Office of Assistant Secretary of Health (OASH).

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will be to identify and characterize "color-blind" animals using the optokinetic response. The first mutant identified by this method, pob, lacks red cones by 5 days postfertilization. At 3 days, however, photoreceptors expressing red opsin are present, suggesting that red- sensitive cones form initially but later disappear. Many interesting issues about the mutation cannot be addressed that red-sensitive cones form initially but later disappear. Many interesting issues about the mutation cannot be addressed because the mutant dies by day 9. Microdissection techniques are being utilized to transplant the embryonic eye anlage of the mutant into a wild-type embryo in order to obtain a non-lethal mutation model system. The cone mosaic in juvenile and adult fish will be characterized to determine whether the pob mutation causes: the normal cone photoreceptor pattern within the mosaic to be disrupted, other photoreceptors to degenerate, and, photoreceptor cell regeneration in response to the photoreceptor death. Additional color-blind mutants will be screened for, isolated and characterized histologically and electrophysiologically. These studies will further our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying color vision within the vertebrate retina and establish candidates for the search of gene products involve din human retinal degeneration. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: GENES AND VISUAL PIGMENTS OF RED-GREEN COLOR VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Neitz, Maureen E.; Professor; Ophthalmology; Medical College of Wisconsin Po Box26509 Milwaukee, Wi 532264801 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1991; Project End 30-APR-2005 Summary: Most of our daily activities are performed at light levels where vision is based on cone photoreceptors. A feature of cone-based vision is the capacity to see in color. Color is an important component of the information that we gather with our eyes; we use color so automatically that we fail to appreciate how important it is. It serves as a non-linguistic code that gives us instant information about the world around us. Common inherited variations in color vision provide a unique system in which to study the effects of alterations in the cone mosaic on visual function and how a variation in the amino acid sequence of the cone opsin affects cone photoreceptor function. The longterm goals of the proposed research are to understand the molecular genetics of conebased vision, and to understand the relationship between genotype and phenotype. A practical application of this work is the development of a genetic test to distinguish between inherited color vision deficiencies, and color vision loss acquired secondary to disease or exposure to toxic chemicals or drugs. The specific aims are: 1) To determine the distribution of variation in the L:M cone ratio in the color normal population and to determine the extent to which the L:M cone ratio is specified by the X-chromosome visual pigment gene locus. 2) To investigate the effects of naturally occurring differences in primary amino acid sequence of X-encoded cone pigments on function, specifically with regard to alterations in cone spectral sensitivity and optical density. 3) To investigate specific phenotype/genotype relationships underlying color vision deficiencies with regard to a) the role of deleterious mutations in cone pigments in vision disorders; b) the molecular basis for variation in the severity of protan color vision defects; and c) the molecular genetic basis for color vision loss in males with a very mild defect but with normal looking pigment gene arrays, and females carriers who exhibit color vision abnormalities. To achieve these goals we will take a multidisciplinary approach, using psychophysical, electrophysiological and molecular biological techniques. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: GENETIC BASIS OF KALLMANN'S NEUROLOGICAL SYNDROME Principal Investigator & Institution: Berry, Katherine L.; Biochem & Molecular Biophysics; Columbia University Health Sciences New York, Ny 10032 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-2002 Summary: (Verbatim from applicant?s abstract): Kallmann?s neurological syndrome is a genetic disorder characterized by severe defects in axon targeting in the olfactory system. Associated anomalies include neurosensory hearing loss, mental retardation, color blindness, motor epilepsy, cerebellar ataxia, spastic paraplegia, and synkinesia. The X-Iinked forms of the disease affect 1/10,000 males and are caused by mutations in the gene KAL-1, which codes for a cell-surface protein with several protein-protein interaction motifs. The molecular mechanisms of KAL-1 action, such as receptors and signal transducers, are unknown. To gain insight into KAL-1 function, one can turn to its C. elegans ortholog, which is neuronally expressed. This research proposes to determine the endogenous role and to identify interacting molecules of CeKAL-1 in C.elegans. The method of RNA interference (ANAl) will be used to generate a loss of function in CeKAL-1 which will be systematically investigated for neuronal defects. Other evidence implicating CeKAL-1 in neural development comes from ectopic misexpression of CeKAL-1, which results in specific axonal outgrowth and pathfinding defects. To identify interacting molecules of CeKAL-1, a modifier screen of one such phenotype was performed and yielded several mutant loci. Some of these may define proteins that interact endogenously with CeKAL-1, such as co-factors, receptors, or signal transducers. To determine which mutant loci may be specific interactors with CeKAL-1, this research proposes to systematically analyze their neuronal phenotypes and efficacy in suppressing distinct CeKAL-1 misexpression phenotypes. Once one or more CeKAL-1 modifier loci have been determined to be of specific interest, cloning and further characterization will be pursued. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: HIGHER ORDER MECHANISMS IN COLOR VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Krauskopf, John; Center for Neural Science; New York University 15 Washington Place New York, Ny 10003 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1986; Project End 28-FEB-2003 Summary: The overall purpose of this continuing project is to understand the contributions of mechanisms at various levels of visual processing to color vision, with particular interest in higher level mechanisms, that is, those beyond the conventional second stage mechanisms. A central aspect of the work is the coordination of investigations in psychophysics done at New York University and electrophysiology done in a continuing collaboration with Prof. Peter Lennie at the University of Rochester. The main aims are: 1. To study color discrimination under conditions of constant adaptation over an extended range of chromaticities and luminances and in detail over theoretically important regions. 2. To further test the hypothesis that photon noise plays a role in determining the detectability of increments on backgrounds. 3. To advance knowledge about the relative number and distribution of cone receptors by measuring the color appearance of small monochromatic stimuli imaged with the aid of adaptive optics. 4. To determine whether there are privileged directions in color space along which observers more readily abstract color appearance. 5. To continue collaborative electrophysiological experiments relating to significant issues in color vision. 6. To attempt to resolve the conflict between estimates of the relative sensitivity of the L and M cones based on two lines of evidence.

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Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: MECHANISMS OF SPECTRAL TUNING Principal Investigator & Institution: Oprian, Daniel D.; Professor and Chair; Biochemistry; Brandeis University 415 South Street Waltham, Ma 024549110 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAY-1992; Project End 30-APR-2005 Summary: The focus of this project will be to elucidate the mechanism of spectral tuning in the subgroup of short-wave visual pigments. First, the protonation state of the Schiff base nitrogen in the 11-cis retinal chromophore of the ultraviolet, human blue and bovine blue pigments will be determined by 15N-solid state magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR spectroscopy. Second the amino acid residues responsible for spectral tuning within the short-wave group will be identified. Finally the mechanism of spectral tuning in the short-wave subgroup will be compared to that of other subgroups of visual pigments. In particular, attention will be focused on the zebrafish blue pigment because it is a member of the middle-wavelength subgroup of pigments (based on its amino acid sequence) but has a maximum centered in the short wavelength range (419nm). Results from this work will shed light on the mechanisms of spectral tuning among the visual pigments to illuminate the mechanistic basis for the evolutionary development of human color vision. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: MOLECULAR GENETICS OF COLOR VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Deeb, Samir; Research Professor; Medicine; University of Washington Seattle, Wa 98195 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-1989; Project End 30-NOV-2003 Summary: The central objective of this proposal is to define the molecular genetics of red/green color vision by relating the molecular genetics of the X- linked photopigment genes to their expression in the retina and to the color vision phenotype. The red and green pigment genes are arranged in an array on the X-chromosome consisting of a single red and one or more green pigment genes. Deletion of genes or formation of hybrid genes (red-green and green-red) due to illegitimate recombination at this locus causes color vision defects. However, not all other gens of the red/green array are expressed in the retina, creating uncertainties in predicting color vision phenotype from genotype. Understanding the mechanism by which selective expression of these genes is accomplished is fundamental to defining genotype-phenotype relationships. We have delineated critical regulatory regions of the red-green gene locus and detected proteins that bind to them. A major aim of this proposal is to clone and character the transcription factors that play major roles in regulating expression of the visual pigment genes. We will map the genes encoding these factors on human and mouse chromosomes. Map positions will be correlated with known loci associated with retinal diseases. We developed a rapid method for determining gene order in males who have up to three pigment genes in their arrays and found evidence for a role of gene order in gene expression and color vision. We propose to advance their method in order to determine gene order in the majority of individuals. Knowing the sequence and gene order will allow more precise prediction of the spectral sensitivities of clones and the color vision phenotype. The ratio of red to green cones was determined indirectly by measuring relative levels of mRNA in postmortem human retinae. We propose to determine the ratio and distribution of cones in the retina directly by in situ molecular techniques. The findings will be of fundamental importance for the visual sciences. We

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observed a very high frequency of green-red hybrid genes among Africans. We will investigate the sequence of these hybrids and determine their position in the array. Elucidation of the molecular mechanism of expression of this locus affecting sensory perception is a model for expression of genes in other complex loci. These studies may lead to rapid and accurate blood tests for color vision defects. The novel photoreceptorspecific genes we propose to clone may be good candidates for some of the inherited retinal diseases. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF RETINAL CGMP ACTIVATED CHANNELS Principal Investigator & Institution: Varnum, Michael D.; Vet & Comp Anat/Pharm/Physiol; Washington State University 423 Neill Hall Pullman, Wa 99164 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 04-FEB-2000; Project End 31-JAN-2004 Summary: Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels play a fundamental role in signal transduction in the retina in the retina. In photoreceptor outer segments, they signal the fall in intracellular cGMP concentration that results from absorption of light by rhodopsin. At synapses between cone and horizontal cells, they regulate synaptic transmission and mediate presynaptic feedback by nitric oxide. The overall goal of our research is to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the activity CNG channels. CNG channels are composed of four homologous subunits, each containing a single cyclic nucleotide-binding site. Ligand binding to these sites is coupled to conformational changes that lead to opening of the channel pore. Native CNG channels are thought to contain two different subunit types, alpha and beta; the assembly of these divergent subunits creates heteromeric CNG channels with properties optimized for their role in phototransduction. In this proposal, we will ascertain the structural determinants responsible for the assembly of these channels, the precise arrangement of their subunits and the molecular features that modulate their cyclic nucleotide specificity. In addition, we will examine the molecular mechanisms underlying mutations in CNG channel genes that have been linked to rod monochromasy and retinitis pigmentosa. The channels will be studied using electrophysiological recording of exogenously expressed cDNA clones in Xenopus oocytes and in a mammalian cell line, fluorescent microscopy of transfected cells to localize channels fused to green fluorescent protein, and biochemical and genetic protein interaction assays. These experiments will channels essential to signal transduction in the retina, and of the molecular mechanisms that lead to retinal degeneration and color-blindness. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

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Project Title: PROCESSING STREAMS IN EARLY VISION Principal Investigator & Institution: Cavanagh, Patrick; Professor; Psychology; Harvard University Holyoke Center 727 Cambridge, Ma 02138 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1991; Project End 31-JUL-2005 Summary: Vision allows us to live a little bit in the future, to see things and react to them before they actually bump into us. The advantages of vision to an organism are overwhelming and, of all of the predictive functions of vision, the perception of motion is arguably the most valuable: it explicitly and rapidly deals with not just where things are but where things are going. In fact, the advantages of motion perception are so great that two very different motion systems appear to have emerged independently in the human visual system. The goal of this grant is to define and characterize the least

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understood of these two systems, the "high-level" motion system. Our work has shown that the high-level system appears to be based on selection and pursuit of targets by attention, a system analogous in many ways to the smooth pursuit system of eye movements. Attentive tracking is a critical part of many everyday activities - driving, playing sports, and responding to dynamic computer displays. Understanding its limitations and mechanisms in isolation from the properties of low-level motion detectors is crucial to understanding human performance in demanding environments. I propose to study the role of attention in high-level vision in normals and in individuals with damage to the parietal region, an area involved in attention. To isolate the highlevel motion system, we must also understand the low-level system which is based on directionally selective neurons in the visual cortex. Several experiments are planned to identify low-level processes and catalog their number and properties. We also will continue to examine the smooth pursuit system used when tracking targets with eye movements. Our early results show that high-level motion signals may play a significant role in initiating and correcting smooth pursuit. Finally, we look at how the visual system identifies the position of stimuli despite constant large and small motions of the eye. We have discovered a stabilization system, a "Steadycam" process, based on lowlevel motion signals that keeps the world stable despite movement and vibration of the eye. We will continue our work on these projects and begin a new project on the perception of stimuli from outside the visual field. In this last study we will stimulate the retina through the sclera and address the question of how the perceived location of object is corrected for the direction of gaze. We will examine whether the early responses to the stimulation are gated out of awareness for directions of gaze where the stimulated retinal location corresponds to a location outside the normal visual field. In these final studies I will test normal and neurological subjects and record brain activation using fMRI. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: PSYCHOPHYSICAL STUDIES OF COLOR DEFECTIVE OBSERVERS Principal Investigator & Institution: Pokorny, Joel M.; Professor; Ophthalmology and Visual Sci; University of Chicago 5801 S Ellis Ave Chicago, Il 60637 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1977; Project End 31-MAR-2002 Summary: This proposal is directed toward the study of normal color vision, and to the assessment of the color defects which occur in individuals with stationary, hereditary color defects and those which occur in various retinal and choroidal disease states. Psychophysical methods will be used to study heterochromatic sensitivity, color matching, and spectral sensitivity of the cone mechanisms. These studies are designed to reveal the nature of the retinal cone mosaic, including the numbers and types of photoreceptors in observers with normal and abnormal color vision. Psychophysical and electroretinographic techniques will allow basic studies of the short wavelength sensitive (SWS) cone mechanism in color normal individuals and in patients with retinal disease. Studies of temporal modulation sensitivity using heterochromatic modulation photometry will be performed with the aim of separating the effects of radiance, chromaticity and temporal frequency. Retinal densitometry will be used to study cone visual pigment kinetics in color normal and color defective observers and will evaluate the feasibility of studying cone visual pigment kinetics in patients with acquired macular disorders. The development and evaluation of protocols for testing patients with eye disease will be continued. The aim is to develop easily-performed and rapid tests which give specific information concerning visual function in eye disease. In addition to empirical studies, models of normal and abnormal color vision will continue

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to be developed. The theoretical approach is based in the question: to what extent can established biological or physical phenomena explain the data of color vision? This approach is one which allows us to examine the plausibility of various hypotheses which are not subject to direct experimental evaluation. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •

Project Title: STEREOPSIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Livingstone, Margaret S.; Professor; Neurobiology; Harvard University (Medical School) Medical School Campus Boston, Ma 02115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1994; Project End 30-JUN-2002 Summary: The ability to assess depth depends on many cues, one of which is stereopsis-the determination of the distance of a object from differences in the images in the two eyes. Like color vision, stereoscopic depth perception is frequently defective in humans, but unlike most forms of color blindness, defects in stereopsis must be caused by abnormal wiring in the central nervous system. To understand these defects will thus require an understanding of the normal central- nervous mechanisms for stereopsis. Furthermore, an understanding of how one particular well-defined calculation is done by the central nervous system should shed light on how, in general, the brain performs complex calculations. Cells selective for differences in the images in the two eyes have been described and characterized in primates, but the receptive-field mechanisms underlying stereopsis have only been addressed in anesthetized cats, and not at all in monkeys. The goal of this study is to fill in this large gap in our understanding of binocular interactions and depth perception. A recently developed technique for mapping receptive-fields in alert fixating macaques will be used to determine the receptive-field organization of a large series of neurons in V1. Stereoscopic depth selectivity in each cell will be compared with its receptive-field organization in the two eyes. This should provide an understanding of how binocular interactions are used to generate depth selectivity. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen

The National Library of Medicine: PubMed One of the quickest and most comprehensive ways to find academic studies in both English and other languages is to use PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine.3 The advantage of PubMed over previously mentioned sources is that it covers a greater number of domestic and foreign references. It is also free to use. If the publisher has a Web site that offers full text of its journals, PubMed will provide links to that site, as well as to sites offering other related data. User registration, a subscription fee, or some other type of fee may be required to access the full text of articles in some journals. To generate your own bibliography of studies dealing with color blindness, simply go to the PubMed Web site at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed. Type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” The following is the type of output you can expect from PubMed for color blindness (hyperlinks lead to article summaries): 3

PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PubMed database was developed in conjunction with publishers of biomedical literature as a search tool for accessing literature citations and linking to full-text journal articles at Web sites of participating publishers. Publishers that participate in PubMed supply NLM with their citations electronically prior to or at the time of publication.

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A dominant X-linked factor in manic-depressive illness: studies with color blindness. Author(s): Fieve RR, Mendlewicz J, Rainer JD, Fleiss JL. Source: Proc Annu Meet Am Psychopathol Assoc. 1975; (63): 241-55. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1080856&dopt=Abstract

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A further query on color blindness and natural selection. Author(s): Adam A. Source: Soc Biol. 1969 September; 16(3): 197-208. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5312492&dopt=Abstract

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A new type of mucolipidosis associated with hereditary thrombocytopathy and color blindness. Author(s): Endo H, Al-Samarrai SF, Sakakibara K, NagashimaK, Shimada Y. Source: Acta Pathol Jpn. 1977 May; 27(3): 421-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=200061&dopt=Abstract

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A two-and-a-half color rainbow. Color blindness in physicians. Author(s): Currier RD. Source: Archives of Neurology. 1994 November; 51(11): 1090-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7980102&dopt=Abstract

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Atypical congenital monochromatism. A new pedigree of total color blindness with chromosomal studies. Author(s): Earll JM, Spivey BE, Mattei IR. Source: Archives of Internal Medicine. 1966 November; 118(5): 491-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5296937&dopt=Abstract

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Cerebral color blindness: an acquired defect in hue discrimination. Author(s): Pearlman AL, Birch J, Meadows JC. Source: Annals of Neurology. 1979 March; 5(3): 253-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=312619&dopt=Abstract

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Cerebral color blindness: an acquired defect in hue discrimination. Author(s): Pearlman AL, Birch J, Meadows JC. Source: Trans Am Neurol Assoc. 1978; 103: 133-4. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=316214&dopt=Abstract

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Cirrhosis and color blindness in children. Author(s): Ozsoylu S, Kocak N, Mihci C. Source: Turk J Pediatr. 1974 April; 26(2): 70-1. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4549750&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness among Aymara in Chile. Author(s): Cruz-Coke R, Barrera R. Source: American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 1969 September; 31(2): 229-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5307579&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness among Korean students. Author(s): Kang YS, Lee SW, Park S, Cho WK. Source: Eugen Q. 1967 December; 14(4): 271-3. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5300153&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness and alcohol use. Author(s): Harburg E, Gleibermann L, Ozgoren F. Source: J Stud Alcohol. 1982 July; 43(7): 829-33. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6984722&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness and bowel bleeding. Author(s): Pearl SS. Source: Jama : the Journal of the American Medical Association. 1978 March 20; 239(12): 1132. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=304903&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness and health care personnel. Author(s): Iserson KV. Source: Archives of Internal Medicine. 2001 October 8; 161(18): 2265-6; Author Reply 2267. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11575992&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness and Rorschach color responsivity. Author(s): Corsino BV. Source: Journal of Personality Assessment. 1985 October; 49(5): 533-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3877804&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness in Africa. Author(s): Adam A. Source: Metab Pediatr Ophthalmol. 1981; 5(3-4): 181-5. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6975864&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness in children. The importance and feasibility of early recognition. Author(s): Thuline HC. Source: Clinical Pediatrics. 1972 May; 11(5): 295-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4537338&dopt=Abstract

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Color Blindness

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Color blindness in mentally retarded children. Author(s): Schein JD, Salvia JA. Source: Except Child. 1969 April; 35(8): 609-13. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5306011&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness linkage to bipolar manic-depressive illness. New evidence. Author(s): Mendlewicz J, Linkowski P, Guroff JJ, Van Praag HM. Source: Archives of General Psychiatry. 1979 December; 36(13): 1442-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=316316&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness not closely linked to bipolar illness. Report of a new pedigree series. Author(s): Gershon ES, Targum SD, Matthysse S, Bunney WE Jr. Source: Archives of General Psychiatry. 1979 December; 36(13): 1423-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=316315&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness, perceptual interference, and hypnosis. Author(s): Harvey MA, Sipprelle CN. Source: Am J Clin Hypn. 1978 January; 20(3): 189-93. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=316651&dopt=Abstract

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Color blindness. Author(s): Raymond LF. Source: Ann Allergy. 1971 April; 29(4): 214-6. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5317317&dopt=Abstract

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Color deficient versus color blind. Author(s): Grunberg EM. Source: The Journal of School Health. 1973 February; 43(2): 135. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4540985&dopt=Abstract

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Color discrimination for the color blind. Author(s): Rosenstock HB, Swick DA. Source: Aerosp Med. 1974 October; 45(10): 1194-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4547909&dopt=Abstract

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Color related behavior of mentally retarded children with color blindness and normal color vision. Author(s): Salvia J, Shugerts J. Source: Except Child. 1970 September; 37(1): 37-8. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5313057&dopt=Abstract

Studies

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Complete sparing of high-contrast color input to motion perception in cortical color blindness. Author(s): Cavanagh P, Henaff MA, Michel F, Landis T, Troscianko T, Intriligator J. Source: Nature Neuroscience. 1998 July; 1(3): 242-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10195150&dopt=Abstract

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Congenital color blindness. Author(s): Gunkel RD. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1981 June; 99(6): 1023-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6972211&dopt=Abstract

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Considerations in regard to a proposed association of alcoholism and color blindness. Author(s): Thuline HC. Source: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1972 May 25; 197: 148-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4537695&dopt=Abstract

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Cortical color blindness is not “blindsight for color”. Author(s): Heywood CA, Kentridge RW, Cowey A. Source: Consciousness and Cognition. 1998 September; 7(3): 410-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9787052&dopt=Abstract

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Criterion validity of four tests for red-green color blindness. Author(s): Salvia J, Ysseldyke J. Source: Am J Ment Defic. 1972 January; 76(4): 418-22. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4536748&dopt=Abstract

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Dermatoglyphics in color blindness. Author(s): Trindade Marques M, Marques J. Source: Acta Genet Med Gemellol (Roma). 1977; 26(3-4): 291-2. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=306735&dopt=Abstract

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Frequency of color blindness among East Kentish children. Author(s): Riches J. Source: Nature. 1966 August 13; 211(50): 774. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5297641&dopt=Abstract

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Further evidence that hypnotically induced color blindness does not mimic congenital defects. Author(s): Cunningham PV, Blum GS. Source: Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1982 April; 91(2): 139-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6978354&dopt=Abstract

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Color Blindness

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Genetic studies of the Seneca Indians: haptoglobins, transferrins, G-6-PD deficiency, hemoglobinopathy, color blindness, morphological traits and dermatoglyphics. Author(s): Doeblin TD, Ingall GB, Pinkerton PH, Dronamraju KR, Bannerman RM. Source: Acta Genet Stat Med. 1968; 18(3): 251-60. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5301686&dopt=Abstract

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Hereditary characteristics of enzyme deficiency and dermatoglyphics in congenital color blindness. Author(s): Wu LZ, Zeng LH, Ma QY, Xie YJ, Chen YZ, Wu DZ. Source: Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology. 1988; 32(2): 236-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3263528&dopt=Abstract

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Human color vision and color blindness. Author(s): Wald G, Brown PK. Source: Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 1965; 30: 345-61. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4956617&dopt=Abstract

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Hydrogen cyanide and phenylthiocarbamide sensitivity, mid-phalangeal hair and color blindness in Yucatan, Mexico. Author(s): Giles E, Hansen AT, McCullough JM, Metzger DG, Wolpoff MH. Source: American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 1968 March; 28(2): 203-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4299719&dopt=Abstract

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Hypertension and color blindness in young men. Author(s): Morton WE. Source: Archives of Internal Medicine. 1975 May; 135(5): 653-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1088740&dopt=Abstract

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Hypnotic color blindness and performance on the Stroop test. Author(s): Mallard D, Bryant RA. Source: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2001 October; 49(4): 330-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11596828&dopt=Abstract

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Impact of color blindness on recognition of blood in body fluids. Author(s): Reiss MJ, Labowitz DA, Forman S, Wormser GP. Source: Archives of Internal Medicine. 2001 February 12; 161(3): 461-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11176773&dopt=Abstract

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Incidence of red-green color blindness in the Basque population. Author(s): Rebato E, Calderon R. Source: Anthropol Anz. 1990 June; 48(2): 145-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2378506&dopt=Abstract

Studies

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Lack of association between cirrhosis and the common types of color blindness. Author(s): Fialkow PJ, Thuline HC, Fenster F. Source: The New England Journal of Medicine. 1966 September 15; 275(11): 584-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5296886&dopt=Abstract

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Lack of association between color blindness and alcoholism. Author(s): Riffenburgh RS, Shea JF. Source: Eye Ear Nose Throat Mon. 1970 May; 49(5): 240-2. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5312326&dopt=Abstract

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Laser pointers and color blindness. Author(s): Romano PE. Source: Ophthalmology. 1998 October; 105(10): 1797. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9787345&dopt=Abstract

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Laser pointers and color blindness. Author(s): Eagle RC Jr. Source: Ophthalmology. 1998 May; 105(5): 760. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9593368&dopt=Abstract

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Letter: Color blindness. Author(s): Cossman J. Source: The New England Journal of Medicine. 1974 January 24; 290(4): 231. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4543586&dopt=Abstract

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Letter: Van Gogh--color blind? Author(s): Sheehan D. Source: Jama : the Journal of the American Medical Association. 1974 January 14; 227(2): 205. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4594152&dopt=Abstract

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Linkage between an X-chromosome marker (deutan color blindness) and bipolar affective illness. Occurrence in the family of a lithium carbonate-responsive schizoaffective proband. Author(s): Baron M. Source: Archives of General Psychiatry. 1977 June; 34(6): 721-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=301380&dopt=Abstract

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Color Blindness

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Linkage disequilibrium between glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and congenital color blindness in Turkish population. Author(s): Yucel G, Yucel I, Bagci H, Aksu G, Luleci G, Gumuslu S, Aksu TA, Duranoglu Y. Source: Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology. 1992; 36(1): 33-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1635293&dopt=Abstract

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Nutrition isn't color blind. Author(s): Sucher KP, Kittler PG. Source: Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1991 March; 91(3): 297-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1997550&dopt=Abstract

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Physiology of color vision and the pathological changes in reversible color blindness, a deficiency disease of the retina. Author(s): Raymond LF. Source: Ann Ophthalmol. 1975 April; 7(4): 532-4. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1080032&dopt=Abstract

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Prevalence of color blindness. Author(s): Solomon SM. Source: The New England Journal of Medicine. 1973 August 2; 289(5): 273. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4541344&dopt=Abstract

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Psychophysical evidence for more than two kinds of cone in dichromatic color blindness. Author(s): Frome FS, Piantanida TP, Kelley DH. Source: Science. 1982 January 22; 215(4531): 417-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6977184&dopt=Abstract

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Re: Eagle Jr RC. Laser pointers and color blindness. Ophthalmology 1998; 105:760. Author(s): Romano PE. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 1999 Spring; 14(1): 7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10076101&dopt=Abstract

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Red color blindness. Author(s): Pearl SS. Source: Ca: a Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 1978 July-August; 28(4): 238. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=100181&dopt=Abstract

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Red laser pointers and color blindness. Author(s): Deshaies RL. Source: Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 1999 Spring; 14(1): 7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10076196&dopt=Abstract

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Red/green color blindness in the Niger delta. Author(s): Roberts DF. Source: Eugen Q. 1967 March; 14(1): 7-13. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5298588&dopt=Abstract

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Relationship of color blindness to alcoholic liver damage. Author(s): Ugarte G, Cruz-Coke R, Rivera L, Altschiller H, Mardones J. Source: Pharmacology. 1970; 4(5): 297-308. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5312721&dopt=Abstract

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Screening for color blindness using optokinetic nystagmus. Author(s): Cavanagh P, Anstis S, Mather G. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 1984 April; 25(4): 463-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6608507&dopt=Abstract

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Spectral characteristics of early receptor potential in congenital red-green color blindness. Author(s): Tanabe J, Nakazato H, Tanabe H, Hanasaki H, Kawasaki K, Yonemura D. Source: Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology. 1986 July 15; 63(2): 165-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3488889&dopt=Abstract

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Spectral characteristics of electroretinography in congenital red-green color blindness. Author(s): Uji Y. Source: Japanese Journal of Ophthalmology. 1987; 31(1): 61-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3498068&dopt=Abstract

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Studying color blindness and other visions. Author(s): Merz B. Source: Jama : the Journal of the American Medical Association. 1989 June 2; 261(21): 3074, 3077. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2785609&dopt=Abstract

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Subjective brightness of pigmented colors in the color blind. Author(s): Ichikawa H. Source: Nippon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1968 March 10; 72(3): 260-3. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5302606&dopt=Abstract

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Testing for degrees of color blindness. Author(s): Mossman PB, Young LL 3rd. Source: Occup Health Saf. 1983 August; 52(8): 49-53, 55. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6604891&dopt=Abstract

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The chemistry of John Dalton's color blindness. Author(s): Hunt DM, Dulai KS, Bowmaker JK, Mollon JD. Source: Science. 1995 February 17; 267(5200): 984-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7863342&dopt=Abstract

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The Dvorine color blindness test with retarded boys. Author(s): Salvia J, Ysseldyke J. Source: Except Child. 1971 November; 38(3): 263-4. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5315818&dopt=Abstract

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The effects of variable age-of-onset and diagnostic criteria on the estimates of linkage: an example using manic-depressive illness and color blindness. Author(s): Morton LA, Kidd KK. Source: Soc Biol. 1980 Spring; 27(1): 1-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6974894&dopt=Abstract

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The incidence of color blindness among deaf children. Author(s): Frey RM, Krause IB. Source: Except Child. 1971 January; 37(5): 393-4. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5313082&dopt=Abstract

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The linkage between Duchenne-type progressive muscular dystrophy and color blindness. Author(s): Prot J, Laska M. Source: Pol Med J. 1970; 9(5): 1207-11. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=5313771&dopt=Abstract

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The molecular genetics of color vision and color blindness. Author(s): Piantanida T. Source: Trends in Genetics : Tig. 1988 November; 4(11): 319-23. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2907192&dopt=Abstract

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Use of modified X-Chrom for relief of light dazzlement and color blindness of a rod monochromat. Author(s): Zeltzer HI. Source: J Am Optom Assoc. 1979 July; 50(7): 813-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=315420&dopt=Abstract

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Visual acuity and color blindness among Brazilian Cayapo Indians. Author(s): Salzano FM. Source: Human Heredity. 1972; 22(1): 72-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4537649&dopt=Abstract

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Visual pigments and color blindness. Author(s): Rushton WA. Source: Scientific American. 1975 March; 232(3): 64-74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1078730&dopt=Abstract

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What can be done for the color blind? Author(s): Kessler J. Source: Ann Ophthalmol. 1977 April; 9(4): 431-3. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=141232&dopt=Abstract

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What do color blind children really see? Guidelines for clinical prescreening based on recent findings. Author(s): Breton ME, Nelson LB. Source: Survey of Ophthalmology. 1983 March-April; 27(5): 306-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6602390&dopt=Abstract

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X chromosome and color blindness. Author(s): de Nazare Trindade Marques M. Source: Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde. 1977; 175(6): 305-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=304200&dopt=Abstract

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CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND COLOR BLINDNESS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to find studies dedicated specifically to nutrition and color blindness.

Finding Nutrition Studies on Color Blindness The National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) offers a searchable bibliographic database called the IBIDS (International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements; National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 1B29, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2086, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2086, Tel: 301-435-2920, Fax: 301-480-1845, E-mail: [email protected]). The IBIDS contains over 460,000 scientific citations and summaries about dietary supplements and nutrition as well as references to published international, scientific literature on dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and botanicals.4 The IBIDS includes references and citations to both human and animal research studies. As a service of the ODS, access to the IBIDS database is available free of charge at the following Web address: http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html. After entering the search area, you have three choices: (1) IBIDS Consumer Database, (2) Full IBIDS Database, or (3) Peer Reviewed Citations Only. Now that you have selected a database, click on the “Advanced” tab. An advanced search allows you to retrieve up to 100 fully explained references in a comprehensive format. Type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” To narrow the search, you can also select the “Title” field.

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Adapted from http://ods.od.nih.gov. IBIDS is produced by the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health to assist the public, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers in locating credible, scientific information on dietary supplements. IBIDS was developed and will be maintained through an interagency partnership with the Food and Nutrition Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

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The following information is typical of that found when using the “Full IBIDS Database” to search for “color blindness” (or a synonym): •

Bicuculline produces reversible red-green color blindness in goldfish, as revealed by monocular behavioral testing. Author(s): Laboratory of Medical Physics and Informatics, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Source: Wietsma, J J Spekreijse, H Vision-Res. 1991; 31(12): 2101-7 0042-6989

Federal Resources on Nutrition In addition to the IBIDS, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provide many sources of information on general nutrition and health. Recommended resources include: •

healthfinder®, HHS’s gateway to health information, including diet and nutrition: http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/SearchContext.asp?topic=238&page=0

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The United States Department of Agriculture’s Web site dedicated to nutrition information: www.nutrition.gov

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The Food and Drug Administration’s Web site for federal food safety information: www.foodsafety.gov

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The National Action Plan on Overweight and Obesity sponsored by the United States Surgeon General: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/

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The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition has an Internet site sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/

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Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov/cnpp/

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Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/

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Food and Nutrition Service sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fns.usda.gov/fns/

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering food and nutrition. The following is a representative sample: •

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=174&layer=&from=subcats

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_nutrition.html

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Nutrition/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Nutrition/

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Nutrition/

Nutrition

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WebMD®Health: http://my.webmd.com/nutrition

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

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CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND COLOR BLINDNESS Overview In this chapter, we will begin by introducing you to official information sources on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) relating to color blindness. At the conclusion of this chapter, we will provide additional sources.

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (http://nccam.nih.gov/) has created a link to the National Library of Medicine’s databases to facilitate research for articles that specifically relate to color blindness and complementary medicine. To search the database, go to the following Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html. Select “CAM on PubMed.” Enter “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the search box. Click “Go.” The following references provide information on particular aspects of complementary and alternative medicine that are related to color blindness: •

A case of hysterical colour blindness reconsidered. Author(s): Pickford RW. Source: Mod Probl Ophthalmol. 1972; 11: 165-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4544955&dopt=Abstract

•

Achromatopsia with amblyopia. II. A psychophysical study of 5 cases. Author(s): Auerbach E, Kripke B. Source: Documenta Ophthalmologica. Advances in Ophthalmology. 1974 April 26; 37(1): 119-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4545906&dopt=Abstract

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•

Blood groups, ABH saliva secretion and colour vision deficiency in Hindu castes and religious groups of West Godavari, Andhra Pradesh, India. Author(s): Vijayalakshmi M, Naidu JM, Suryanarayana B. Source: Anthropol Anz. 1994 December; 52(4): 305-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7840536&dopt=Abstract

•

Blue-yellow deficiency in workers exposed to low concentrations of organic solvents. Author(s): Muttray A, Wolff U, Jung D, Konietzko J. Source: International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 1997; 70(6): 407-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9439988&dopt=Abstract

•

Color blindness, perceptual interference, and hypnosis. Author(s): Harvey MA, Sipprelle CN. Source: Am J Clin Hypn. 1978 January; 20(3): 189-93. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=316651&dopt=Abstract

•

Colour vision of diabetics. Author(s): Green FD, Ghafour IM, Allan D, Barrie T, McClure E, Foulds WS. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1985 July; 69(7): 533-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3874649&dopt=Abstract

•

Comparative psychological studies of Negroes and whites in the United States: 19591965. Author(s): Dreger RM, Miller KS. Source: Psychological Bulletin. 1968 September; 70(3): Suppl: 1-58. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4878850&dopt=Abstract

•

Critical flicker frequency of mentally retarded and normal persons. Author(s): Ali MR, Khaleque A, Khanam M, al-Shatti A, Ahmed RU. Source: Percept Mot Skills. 1994 December; 79(3 Pt 1): 1235-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7899007&dopt=Abstract

•

Experimental evidence for a theory of hypnotic behavior: 1. “Hypnotic colorblindness” without “hypnosis”. Author(s): BARBER TX, DEELEY DC. Source: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 1961 April; 9: 79-86. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=13686783&dopt=Abstract

•

Further evidence that hypnotically induced color blindness does not mimic congenital defects. Author(s): Cunningham PV, Blum GS.

Alternative Medicine 27

Source: Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1982 April; 91(2): 139-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6978354&dopt=Abstract •

Hypnotic “colorblindness,” “blindness,” and “deafness”: a review of research findings. Author(s): BARBER TX. Source: Dis Nerv Syst. 1964 September; 25: 529-38. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14215242&dopt=Abstract

•

Hypnotic color blindness and performance on the Stroop test. Author(s): Mallard D, Bryant RA. Source: Int J Clin Exp Hypn. 2001 October; 49(4): 330-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11596828&dopt=Abstract

•

Letter: A single anomalous photopigment? Author(s): Hayhoe MM, MacLeod DI. Source: J Opt Soc Am. 1976 March; 66(3): 276-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1082930&dopt=Abstract

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Nystagmographical studies in Aland eye disease. Author(s): van Vliet AG, Waardenburg PJ, Forsius H, Eriksson AW. Source: Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1973; 51(6): 782-90. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4545068&dopt=Abstract

•

Ocular findings in cystic fibrosis patients receiving vitamin A supplementation. Author(s): Morkeberg JC, Edmund C, Prause JU, Lanng S, Koch C, Michaelsen KF. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 1995 November; 233(11): 709-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8566828&dopt=Abstract

•

Optics and visual physiology. Author(s): Carr RE. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1968 August; 80(2): 280-99. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4873812&dopt=Abstract

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Optometric implications of pupillometry. Author(s): Roth N. Source: J Am Optom Assoc. 1979 June; 50(6): 727-9. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=314458&dopt=Abstract

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Physiological effects of “hypnotic suggestions”: a critical review of recent research; (1960-64). Author(s): BARBER TX. Source: Psychological Bulletin. 1965 April; 63: 201-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14332825&dopt=Abstract

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Preserved imagery for colours in a patient with cerebral achromatopsia. Author(s): Bartolomeo P, Bachoud-Levi AC, Denes G. Source: Cortex. 1997 June; 33(2): 369-78. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9220266&dopt=Abstract

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Psychophysical evaluation of toxic effects on sensory systems. Author(s): Hanson HM. Source: Fed Proc. 1975 August; 34(9): 1852-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=238867&dopt=Abstract

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Some relationships between the psychophysics and neurophysiology of color vision. Author(s): Winters RW. Source: Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1974 August; 51(8): 550-66. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4547304&dopt=Abstract

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Spectral sensitivities of acquired color defects analyzed in terms of color opponent theory. Author(s): Zisman F, King-Smith PE, Bhargava SK. Source: Mod Probl Ophthalmol. 1978; 19: 254-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=310041&dopt=Abstract

•

The dyschromatopsia of optic neuritis: a descriptive analysis of data from the optic neuritis treatment trial. Author(s): Katz B. Source: Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1995; 93: 685-708. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8719696&dopt=Abstract

•

The luminous transmission ftor of sunglasses. Author(s): Clark BA. Source: Am J Optom Arch Am Acad Optom. 1969 May; 46(5): 362-78. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4892513&dopt=Abstract

•

The wavelength variation of the directional sensitivity of the Stiles pi1(mu). Author(s): Alpern M, Zwas F.

Alternative Medicine 29

Source: Vision Research. 1979; 19(10): 1077-87. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=317764&dopt=Abstract •

Two systems for colour-naming defects: verbal disconnection vs colour imagery disorder. Author(s): De Vreese LP. Source: Neuropsychologia. 1991; 29(1): 1-18. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2017304&dopt=Abstract

•

Visual function is stable in patients who continue long-term vigabatrin therapy: implications for clinical decision making. Author(s): Paul SR, Krauss GL, Miller NR, Medura MT, Miller TA, Johnson MA. Source: Epilepsia. 2001 April; 42(4): 525-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11440348&dopt=Abstract

•

Wavelength variation in directional sensitivity of the long- and medium-wave sensitive foveal cones of red-green dichromats. Author(s): Zwas F. Source: Vision Research. 1979; 19(10): 1067-76. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=317763&dopt=Abstract

•

Xanthopsia and van Gogh's yellow palette. Author(s): Arnold WN, Loftus LS. Source: Eye (London, England). 1991; 5 ( Pt 5): 503-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1794418&dopt=Abstract

Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering CAM and related topics. The following is a representative sample: •

Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.: http://www.herbmed.org/

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AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=169&layer=&from=subcats

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Chinese Medicine: http://www.newcenturynutrition.com/

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drkoop.com®: http://www.drkoop.com/InteractiveMedicine/IndexC.html

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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_altn.htm

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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Alternative/

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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/

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MedWebPlus: http://medwebplus.com/subject/Alternative_and_Complementary_Medicine

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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/

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HealthGate: http://www.tnp.com/

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WebMD®Health: http://my.webmd.com/drugs_and_herbs

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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html

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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Alternative_Medicine/

General References A good place to find general background information on CAM is the National Library of Medicine. It has prepared within the MEDLINEplus system an information topic page dedicated to complementary and alternative medicine. To access this page, go to the MEDLINEplus site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alternativemedicine.html. This Web site provides a general overview of various topics and can lead to a number of general sources.

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CHAPTER 4. DISSERTATIONS ON COLOR BLINDNESS Overview In this chapter, we will give you a bibliography on recent dissertations relating to color blindness. We will also provide you with information on how to use the Internet to stay current on dissertations. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical dissertations that use the generic term “color blindness” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on color blindness, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical dissertations in this bibliography.

Dissertations on Color Blindness ProQuest Digital Dissertations, the largest archive of academic dissertations available, is located at the following Web address: http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations. From this archive, we have compiled the following list covering dissertations devoted to color blindness. You will see that the information provided includes the dissertation’s title, its author, and the institution with which the author is associated. The following covers recent dissertations found when using this search procedure: •

Color Blindness in Educable Mentally Retarded Children: a Comparison of Anomaloscopic and Standard Color Vision Tests by Coonley, Patrick Gerald, Edd from University of Northern Colorado, 1972, 72 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7300260

•

The Effects of Color Blindness on Academic Achievement and Discrimination Learning in Special Class Retardates. by Justen, Joseph Edward, Iii, Edd from University of Florida, 1973, 68 pages http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/7419157

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Keeping Current Ask the medical librarian at your library if it has full and unlimited access to the ProQuest Digital Dissertations database. From the library, you should be able to do more complete searches via http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations.

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CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON COLOR BLINDNESS Overview Patents can be physical innovations (e.g. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment) or processes (e.g. treatments or diagnostic procedures). The United States Patent and Trademark Office defines a patent as a grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the Patent and Trademark Office.5 Patents, therefore, are intellectual property. For the United States, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date when the patent application was filed. If the inventor wishes to receive economic benefits, it is likely that the invention will become commercially available within 20 years of the initial filing. It is important to understand, therefore, that an inventor’s patent does not indicate that a product or service is or will be commercially available. The patent implies only that the inventor has “the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling” the invention in the United States. While this relates to U.S. patents, similar rules govern foreign patents. In this chapter, we show you how to locate information on patents and their inventors. If you find a patent that is particularly interesting to you, contact the inventor or the assignee for further information. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical patents that use the generic term “color blindness” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on color blindness, we have not necessarily excluded nonmedical patents in this bibliography.

Patents on Color Blindness By performing a patent search focusing on color blindness, you can obtain information such as the title of the invention, the names of the inventor(s), the assignee(s) or the company that owns or controls the patent, a short abstract that summarizes the patent, and a few excerpts from the description of the patent. The abstract of a patent tends to be more technical in nature, while the description is often written for the public. Full patent descriptions contain much more information than is presented here (e.g. claims, references, figures, diagrams, etc.). We will tell you how to obtain this information later in the chapter. The following is an 5Adapted

from the United States Patent and Trademark Office: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/whatis.htm.

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example of the type of information that you can expect to obtain from a patent search on color blindness: •

Contact lens for correction of color blindness Inventor(s): Zeltzer; Harry I. (107 High St. - P.O. Box 209, Ipswich, MA 01938) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,998,817 Date filed: May 10, 1990 Abstract: A corneal contact lens for the correction of color blindness, which is clear except for a thin red exterior layer covering the area admitting light to the pupil. Excerpt(s): A soft corneal contact lens which improves the color discrimination of a color-blind person when applied to one eye only, said lens comprising a clear, soft, corneal contact lens having on the central portion of its exterior surface a thin layer of red coloration characterized as being insoluble in water but soluble in aromatic hydrocarbon; light passing through the red layer having substantially all its transmissions above about 6000.ANG.; said red layer continuously covering substantially all the light normally admitted to the pupil of the eye during the daytime and being in line with the axis of the pupil; said lens being sufficiently large to enable ready and stable centration without jeopardizing oxygen transmission. This invention relates to the use of corneal contact lenses for the correction of color blindness, in particular, soft or gas-permeable lenses. U.S. Pat. No(s). 3,586,423 and 3,701,590 describe red-colored contact lenses which can be used to correct color blindness. In particular lenses illustrated in these patents and those made commercially under those patents are colored throughout with a red coloration. Whereas such coloration throughout the lens is satisfactory for so-called hard lenses made from plastic, it has been difficult to fashion a soft lens or a gas-permeable lens wherein the color remains uniformly distributed throughout the lens. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04998817__

•

Eyeglasses for aiding color blind viewers Inventor(s): Taylor; Donald E. (Rte. 2, Box 144, Mundelein, IL 60060) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,300,819 Date filed: November 7, 1979 Abstract: Improved eyeglasses for use by color blind individuals or viewers. The eyeglasses are constructed to have two lenses, one of which is clear and the other of which is colored. Each lens is formed to have a reflective or mirror surface as viewed from the front of the eyeglasses. When worn by a color blind viewer, the combination of lenses improves the color blind viewer's ability to discriminate between different colored objects while the reflective or mirror surfaces cause the lenses to appear to be identical to other persons or viewers. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to optical devices for use by color blind viewers and more particularly, to eyeglasses which improve the ability of a color blind viewer to discriminate between different colored objects. A large proportion of the

Patents 35

population suffers from some form of color blindness which reduces eye discrimination of different colored objects. For example, a common form of color blindness is known as red/green color blindness wherein the eyes of a viewer cannot distinguish between the colors red and green. Thus, if a red/green color blind viewer were to look at an apple tree, any red apples would not stand out from the otherwise green leaves of the tree and the primary way that the apples could be distinguished would be by viewer recognition of the apple outline. Obviously, this condition causes increased viewer problems in object discrimination and even more problems when it is necessary to distinguish between red and green under circumstances where other characteristics (e.g. shape, outline, etc.) are not distinguishable. In the prior art, optical filtering devices have been used to aid in the color discrimination between different colored objects. In U.S. Pat. No. 3,877,797, for example, optical filters are disclosed which alter the illuminating radiations of a light source or alter the object reflected radiations received by a viewer's eye in order to enhance color discrimination between objects of different colors. This particular patent achieves such results by forming an optical filter (which can be the lens structure of eyeglasses or spectacles) to remove two selected bands of radiation having variable bandwidth. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04300819__ •

Illuminated traffic signal for color blind persons Inventor(s): Patterson; R. Gordon (233 N. Val Vista Dr.; sp. 563, Mesa, AZ 85203) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 4,839,647 Date filed: February 8, 1988 Abstract: A traffic signal control which is designed for color-blind persons, and has a unique geometric shape for the information to be conveyed. The traffic signal control has a central illuminated region of the specific geometric shape, bordered by an opaque region about which is provided a translucent track of white-light of the same geometric shape, which in turn is surrounded by another opaque strip of the same shape. When the control is for a "stop" signal, the central region is made of a red filter, and for the "go", it is made of a green filter. The white light is of a greater intensity than the light emanating from the central region, so that the color blind person may recognize the particular geometric shape indicative of that signal. Excerpt(s): The present invention is directed to a traffic control signal for color blind persons which allows color blind persons to discriminate between one signal and another, such as a red stop signal, a green go signal, a yellow caution signal, and so forth. Conventional, presently-used traffic control signals are not readily discernable by color blind persons, which means that a color blind person is not able to detect whether a red light or green light, or the like, is illuminated. Typically, a color blind person will react to a traffic control signal by reaction to those other vehicles in his vicinity, or may even have to guess as to the signal. Approximately 8% of all drivers are color blind. Furthermore, elderly people suffering from poor eyesight are also affected by currently used, conventional traffic control signals. This problem has been recognized in the past, as for example U.S. Pat. No. 3,863,207. This patent shows a traffic control signal having a central illuminated portion surrounded by a track of amber light, with specified geometric shapes also being provided to provide discrimination between particular control signals. However, amber light is also not distinguishable by a color blind person, especially when directly above a red or green source of the same intensity, with

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Color Blindness

relatively no division therebetween. Therefore, the traffic control signal of this patent offers little help to the color blind person. It is, therefore, the primary objective of the present invention to provide an improved traffic control signal that is easily readable and distinguishable by a color blind person, while at the same time offering the usual conventional benefits to the non-color blind person. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04839647__ •

Method and eyeglasses for rectifying color blindness Inventor(s): Chen; Xiaoguang (134 Sidalin St., Changchun 130022 Jilin, CN), Lu; Zhong (4 Huxi Rd., Changchun 130022 Jilin, CN) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 5,369,453 Date filed: November 23, 1993 Abstract: Rectifying method for color blindness and rectifying eyeglasses for color blindness by using a computer to simulate the process of rectifying color blindness, there are produced 32 kinds of spectrums and parameters of rectifying eyeglasses for color blindness, which are then grouped under four types. The rectifying eyeglasses for color blindness change the proportion of stimulus of three kinds of optic cone cells on the retina and alter the color codes of the visional area of cerebral cortex, thus when a color-blind viewer wears the eyeglasses chosen properly, the ability of discrimination between different colored objects is greatly improved. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method for rectifying color blindness and eyeglasses employed therein. As a genetic disease, color blindness is believed incurable. At present there are at least 2.5 hundred million people suffering from abnormal color vision. Before the present invention, whether color blindness was rectifiable had been under discussion, and research had been conducted in this field, resulting in no breakthrough achievements. As early as in 1878, Delboeuf and Spring noted that red optical filtering devices may be used to help abnormal color viewers to discriminate between different color objects. Many types of optical filtering devices were designed to improve the color blind viewers' ability to distinguish pseudo-isocolors. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,300,819 discloses a pair of improved eyeglasses which can aid color discrimination for color blind viewers. The eyeglasses have two lenses, one is clear and the other is colored. To appear identical to the observers, each lens is additionally coated or formed to have a reflective or mirror-like surface. This kind of eyeglasses can only improve color sensation of the color blind viewers. U.S. Pat. No. 5,149,183 also discloses color enhancing sun glasses which attenuate blue and red light thereby preventing human eyes from harmful effects of such light. The transmission curves therein are specifically designed to attenuate certain light not to correct color blindness. At present, all researchers only use various optical filtering devices, experimentally to rectify color blindness. There are no devices to test color blindness quantitatively. In fact, the light sensitivity of eyes in the range of visible light differ with wavelength. It is believed in physiology that color blindness is caused by some errors occurring during recognition of colored objects. The errors may occur during certain physiological processes of transmission of color signals in retina. The external manifestation of color blindness is the change of sensitivity of eyes in the range of visible light. Whereas optical filtering devices in the patents above could rectify color blindness in certain degrees, there is not theoretical basis therefor and the effects are poor. The reason is that prior art optical filtering devices are not designed according to the spectral sensitive curves of the

Patents 37

abnormal color viewers. Moreover it is impossible to rectify all kinds of color blindness simply using single or compound optical filtering devices. One should adopt different optical filtering devices for different spectral sensitive curves of abnormal color viewers. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05369453__ •

Optical device for aiding color-blind persons in distinguishing colored objects Inventor(s): Davis; James Kenneth (P.O. Box 269, Kingston, TN 37763) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 5,917,573 Date filed: November 26, 1997 Abstract: A device for aiding a color blind person in the distinguishing of colors includes at least two lenses of different colors disposed so that an object may be simultaneously viewable through each of the lenses by one eye of the person. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to devices for aiding color-blind persons in the identification of specific colors to which they are blind, and more particularly to such devices which employ lenses of known color through which said persons can view an object and thus distinguish the color thereof. Color-blind persons (persons having various inabilities to distinguish colors) are often unable to reliably distinguish colors of various objects (colored objects, lights, indicia, etc.) wherein the color thereof is important or even critical to accurate interpretation of the object. Common examples of such objects include lighted and non-lighted signals, indicators and signs used for controlling vehicle, pedestrian and air traffic, for operating household, industrial and transportation equipment, and any source of light and/or other visual information wherein color is important or even critical to accurate interpretation of the information. Vehicle drivers who are color-blind generally rely on indications other than color such as the relative positions of traffic signal lights (not always standardized and therefore not to be ubiquitously trusted) or the movement of other traffic. Aircraft pilots who are color-blind are not permitted to fly during hours of darkness because the ability to distinguish colors is considered critical to the accurate interpretation of lighted, colored signals and markers at airports. Operators of equipment having indicators wherein color thereof has significance must rely on labels or other aids to interpret the significance of lighted signals. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05917573__

Patent Applications on Color Blindness As of December 2000, U.S. patent applications are open to public viewing.6 Applications are patent requests which have yet to be granted. (The process to achieve a patent can take several years.) The following patent applications have been filed since December 2000 relating to color blindness:

6

This has been a common practice outside the United States prior to December 2000.

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Color Blindness

•

Method and apparatus for modifying graphics content prior to display for color blind use Inventor(s): Weast, John C.; (Hillsboro, OR) Correspondence: Blakely Sokoloff Taylor & Zafman; 12400 Wilshire Boulevard, Seventh Floor; Los Angeles; CA; 90025; US Patent Application Number: 20030095705 Date filed: November 21, 2001 Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention provide a method and apparatus for dynamically modifying computer graphics content for colors and/or patterns that are problematic for color-blind viewers prior to display. In particular, graphics content may be modified in various stages of the graphics pipeline, including but not limited to, the render or raster stage, such that images provided to the user are visible to color-blind viewers upon display without further modification. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates generally to color blind systems and more particularly to filtering graphics to enable color-blind viewing. Computer graphics systems are commonly used for displaying graphical representations of objects on a two-dimensional video display screen. Current computer graphics systems provide highly detailed representations and are used in a variety of applications. Such systems typically come pre-installed with a plethora of accessibility tools for people with disabilities. Yet, providing color corrected graphics for people who suffer from color blindness still remains a challenge. More than 20 million Americans, many of them computer users, experience some form of color blindness, which is the inability to distinguish certain colors. When light enters the eye, it passes through several structures before striking the light sensitive receptors in the retina at the back of the eye. These receptors are called rods and cones. Rod are responsible for night vision, and cones are responsible for color vision, functioning best under daylight conditions. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

•

Method for treating visual impairment through the prophylactic administration of a Morinda citrifolia-based naturaceutical Inventor(s): Jensen, Claude Jarakae; (Cedar Hills, UT), Ocampo, Enrique; (El Paso, TX) Correspondence: Kirton & Mcconkie; 1800 Eagle Gate Tower; 60 East South Temple; Salt Lake City; UT; 84111; US Patent Application Number: 20030134002 Date filed: November 1, 2002 Abstract: Implementation of the present invention takes place in association with the utilization of one or more processed products produced from the Indian Mulberry plant, scientifically known as Morinda citrifolia L., to treat one or more eye disorders that affect vision, such as glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, retinitis pigmentosa, cataracts, agerelated macular degeneration, night blindness, color blindness, and other related conditions. The processed Morinda citrifolia products from the Indian Mulberry plant may be in the form of a dietary supplement, eye drops, or in another suitable form. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to methods and naturaceutical formulations and substances for treating and preventing ocular or visual impairments. Specifically, the present invention relates to Morinda citrifolia-based methods and naturaceutical

Patents 39

formulations and substances for treating pre-existing ocular impairments, as well as to Morinda citrifolia-based methods and naturaceutical formulations and substances for preventing the onset or reducing the onset potential of future or additional ocular impairments. The present invention is particularly suited for treatment and prevention of ocular impairments as commonly experienced in mammals, and particularly humans. The eye is an organ that collects light and turns it into electronic messages that are sent to the brain. The brain then turns those signals into a picture for an individual to see. Since individuals have two eyes, two pictures are usually created, which accounts for depth of vision. Most of depth of vision occurs from judging the relative size of the objects seen. The eye includes several intricate parts or components. The eyelids hold the lashes, keep the eye moist, and shield it from intense light. The conjunctiva is a membrane that covers most of the eyeball and allows the lids to gently glide over the eye. The clear cornea covers the iris, and works like a watch-face for the eye. It allows a small amount of light to enter the eye through the pupil. Then, along with the natural lens, it acts like a camera-lens and focuses the image onto the retina. The retina is like the film in a "ocular" camera. It lines the inside of the eye, and is mostly clear. The retina has very few blood vessels that would disturb the retinal picture. Since the retina has so few blood vessels and does a lot of work, it needs to be nourished by a blood vessel layer beneath it. This sub-layer blood vessel is called the choroid or uvea. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Methods for selecting high visual contrast colors in user-interface design Inventor(s): Poynter, William Douglas; (Duluth, GA) Correspondence: Paul W. Martin; Law Department, Whq-5e; 1700 S. Patterson BLVD.; Dayton; OH; 45479-0001; US Patent Application Number: 20030174866 Date filed: March 15, 2002 Abstract: The invention relates to assessing the level of visual contrast between foreground and background in visually presented information, and more particularly, to a method and apparatus for determining whether a given set of foreground and background colors creates sufficient visual contrast to ensure legibility for the general population, as well as for individuals with visual disabilities, including color blindness/deficiency. Excerpt(s): The present invention generally relates to assessing the level of visual contrast between foreground and background in visually presented information, and more particularly, to a method and apparatus for determining whether a given set of foreground and background colors creates sufficient visual contrast to ensure legibility for the general population, as well as for individuals with visual disabilities, including color blindness/deficiency. Normal aging has a detrimental effect on visual contrast sensitivity, such that displayed information which is legible to an individual in his/her twenties may not be legible to an individual in his/her forties and older. In addition to the effects of normal aging, there are many medical and genetic factors, such as color blindness and color deficiency, that affect contrast sensitivity and overall visual acuity. As many as 8% of men and 1% of women have some form of color blindness, as disclosed by the American Optometric Association (http://www.aoanet.org/cvc-colordeficiency.html). Furthermore,.sctn. 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended (29 U.S.C. 794d), requires that when Federal agencies develop, procure, maintain, or use electronic and information technology, Federal employees with disabilities (including

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Color Blindness

visual disabilities) have access to and use of information and data that is comparable to the access and use by Federal employees who are not individuals with disabilities, unless an undue burden would be imposed on the agency. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html •

Optoelectronic eye examination system Inventor(s): Riza, Nabeel Agha; (Oviedo, FL) Correspondence: Beusse, Brownlee, Bowdoin & Wolter, P. A.; 390 North Orange Avenue; Suite 2500; Orlando; FL; 32801; US Patent Application Number: 20030210378 Date filed: January 13, 2003 Abstract: Optoelectronic eye examination apparatus is shown that can test the eyes for refraction errors and color blindness with the additional capability to perform eye strain relief and eye muscle exercises. This invention with its various embodiments exploits the electronic programmability features of Spatial Light Modulators (SLMs) combined with fixed refractive power lenses in a unique thin-lens cascaded arrangement to form an eye examination instrument that provides (a) an assessment of the present state of the refractive powers of the eye; i.e., an update in Diopters of the change in eye wear prescription required for improved vision, (b) an assessment of the color vision capability of the eyes, and (c) a visual platform to subject the eye to imagebased muscular and neural processing leading to eye strain relief and other neural/human benefits. The instrument is divided into several sub-modules that include the light source optics, image generation optics via programmable amplitude mode SLM, fixed refractive power optics and optional beam delay optics, SLM-based electronically programmable lens (serves as the adjustable weak lens), and a controller to provide feedback to the programmable optics with input from the human under test and/or a objective image quality and refractive power test system. The preferred nomoving parts embodiment of the invention is based on liquid crystal (LC) optics with a transmissive LC programmable lens for refractive power control and LC SLM for vision image generation required for various eye tests and measurements. For instance, the SLM image generator can produce rapid near zero dark phase test image rotation via software control, implementing astigmatism measurements. An alternate embodiment of this invention uses a reflective lens arrangement via a LC SLM or a mirror-based SLM that function as the weak lens. Both these embodiments have a shutter arrangement that in one shutter state allows external light from an infinity image to impinge on the eye so as to prevent the eye from near field accommodation during far field (e.g., greater than 10 feet standard vision chart distance) testing. In addition, in the other shutter state, only light from the image generation LC display strikes the eye. Another embodiment of the invention introduces the use of a fixed bias lens in close cascade with the SLM-based lens. The purpose of the bias lens is via the thin-lens formula approximation, add to the Dioptric power of the combined eye refractive power test system to cover a wider power range than possible with a single SLM-based lens. Here, bias lenses of various powers can be attached in a wheel where rotating the wheel brings the desired bias lens in line with the SLM-based lens optical axis. Both a transmissive LC lens or a reflective lens such as via an actuated mirror device or an LC device can be used to form this embodiment of the invention. Additional embodiments of the invention use multiple cascaded SLMs to increase the Dioptric power and measurement capability of the vision testing instrument.

Patents 41

Excerpt(s): This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application, Application No. 60/350,256, filed Jan. 17, 2002, incorporated herein by reference. The present invention is generally related to eye examination systems, and, specifically, to an optoelectronic eye examination system using spatial light modulators. The human eye is a vital part of our sensory system, see C. E. RISCHER AND T. A. EASTON, Focus ON HUMAN BIOLOGY, 363-368, (1992), that provides a window to the universe and the quality of life's pleasures it brings to us as individuals. From the day we are born to the day we depart, our eyes provide us with dedicated non-stop sensory feedback that shapes our lives. Like any other part of our human anatomy, the eye undergoes a gradual wear and tear process during the aging process, and in some cases, more serious changes or damage occur. The most common yet debilitating change in our eye is the change in eye lens quality that then affects our ability to see and function properly. Hence, knowing the well being of our eyes and their vision quality status is critical for functionality in our daily lives. In some cases like driving automobiles, flying aircrafts, operating military equipment, and running heavy or dangerous industrial machinery can have deadly consequences to society in general. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html

Keeping Current In order to stay informed about patents and patent applications dealing with color blindness, you can access the U.S. Patent Office archive via the Internet at the following Web address: http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. You will see two broad options: (1) Issued Patent, and (2) Published Applications. To see a list of issued patents, perform the following steps: Under “Issued Patents,” click “Quick Search.” Then, type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the “Term 1” box. After clicking on the search button, scroll down to see the various patents which have been granted to date on color blindness. You can also use this procedure to view pending patent applications concerning color blindness. Simply go back to http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. Select “Quick Search” under “Published Applications.” Then proceed with the steps listed above.

43

CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON COLOR BLINDNESS Overview This chapter provides bibliographic book references relating to color blindness. In addition to online booksellers such as www.amazon.com and www.bn.com, excellent sources for book titles on color blindness include the Combined Health Information Database and the National Library of Medicine. Your local medical library also may have these titles available for loan.

Book Summaries: Online Booksellers Commercial Internet-based booksellers, such as Amazon.com and Barnes&Noble.com, offer summaries which have been supplied by each title’s publisher. Some summaries also include customer reviews. Your local bookseller may have access to in-house and commercial databases that index all published books (e.g. Books in Print®). IMPORTANT NOTE: Online booksellers typically produce search results for medical and non-medical books. When searching for “color blindness” at online booksellers’ Web sites, you may discover non-medical books that use the generic term “color blindness” (or a synonym) in their titles. The following is indicative of the results you might find when searching for “color blindness” (sorted alphabetically by title; follow the hyperlink to view more details at Amazon.com): •

Color Vision Deficiency and Color Blindness by Mary M. Olsen, Kenneth R. Harris; ISBN: 0961533226; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0961533226/icongroupinterna

The National Library of Medicine Book Index The National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health has a massive database of books published on healthcare and biomedicine. Go to the following Internet site, http://locatorplus.gov/, and then select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once you are in the search area, simply type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the search box, and select “books

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Color Blindness

only.” From there, results can be sorted by publication date, author, or relevance. The following was recently catalogued by the National Library of Medicine:7 •

Color blindness; an evolutionary approach. Author: Cruz-Coke, Ricardo.; Year: 1910; Springfield, Ill., Thomas [c1970]

•

New means of studying color blindness and normal foveal color vision, with some results and their genetical implications, by Gordon L. Walls and Ravenna W. Mathews. Author: Walls, Gordon Lynn,; Year: 1950; Berkeley, Univ. of California Press, 1952

•

Revision and further application of the Nela test for color blindness [microform] Author: Scheidt, Vernon Philip,; Year: 1964; 1936

Chapters on Color Blindness In order to find chapters that specifically relate to color blindness, an excellent source of abstracts is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to book chapters and color blindness using the “Detailed Search” option. Go to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find book chapters, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Book Chapter.” Type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for book chapters on color blindness: •

Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Eye Disorders Source: in Gorlin, R.J.; Toriello, H.V.; Cohen, M.M., Jr., eds. Hereditary Hearing Loss and Its Syndromes. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 1995. p. 105-140. Contact: Available from Oxford University Press. 200 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016. (800) 334-4249 or (212) 679-7300. PRICE: $195.00 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 0195065522. Summary: This chapter, from a text on hereditary hearing loss and its syndromes, discusses genetic hearing loss associated with eye disorders. Conditions covered include Usher syndrome (retinitis pigmentosis and sensorineural hearing loss); Alstrom syndrome; Edwards syndrome; retinitis pigmentosa, nystagmus, hemiplegic migraine, and sensorineural hearing loss; retinitis pigmentosa, vitiligo, and sensorineural hearing loss; Hersh syndrome; choroideremia, obesity, and congenital sensorineural hearing loss; Refsum syndrome; infantile Refsum syndrome; inverse retinitis pigmentosa, hypogonadism, and sensorineural hearing loss; miscellaneous disorders of pigmentary retinopathy and sensorineural hearing loss; myopia and congenital sensorineural hearing loss; Marshall syndrome; Holmes-Schepens syndrome; Harboyan syndrome; familial band keratopathy, abnormal calcium metabolism, and hearing loss; EhlersDanlos syndrome, type IV; corneal anesthesia, retinal abnormalities, mental retardation,

7

In addition to LOCATORPlus, in collaboration with authors and publishers, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is currently adapting biomedical books for the Web. The books may be accessed in two ways: (1) by searching directly using any search term or phrase (in the same way as the bibliographic database PubMed), or (2) by following the links to PubMed abstracts. Each PubMed abstract has a "Books" button that displays a facsimile of the abstract in which some phrases are hypertext links. These phrases are also found in the books available at NCBI. Click on hyperlinked results in the list of books in which the phrase is found. Currently, the majority of the links are between the books and PubMed. In the future, more links will be created between the books and other types of information, such as gene and protein sequences and macromolecular structures. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books.

Books

45

unusual facies, and sensorineural hearing loss; DeHauwere syndrome; AbruzzoErickson syndrome; aniridia and sensorineural hearing loss; congenital total color blindness, cataracts, hyperinsulinism, and sensorineural hearing loss; total color blindness, liver degeneration, endocrine dysfunction, and sensorineural hearing loss; rod-cone dystrophy, renal dysfunction, and sensorineural hearing loss; OHAHA syndrome; IVIC syndrome; cataracts and progressive sensorineural hearing loss; Ohdo syndrome; Michels syndrome; Fraser syndrome; ocular albinism with late-onset sensorineural hearing loss; Norrie syndrome; Gernet syndrome; Jensen syndrome; BerkTabatznik syndrome; and Mohr-Mageroy syndrome. For each condition discussed, the author covers the ocular system involvement, the auditory system, laboratory findings, pathology, heredity, diagnosis, and prognosis. References are included in each section. 23 figures. 4 tables. 346 references.

47

CHAPTER 7. MULTIMEDIA ON COLOR BLINDNESS Overview In this chapter, we show you how to keep current on multimedia sources of information on color blindness. We start with sources that have been summarized by federal agencies, and then show you how to find bibliographic information catalogued by the National Library of Medicine.

Video Recordings An excellent source of multimedia information on color blindness is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to “Videorecording” and “color blindness” using the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find video productions, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Videorecording (videotape, videocassette, etc.).” Type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for video recordings on color blindness: •

Understanding the Senses Source: Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Princeton, NJ. 1999. Contact: Available from Films for the Humanities and Sciences. P.O. Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053. Voice (800) 257-5126; (609) 275-1400, 8:00am to 5:30pm EST. Fax (609) 275-3767. E-mail: [email protected]. Web site: http://www.films.com. PRICE: $129.95 plus shipping. Summary: In this video program, neurologist Dr. Oliver Sacks and other specialists reveal the beauty and complexity of visual, audial, chemosensory, and tactile perception. Sense-related phenomena such as proprioception and applications like a device designed to sniff our dangerous chemical signatures are examined, along with sensory malfunctions including color blindness, phantom limb syndrome, and the inability to see motion. A Discovery Channel Production. 56 minutes, color video.

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CHAPTER 8. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON COLOR BLINDNESS Overview In this chapter, we suggest a number of news sources and present various periodicals that cover color blindness.

News Services and Press Releases One of the simplest ways of tracking press releases on color blindness is to search the news wires. In the following sample of sources, we will briefly describe how to access each service. These services only post recent news intended for public viewing. PR Newswire To access the PR Newswire archive, simply go to http://www.prnewswire.com/. Select your country. Type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the search box. You will automatically receive information on relevant news releases posted within the last 30 days. The search results are shown by order of relevance. Reuters Health The Reuters’ Medical News and Health eLine databases can be very useful in exploring news archives relating to color blindness. While some of the listed articles are free to view, others are available for purchase for a nominal fee. To access this archive, go to http://www.reutershealth.com/en/index.html and search by “color blindness” (or synonyms). The following was recently listed in this archive for color blindness: •

Study looks at heart drug, color blindness link Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: November 05, 2002

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•

Gene found for color blindness in Pacific islanders Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: June 29, 2000

•

Lenses don't correct color blindness Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: June 12, 1998 The NIH

Within MEDLINEplus, the NIH has made an agreement with the New York Times Syndicate, the AP News Service, and Reuters to deliver news that can be browsed by the public. Search news releases at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_a.html. MEDLINEplus allows you to browse across an alphabetical index. Or you can search by date at the following Web page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/newsbydate.html. Often, news items are indexed by MEDLINEplus within its search engine. Business Wire Business Wire is similar to PR Newswire. To access this archive, simply go to http://www.businesswire.com/. You can scan the news by industry category or company name. Market Wire Market Wire is more focused on technology than the other wires. To browse the latest press releases by topic, such as alternative medicine, biotechnology, fitness, healthcare, legal, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals, access Market Wire’s Medical/Health channel at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_index?channel=MedicalHealth. Or simply go to Market Wire’s home page at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/home, type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click on “Search News.” As this service is technology oriented, you may wish to use it when searching for press releases covering diagnostic procedures or tests. Search Engines Medical news is also available in the news sections of commercial Internet search engines. See the health news page at Yahoo (http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/News_and_Media/), or you can use this Web site’s general news search page at http://news.yahoo.com/. Type in “color blindness” (or synonyms). If you know the name of a company that is relevant to color blindness, you can go to any stock trading Web site (such as http://www.etrade.com/) and search for the company name there. News items across various news sources are reported on indicated hyperlinks. Google offers a similar service at http://news.google.com/.

Periodicals and News

51

BBC Covering news from a more European perspective, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) allows the public free access to their news archive located at http://www.bbc.co.uk/. Search by “color blindness” (or synonyms).

Academic Periodicals covering Color Blindness Numerous periodicals are currently indexed within the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed database that are known to publish articles relating to color blindness. In addition to these sources, you can search for articles covering color blindness that have been published by any of the periodicals listed in previous chapters. To find the latest studies published, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed, type the name of the periodical into the search box, and click “Go.” If you want complete details about the historical contents of a journal, you can also visit the following Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/jrbrowser.cgi. Here, type in the name of the journal or its abbreviation, and you will receive an index of published articles. At http://locatorplus.gov/, you can retrieve more indexing information on medical periodicals (e.g. the name of the publisher). Select the button “Search LOCATORplus.” Then type in the name of the journal and select the advanced search option “Journal Title Search.”

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APPENDICES

55

APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES Overview In this chapter, we focus on databases and Internet-based guidelines and information resources created or written for a professional audience.

NIH Guidelines Commonly referred to as “clinical” or “professional” guidelines, the National Institutes of Health publish physician guidelines for the most common diseases. Publications are available at the following by relevant Institute8: •

Office of the Director (OD); guidelines consolidated across agencies available at http://www.nih.gov/health/consumer/conkey.htm

•

National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS); fact sheets available at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/facts/

•

National Library of Medicine (NLM); extensive encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.) with guidelines: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html

•

National Cancer Institute (NCI); guidelines available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/list.aspx?viewid=5f35036e-5497-4d86-8c2c714a9f7c8d25

•

National Eye Institute (NEI); guidelines available at http://www.nei.nih.gov/order/index.htm

•

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); guidelines available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index.htm

•

National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); research available at http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10000375

•

National Institute on Aging (NIA); guidelines available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/health/

8

These publications are typically written by one or more of the various NIH Institutes.

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•

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); guidelines available at http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/publications.htm

•

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); guidelines available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/

•

National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); fact sheets and guidelines available at http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/index.htm

•

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); guidelines available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm

•

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); fact sheets and guidelines at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/

•

National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR); guidelines available at http://www.nidr.nih.gov/health/

•

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); guidelines available at http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/health.htm

•

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); guidelines available at http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugAbuse.html

•

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS); environmental health information available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/facts.htm

•

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); guidelines available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/practitioners/index.cfm

•

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); neurological disorder information pages available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm

•

National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR); publications on selected illnesses at http://www.nih.gov/ninr/news-info/publications.html

•

National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering; general information at http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/becon_info.htm

•

Center for Information Technology (CIT); referrals to other agencies based on keyword searches available at http://kb.nih.gov/www_query_main.asp

•

National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM); health information available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/

•

National Center for Research Resources (NCRR); various information directories available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/publications.asp

•

Office of Rare Diseases; various fact sheets available at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/html/resources/rep_pubs.html

•

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; various fact sheets on infectious diseases available at http://www.cdc.gov/publications.htm

Physician Resources

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NIH Databases In addition to the various Institutes of Health that publish professional guidelines, the NIH has designed a number of databases for professionals.9 Physician-oriented resources provide a wide variety of information related to the biomedical and health sciences, both past and present. The format of these resources varies. Searchable databases, bibliographic citations, full-text articles (when available), archival collections, and images are all available. The following are referenced by the National Library of Medicine:10 •

Bioethics: Access to published literature on the ethical, legal, and public policy issues surrounding healthcare and biomedical research. This information is provided in conjunction with the Kennedy Institute of Ethics located at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_bioethics.html

•

HIV/AIDS Resources: Describes various links and databases dedicated to HIV/AIDS research: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/aidsinfs.html

•

NLM Online Exhibitions: Describes “Exhibitions in the History of Medicine”: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/exhibition.html. Additional resources for historical scholarship in medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/hmd.html

•

Biotechnology Information: Access to public databases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

•

Population Information: The National Library of Medicine provides access to worldwide coverage of population, family planning, and related health issues, including family planning technology and programs, fertility, and population law and policy: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_population.html

•

Cancer Information: Access to cancer-oriented databases: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_cancer.html

•

Profiles in Science: Offering the archival collections of prominent twentieth-century biomedical scientists to the public through modern digital technology: http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/

•

Chemical Information: Provides links to various chemical databases and references: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Chem/ChemMain.html

•

Clinical Alerts: Reports the release of findings from the NIH-funded clinical trials where such release could significantly affect morbidity and mortality: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html

•

Space Life Sciences: Provides links and information to space-based research (including NASA): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_space.html

•

MEDLINE: Bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, and the pre-clinical sciences: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_medline.html

9

Remember, for the general public, the National Library of Medicine recommends the databases referenced in MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/ or http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/databases.html). 10 See http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases.html.

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•

Toxicology and Environmental Health Information (TOXNET): Databases covering toxicology and environmental health: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxMain.html

•

Visible Human Interface: Anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of normal male and female human bodies: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html

The NLM Gateway11 The NLM (National Library of Medicine) Gateway is a Web-based system that lets users search simultaneously in multiple retrieval systems at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It allows users of NLM services to initiate searches from one Web interface, providing one-stop searching for many of NLM’s information resources or databases.12 To use the NLM Gateway, simply go to the search site at http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd. Type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Search.” The results will be presented in a tabular form, indicating the number of references in each database category. Results Summary Category Journal Articles Books / Periodicals / Audio Visual Consumer Health Meeting Abstracts Other Collections Total

Items Found 2928 106 726 1 0 3761

HSTAT13 HSTAT is a free, Web-based resource that provides access to full-text documents used in healthcare decision-making.14 These documents include clinical practice guidelines, quickreference guides for clinicians, consumer health brochures, evidence reports and technology assessments from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), as well as AHRQ’s Put Prevention Into Practice.15 Simply search by “color blindness” (or synonyms) at the following Web site: http://text.nlm.nih.gov.

11

Adapted from NLM: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?Overview.x.

12

The NLM Gateway is currently being developed by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications (LHNCBC) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). 13 Adapted from HSTAT: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/hstat.html. 14 15

The HSTAT URL is http://hstat.nlm.nih.gov/.

Other important documents in HSTAT include: the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference Reports and Technology Assessment Reports; the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) resource documents; the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (SAMHSA/CSAT) Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIP) and Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (SAMHSA/CSAP) Prevention Enhancement Protocols System (PEPS); the Public Health Service (PHS) Preventive Services Task Force's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services; the independent, nonfederal Task Force on Community Services’ Guide to Community Preventive Services; and the Health Technology Advisory Committee (HTAC) of the Minnesota Health Care Commission (MHCC) health technology evaluations.

Physician Resources

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Coffee Break: Tutorials for Biologists16 Coffee Break is a general healthcare site that takes a scientific view of the news and covers recent breakthroughs in biology that may one day assist physicians in developing treatments. Here you will find a collection of short reports on recent biological discoveries. Each report incorporates interactive tutorials that demonstrate how bioinformatics tools are used as a part of the research process. Currently, all Coffee Breaks are written by NCBI staff.17 Each report is about 400 words and is usually based on a discovery reported in one or more articles from recently published, peer-reviewed literature.18 This site has new articles every few weeks, so it can be considered an online magazine of sorts. It is intended for general background information. You can access the Coffee Break Web site at the following hyperlink: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/.

Other Commercial Databases In addition to resources maintained by official agencies, other databases exist that are commercial ventures addressing medical professionals. Here are some examples that may interest you: •

CliniWeb International: Index and table of contents to selected clinical information on the Internet; see http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/.

•

Medical World Search: Searches full text from thousands of selected medical sites on the Internet; see http://www.mwsearch.com/.

16 Adapted 17

from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/Archive/FAQ.html.

The figure that accompanies each article is frequently supplied by an expert external to NCBI, in which case the source of the figure is cited. The result is an interactive tutorial that tells a biological story. 18 After a brief introduction that sets the work described into a broader context, the report focuses on how a molecular understanding can provide explanations of observed biology and lead to therapies for diseases. Each vignette is accompanied by a figure and hypertext links that lead to a series of pages that interactively show how NCBI tools and resources are used in the research process.

61

APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES Overview Official agencies, as well as federally funded institutions supported by national grants, frequently publish a variety of guidelines written with the patient in mind. These are typically called “Fact Sheets” or “Guidelines.” They can take the form of a brochure, information kit, pamphlet, or flyer. Often they are only a few pages in length. Since new guidelines on color blindness can appear at any moment and be published by a number of sources, the best approach to finding guidelines is to systematically scan the Internet-based services that post them.

Patient Guideline Sources The remainder of this chapter directs you to sources which either publish or can help you find additional guidelines on topics related to color blindness. Due to space limitations, these sources are listed in a concise manner. Do not hesitate to consult the following sources by either using the Internet hyperlink provided, or, in cases where the contact information is provided, contacting the publisher or author directly. The National Institutes of Health The NIH gateway to patients is located at http://health.nih.gov/. From this site, you can search across various sources and institutes, a number of which are summarized below. Topic Pages: MEDLINEplus The National Library of Medicine has created a vast and patient-oriented healthcare information portal called MEDLINEplus. Within this Internet-based system are “health topic pages” which list links to available materials relevant to color blindness. To access this system, log on to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html. From there you can either search using the alphabetical index or browse by broad topic areas. Recently, MEDLINEplus listed the following when searched for “color blindness”:

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•

Other guides Eye Diseases http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/eyediseases.html Eye Injuries http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/eyeinjuries.html Macular Degeneration http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/maculardegeneration.html Refractive Errors http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/refractiveerrors.html Vision Disorders & Blindness http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/visiondisordersblindness.html

You may also choose to use the search utility provided by MEDLINEplus at the following Web address: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/. Simply type a keyword into the search box and click “Search.” This utility is similar to the NIH search utility, with the exception that it only includes materials that are linked within the MEDLINEplus system (mostly patient-oriented information). It also has the disadvantage of generating unstructured results. We recommend, therefore, that you use this method only if you have a very targeted search. The NIH Search Utility The NIH search utility allows you to search for documents on over 100 selected Web sites that comprise the NIH-WEB-SPACE. Each of these servers is “crawled” and indexed on an ongoing basis. Your search will produce a list of various documents, all of which will relate in some way to color blindness. The drawbacks of this approach are that the information is not organized by theme and that the references are often a mix of information for professionals and patients. Nevertheless, a large number of the listed Web sites provide useful background information. We can only recommend this route, therefore, for relatively rare or specific disorders, or when using highly targeted searches. To use the NIH search utility, visit the following Web page: http://search.nih.gov/index.html. Additional Web Sources A number of Web sites are available to the public that often link to government sites. These can also point you in the direction of essential information. The following is a representative sample: •

AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=168&layer=&from=subcats

•

Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/specific.htm

•

Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

•

Med Help International: http://www.medhelp.org/HealthTopics/A.html

•

Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/

•

Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/

Patient Resources

•

63

WebMD®Health: http://my.webmd.com/health_topics

Finding Associations There are several Internet directories that provide lists of medical associations with information on or resources relating to color blindness. By consulting all of associations listed in this chapter, you will have nearly exhausted all sources for patient associations concerned with color blindness. The National Health Information Center (NHIC) The National Health Information Center (NHIC) offers a free referral service to help people find organizations that provide information about color blindness. For more information, see the NHIC’s Web site at http://www.health.gov/NHIC/ or contact an information specialist by calling 1-800-336-4797. Directory of Health Organizations The Directory of Health Organizations, provided by the National Library of Medicine Specialized Information Services, is a comprehensive source of information on associations. The Directory of Health Organizations database can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Dir/DirMain.html. It is composed of two parts: DIRLINE and Health Hotlines. The DIRLINE database comprises some 10,000 records of organizations, research centers, and government institutes and associations that primarily focus on health and biomedicine. To access DIRLINE directly, go to the following Web site: http://dirline.nlm.nih.gov/. Simply type in “color blindness” (or a synonym), and you will receive information on all relevant organizations listed in the database. Health Hotlines directs you to toll-free numbers to over 300 organizations. You can access this database directly at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/hotlines/. On this page, you are given the option to search by keyword or by browsing the subject list. When you have received your search results, click on the name of the organization for its description and contact information. The Combined Health Information Database Another comprehensive source of information on healthcare associations is the Combined Health Information Database. Using the “Detailed Search” option, you will need to limit your search to “Organizations” and “color blindness”. Type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Then, select your preferred language and the format option “Organization Resource Sheet.” Type “color blindness” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database since it is updated every three months.

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The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. has prepared a Web site that provides, at no charge, lists of associations organized by health topic. You can access this database at the following Web site: http://www.rarediseases.org/search/orgsearch.html. Type “color blindness” (or a synonym) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.”

65

APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES Overview In this Appendix, we show you how to quickly find a medical library in your area.

Preparation Your local public library and medical libraries have interlibrary loan programs with the National Library of Medicine (NLM), one of the largest medical collections in the world. According to the NLM, most of the literature in the general and historical collections of the National Library of Medicine is available on interlibrary loan to any library. If you would like to access NLM medical literature, then visit a library in your area that can request the publications for you.19

Finding a Local Medical Library The quickest method to locate medical libraries is to use the Internet-based directory published by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM). This network includes 4626 members and affiliates that provide many services to librarians, health professionals, and the public. To find a library in your area, simply visit http://nnlm.gov/members/adv.html or call 1-800-338-7657.

Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada In addition to the NN/LM, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) lists a number of libraries with reference facilities that are open to the public. The following is the NLM’s list and includes hyperlinks to each library’s Web site. These Web pages can provide information on hours of operation and other restrictions. The list below is a small sample of

19

Adapted from the NLM: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/psd/cas/interlibrary.html.

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libraries recommended by the National Library of Medicine (sorted alphabetically by name of the U.S. state or Canadian province where the library is located)20: •

Alabama: Health InfoNet of Jefferson County (Jefferson County Library Cooperative, Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences), http://www.uab.edu/infonet/

•

Alabama: Richard M. Scrushy Library (American Sports Medicine Institute)

•

Arizona: Samaritan Regional Medical Center: The Learning Center (Samaritan Health System, Phoenix, Arizona), http://www.samaritan.edu/library/bannerlibs.htm

•

California: Kris Kelly Health Information Center (St. Joseph Health System, Humboldt), http://www.humboldt1.com/~kkhic/index.html

•

California: Community Health Library of Los Gatos, http://www.healthlib.org/orgresources.html

•

California: Consumer Health Program and Services (CHIPS) (County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Library) - Carson, CA, http://www.colapublib.org/services/chips.html

•

California: Gateway Health Library (Sutter Gould Medical Foundation)

•

California: Health Library (Stanford University Medical Center), http://wwwmed.stanford.edu/healthlibrary/

•

California: Patient Education Resource Center - Health Information and Resources (University of California, San Francisco), http://sfghdean.ucsf.edu/barnett/PERC/default.asp

•

California: Redwood Health Library (Petaluma Health Care District), http://www.phcd.org/rdwdlib.html

•

California: Los Gatos PlaneTree Health Library, http://planetreesanjose.org/

•

California: Sutter Resource Library (Sutter Hospitals Foundation, Sacramento), http://suttermedicalcenter.org/library/

•

California: Health Sciences Libraries (University of California, Davis), http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/healthsci/

•

California: ValleyCare Health Library & Ryan Comer Cancer Resource Center (ValleyCare Health System, Pleasanton), http://gaelnet.stmarysca.edu/other.libs/gbal/east/vchl.html

•

California: Washington Community Health Resource Library (Fremont), http://www.healthlibrary.org/

•

Colorado: William V. Gervasini Memorial Library (Exempla Healthcare), http://www.saintjosephdenver.org/yourhealth/libraries/

•

Connecticut: Hartford Hospital Health Science Libraries (Hartford Hospital), http://www.harthosp.org/library/

•

Connecticut: Healthnet: Connecticut Consumer Health Information Center (University of Connecticut Health Center, Lyman Maynard Stowe Library), http://library.uchc.edu/departm/hnet/

20

Abstracted from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/libraries.html.

Finding Medical Libraries

67

•

Connecticut: Waterbury Hospital Health Center Library (Waterbury Hospital, Waterbury), http://www.waterburyhospital.com/library/consumer.shtml

•

Delaware: Consumer Health Library (Christiana Care Health System, Eugene du Pont Preventive Medicine & Rehabilitation Institute, Wilmington), http://www.christianacare.org/health_guide/health_guide_pmri_health_info.cfm

•

Delaware: Lewis B. Flinn Library (Delaware Academy of Medicine, Wilmington), http://www.delamed.org/chls.html

•

Georgia: Family Resource Library (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta), http://cmc.mcg.edu/kids_families/fam_resources/fam_res_lib/frl.htm

•

Georgia: Health Resource Center (Medical Center of Central Georgia, Macon), http://www.mccg.org/hrc/hrchome.asp

•

Hawaii: Hawaii Medical Library: Consumer Health Information Service (Hawaii Medical Library, Honolulu), http://hml.org/CHIS/

•

Idaho: DeArmond Consumer Health Library (Kootenai Medical Center, Coeur d’Alene), http://www.nicon.org/DeArmond/index.htm

•

Illinois: Health Learning Center of Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago), http://www.nmh.org/health_info/hlc.html

•

Illinois: Medical Library (OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, Peoria), http://www.osfsaintfrancis.org/general/library/

•

Kentucky: Medical Library - Services for Patients, Families, Students & the Public (Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington), http://www.centralbap.com/education/community/library.cfm

•

Kentucky: University of Kentucky - Health Information Library (Chandler Medical Center, Lexington), http://www.mc.uky.edu/PatientEd/

•

Louisiana: Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation Library (Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans), http://www.ochsner.org/library/

•

Louisiana: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Medical LibraryShreveport, http://lib-sh.lsuhsc.edu/

•

Maine: Franklin Memorial Hospital Medical Library (Franklin Memorial Hospital, Farmington), http://www.fchn.org/fmh/lib.htm

•

Maine: Gerrish-True Health Sciences Library (Central Maine Medical Center, Lewiston), http://www.cmmc.org/library/library.html

•

Maine: Hadley Parrot Health Science Library (Eastern Maine Healthcare, Bangor), http://www.emh.org/hll/hpl/guide.htm

•

Maine: Maine Medical Center Library (Maine Medical Center, Portland), http://www.mmc.org/library/

•

Maine: Parkview Hospital (Brunswick), http://www.parkviewhospital.org/

•

Maine: Southern Maine Medical Center Health Sciences Library (Southern Maine Medical Center, Biddeford), http://www.smmc.org/services/service.php3?choice=10

•

Maine: Stephens Memorial Hospital’s Health Information Library (Western Maine Health, Norway), http://www.wmhcc.org/Library/

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•

Manitoba, Canada: Consumer & Patient Health Information Service (University of Manitoba Libraries), http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/health/reference/chis.html

•

Manitoba, Canada: J.W. Crane Memorial Library (Deer Lodge Centre, Winnipeg), http://www.deerlodge.mb.ca/crane_library/about.asp

•

Maryland: Health Information Center at the Wheaton Regional Library (Montgomery County, Dept. of Public Libraries, Wheaton Regional Library), http://www.mont.lib.md.us/healthinfo/hic.asp

•

Massachusetts: Baystate Medical Center Library (Baystate Health System), http://www.baystatehealth.com/1024/

•

Massachusetts: Boston University Medical Center Alumni Medical Library (Boston University Medical Center), http://med-libwww.bu.edu/library/lib.html

•

Massachusetts: Lowell General Hospital Health Sciences Library (Lowell General Hospital, Lowell), http://www.lowellgeneral.org/library/HomePageLinks/WWW.htm

•

Massachusetts: Paul E. Woodard Health Sciences Library (New England Baptist Hospital, Boston), http://www.nebh.org/health_lib.asp

•

Massachusetts: St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library (St. Luke’s Hospital, Southcoast Health System, New Bedford), http://www.southcoast.org/library/

•

Massachusetts: Treadwell Library Consumer Health Reference Center (Massachusetts General Hospital), http://www.mgh.harvard.edu/library/chrcindex.html

•

Massachusetts: UMass HealthNet (University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worchester), http://healthnet.umassmed.edu/

•

Michigan: Botsford General Hospital Library - Consumer Health (Botsford General Hospital, Library & Internet Services), http://www.botsfordlibrary.org/consumer.htm

•

Michigan: Helen DeRoy Medical Library (Providence Hospital and Medical Centers), http://www.providence-hospital.org/library/

•

Michigan: Marquette General Hospital - Consumer Health Library (Marquette General Hospital, Health Information Center), http://www.mgh.org/center.html

•

Michigan: Patient Education Resouce Center - University of Michigan Cancer Center (University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor), http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/learn/leares.htm

•

Michigan: Sladen Library & Center for Health Information Resources - Consumer Health Information (Detroit), http://www.henryford.com/body.cfm?id=39330

•

Montana: Center for Health Information (St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center, Missoula)

•

National: Consumer Health Library Directory (Medical Library Association, Consumer and Patient Health Information Section), http://caphis.mlanet.org/directory/index.html

•

National: National Network of Libraries of Medicine (National Library of Medicine) provides library services for health professionals in the United States who do not have access to a medical library, http://nnlm.gov/

•

National: NN/LM List of Libraries Serving the Public (National Network of Libraries of Medicine), http://nnlm.gov/members/

Finding Medical Libraries

69

•

Nevada: Health Science Library, West Charleston Library (Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, Las Vegas), http://www.lvccld.org/special_collections/medical/index.htm

•

New Hampshire: Dartmouth Biomedical Libraries (Dartmouth College Library, Hanover), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~biomed/resources.htmld/conshealth.htmld/

•

New Jersey: Consumer Health Library (Rahway Hospital, Rahway), http://www.rahwayhospital.com/library.htm

•

New Jersey: Dr. Walter Phillips Health Sciences Library (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.englewoodhospital.com/links/index.htm

•

New Jersey: Meland Foundation (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/9360/

•

New York: Choices in Health Information (New York Public Library) - NLM Consumer Pilot Project participant, http://www.nypl.org/branch/health/links.html

•

New York: Health Information Center (Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse), http://www.upstate.edu/library/hic/

•

New York: Health Sciences Library (Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park), http://www.lij.edu/library/library.html

•

New York: ViaHealth Medical Library (Rochester General Hospital), http://www.nyam.org/library/

•

Ohio: Consumer Health Library (Akron General Medical Center, Medical & Consumer Health Library), http://www.akrongeneral.org/hwlibrary.htm

•

Oklahoma: The Health Information Center at Saint Francis Hospital (Saint Francis Health System, Tulsa), http://www.sfh-tulsa.com/services/healthinfo.asp

•

Oregon: Planetree Health Resource Center (Mid-Columbia Medical Center, The Dalles), http://www.mcmc.net/phrc/

•

Pennsylvania: Community Health Information Library (Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey), http://www.hmc.psu.edu/commhealth/

•

Pennsylvania: Community Health Resource Library (Geisinger Medical Center, Danville), http://www.geisinger.edu/education/commlib.shtml

•

Pennsylvania: HealthInfo Library (Moses Taylor Hospital, Scranton), http://www.mth.org/healthwellness.html

•

Pennsylvania: Hopwood Library (University of Pittsburgh, Health Sciences Library System, Pittsburgh), http://www.hsls.pitt.edu/guides/chi/hopwood/index_html

•

Pennsylvania: Koop Community Health Information Center (College of Physicians of Philadelphia), http://www.collphyphil.org/kooppg1.shtml

•

Pennsylvania: Learning Resources Center - Medical Library (Susquehanna Health System, Williamsport), http://www.shscares.org/services/lrc/index.asp

•

Pennsylvania: Medical Library (UPMC Health System, Pittsburgh), http://www.upmc.edu/passavant/library.htm

•

Quebec, Canada: Medical Library (Montreal General Hospital), http://www.mghlib.mcgill.ca/

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•

South Dakota: Rapid City Regional Hospital Medical Library (Rapid City Regional Hospital), http://www.rcrh.org/Services/Library/Default.asp

•

Texas: Houston HealthWays (Houston Academy of Medicine-Texas Medical Center Library), http://hhw.library.tmc.edu/

•

Washington: Community Health Library (Kittitas Valley Community Hospital), http://www.kvch.com/

•

Washington: Southwest Washington Medical Center Library (Southwest Washington Medical Center, Vancouver), http://www.swmedicalcenter.com/body.cfm?id=72

71

ONLINE GLOSSARIES The Internet provides access to a number of free-to-use medical dictionaries. The National Library of Medicine has compiled the following list of online dictionaries: •

ADAM Medical Encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.), comprehensive medical reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html

•

MedicineNet.com Medical Dictionary (MedicineNet, Inc.): http://www.medterms.com/Script/Main/hp.asp

•

Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (Inteli-Health, Inc.): http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/

•

Multilingual Glossary of Technical and Popular Medical Terms in Eight European Languages (European Commission) - Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish: http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html

•

On-line Medical Dictionary (CancerWEB): http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/

•

Rare Diseases Terms (Office of Rare Diseases): http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp

•

Technology Glossary (National Library of Medicine) - Health Care Technology: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ta101/ta10108.htm

Beyond these, MEDLINEplus contains a very patient-friendly encyclopedia covering every aspect of medicine (licensed from A.D.A.M., Inc.). The ADAM Medical Encyclopedia can be accessed at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html. ADAM is also available on commercial Web sites such as drkoop.com (http://www.drkoop.com/) and Web MD (http://my.webmd.com/adam/asset/adam_disease_articles/a_to_z/a).

Online Dictionary Directories The following are additional online directories compiled by the National Library of Medicine, including a number of specialized medical dictionaries: •

Medical Dictionaries: Medical & Biological (World Health Organization): http://www.who.int/hlt/virtuallibrary/English/diction.htm#Medical

•

MEL-Michigan Electronic Library List of Online Health and Medical Dictionaries (Michigan Electronic Library): http://mel.lib.mi.us/health/health-dictionaries.html

•

Patient Education: Glossaries (DMOZ Open Directory Project): http://dmoz.org/Health/Education/Patient_Education/Glossaries/

•

Web of Online Dictionaries (Bucknell University): http://www.yourdictionary.com/diction5.html#medicine

73

COLOR BLINDNESS DICTIONARY The definitions below are derived from official public sources, including the National Institutes of Health [NIH] and the European Union [EU]. Accommodation: Adjustment, especially that of the eye for various distances. [EU] Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine in vertebrates is the major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system. It is generally not used as an administered drug because it is broken down very rapidly by cholinesterases, but it is useful in some ophthalmological applications. [NIH] Acuity: Clarity or clearness, especially of the vision. [EU] Adaptation: 1. The adjustment of an organism to its environment, or the process by which it enhances such fitness. 2. The normal ability of the eye to adjust itself to variations in the intensity of light; the adjustment to such variations. 3. The decline in the frequency of firing of a neuron, particularly of a receptor, under conditions of constant stimulation. 4. In dentistry, (a) the proper fitting of a denture, (b) the degree of proximity and interlocking of restorative material to a tooth preparation, (c) the exact adjustment of bands to teeth. 5. In microbiology, the adjustment of bacterial physiology to a new environment. [EU] Adjustment: The dynamic process wherein the thoughts, feelings, behavior, and biophysiological mechanisms of the individual continually change to adjust to the environment. [NIH] Adverse Effect: An unwanted side effect of treatment. [NIH] Afferent: Concerned with the transmission of neural impulse toward the central part of the nervous system. [NIH] A-HA: First enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of branched-chain amino acids. [NIH] Albinism: General term for a number of inherited defects of amino acid metabolism in which there is a deficiency or absence of pigment in the eyes, skin, or hair. [NIH] Algorithms: A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task. [NIH] Alkaline: Having the reactions of an alkali. [EU] Alpha Particles: Positively charged particles composed of two protons and two neutrons, i.e., helium nuclei, emitted during disintegration of very heavy isotopes; a beam of alpha particles or an alpha ray has very strong ionizing power, but weak penetrability. [NIH] Alternative medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used instead of standard treatments. Alternative medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Amber: A yellowish fossil resin, the gum of several species of coniferous trees, found in the alluvial deposits of northeastern Germany. It is used in molecular biology in the analysis of organic matter fossilized in amber. [NIH] Amblyopia: A nonspecific term referring to impaired vision. Major subcategories include stimulus deprivation-induced amblyopia and toxic amblyopia. Stimulus deprivationinduced amblopia is a developmental disorder of the visual cortex. A discrepancy between

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visual information received by the visual cortex from each eye results in abnormal cortical development. Strabismus and refractive errors may cause this condition. Toxic amblyopia is a disorder of the optic nerve which is associated with alcoholism, tobacco smoking, and other toxins and as an adverse effect of the use of some medications. [NIH] Amino Acid Sequence: The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining protein conformation. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Analogous: Resembling or similar in some respects, as in function or appearance, but not in origin or development;. [EU] Anatomical: Pertaining to anatomy, or to the structure of the organism. [EU] Anesthesia: A state characterized by loss of feeling or sensation. This depression of nerve function is usually the result of pharmacologic action and is induced to allow performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [NIH] Animal model: An animal with a disease either the same as or like a disease in humans. Animal models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human cancers or other tissues are called xenograft models. [NIH] Aniridia: A congenital abnormality in which there is only a rudimentary iris. This is due to the failure of the optic cup to grow. Aniridia also occurs in a hereditary form, usually autosomal dominant. [NIH] Anomalies: Birth defects; abnormalities. [NIH] Anterior chamber: The space in front of the iris and behind the cornea. [NIH] Antibody: A type of protein made by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind to only a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen. [NIH] Antigen: Any substance which is capable, under appropriate conditions, of inducing a specific immune response and of reacting with the products of that response, that is, with specific antibody or specifically sensitized T-lymphocytes, or both. Antigens may be soluble substances, such as toxins and foreign proteins, or particulate, such as bacteria and tissue cells; however, only the portion of the protein or polysaccharide molecule known as the antigenic determinant (q.v.) combines with antibody or a specific receptor on a lymphocyte. Abbreviated Ag. [EU] Aperture: A natural hole of perforation, especially one in a bone. [NIH] Aqueous: Having to do with water. [NIH] Arginine: An essential amino acid that is physiologically active in the L-form. [NIH] Aromatic: Having a spicy odour. [EU] Arterial: Pertaining to an artery or to the arteries. [EU] Arteries: The vessels carrying blood away from the heart. [NIH]

Dictionary 75

Arterioles: The smallest divisions of the arteries located between the muscular arteries and the capillaries. [NIH] Astigmatism: A condition in which the surface of the cornea is not spherical; causes a blurred image to be received at the retina. [NIH] Ataxia: Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharnyx, larnyx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or peripheral nerve diseases. Motor ataxia may be associated with cerebellar diseases; cerebral cortex diseases; thalamic diseases; basal ganglia diseases; injury to the red nucleus; and other conditions. [NIH] Auditory: Pertaining to the sense of hearing. [EU] Axonal: Condition associated with metabolic derangement of the entire neuron and is manifest by degeneration of the distal portion of the nerve fiber. [NIH] Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. [NIH] Bacterial Physiology: Physiological processes and activities of bacteria. [NIH] Bacteriophage: A virus whose host is a bacterial cell; A virus that exclusively infects bacteria. It generally has a protein coat surrounding the genome (DNA or RNA). One of the coliphages most extensively studied is the lambda phage, which is also one of the most important. [NIH] Basal Ganglia: Large subcortical nuclear masses derived from the telencephalon and located in the basal regions of the cerebral hemispheres. [NIH] Basal Ganglia Diseases: Diseases of the basal ganglia including the putamen; globus pallidus; claustrum; amygdala; and caudate nucleus. Dyskinesias (most notably involuntary movements and alterations of the rate of movement) represent the primary clinical manifestations of these disorders. Common etiologies include cerebrovascular disease; neurodegenerative diseases; and craniocerebral trauma. [NIH] Base: In chemistry, the nonacid part of a salt; a substance that combines with acids to form salts; a substance that dissociates to give hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions; a substance whose molecule or ion can combine with a proton (hydrogen ion); a substance capable of donating a pair of electrons (to an acid) for the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. [EU] Bilateral: Affecting both the right and left side of body. [NIH] Bile: An emulsifying agent produced in the liver and secreted into the duodenum. Its composition includes bile acids and salts, cholesterol, and electrolytes. It aids digestion of fats in the duodenum. [NIH] Biochemical: Relating to biochemistry; characterized by, produced by, or involving chemical reactions in living organisms. [EU] Biogenic Monoamines: Biogenic amines having only one amine moiety. Included in this group are all natural monoamines formed by the enzymatic decarboxylation of natural amino acids. [NIH] Biotechnology: Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., genetic engineering) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include transfection and cloning technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction. [NIH]

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Blood Coagulation: The process of the interaction of blood coagulation factors that results in an insoluble fibrin clot. [NIH] Blood vessel: A tube in the body through which blood circulates. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. [NIH] Body Fluids: Liquid components of living organisms. [NIH] Bowel: The long tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a small and a large bowel. Also called the intestine. [NIH] Bradykinin: A nonapeptide messenger that is enzymatically produced from kallidin in the blood where it is a potent but short-lived agent of arteriolar dilation and increased capillary permeability. Bradykinin is also released from mast cells during asthma attacks, from gut walls as a gastrointestinal vasodilator, from damaged tissues as a pain signal, and may be a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Brain Diseases: Pathologic conditions affecting the brain, which is composed of the intracranial components of the central nervous system. This includes (but is not limited to) the cerebral cortex; intracranial white matter; basal ganglia; thalamus; hypothalamus; brain stem; and cerebellum. [NIH] Branch: Most commonly used for branches of nerves, but applied also to other structures. [NIH]

Breakdown: A physical, metal, or nervous collapse. [NIH] Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. [NIH] Carotene: The general name for a group of pigments found in green, yellow, and leafy vegetables, and yellow fruits. The pigments are fat-soluble, unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons functioning as provitamins and are converted to vitamin A through enzymatic processes in the intestinal wall. [NIH] Cataracts: In medicine, an opacity of the crystalline lens of the eye obstructing partially or totally its transmission of light. [NIH] Cell: The individual unit that makes up all of the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells. [NIH] Cell Differentiation: Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function which takes place during the development of the embryo and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Cell proliferation: An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division. [NIH] Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. [NIH] Cerebellar: Pertaining to the cerebellum. [EU] Cerebellum: Part of the metencephalon that lies in the posterior cranial fossa behind the brain stem. It is concerned with the coordination of movement. [NIH] Cerebral: Of or pertaining of the cerebrum or the brain. [EU] Cerebral Palsy: Refers to a motor disability caused by a brain dysfunction. [NIH] Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called

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the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum controls muscle functions of the body and also controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. [NIH] Character: In current usage, approximately equivalent to personality. The sum of the relatively fixed personality traits and habitual modes of response of an individual. [NIH] Chorioretinitis: Inflammation of the choroid in which the sensory retina becomes edematous and opaque. The inflammatory cells and exudate may burst through the sensory retina to cloud the vitreous body. [NIH] Choroid: The thin, highly vascular membrane covering most of the posterior of the eye between the retina and sclera. [NIH] Chromatopsia: Colored vision; an abnormal condition in which all objects appear in a particular color. [NIH] Chromosomal: Pertaining to chromosomes. [EU] Chromosome: Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Except for sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes. [NIH] Ciliary: Inflammation or infection of the glands of the margins of the eyelids. [NIH] Ciliary Body: A ring of tissue extending from the scleral spur to the ora serrata of the retina. It consists of the uveal portion and the epithelial portion. The ciliary muscle is in the uveal portion and the ciliary processes are in the epithelial portion. [NIH] CIS: Cancer Information Service. The CIS is the National Cancer Institute's link to the public, interpreting and explaining research findings in a clear and understandable manner, and providing personalized responses to specific questions about cancer. Access the CIS by calling 1-800-4-CANCER, or by using the Web site at http://cis.nci.nih.gov. [NIH] Clinical trial: A research study that tests how well new medical treatments or other interventions work in people. Each study is designed to test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. [NIH] Clone: The term "clone" has acquired a new meaning. It is applied specifically to the bits of inserted foreign DNA in the hybrid molecules of the population. Each inserted segment originally resided in the DNA of a complex genome amid millions of other DNA segment. [NIH]

Cloning: The production of a number of genetically identical individuals; in genetic engineering, a process for the efficient replication of a great number of identical DNA molecules. [NIH] Cofactor: A substance, microorganism or environmental factor that activates or enhances the action of another entity such as a disease-causing agent. [NIH] Color blindness: A form of defective color vision requiring only two primary colors, mixed in various proportions, to match all other colors. [NIH] Color Vision Defects: Mild to severe impairment in the ability to discriminate or differentiate hues. This disorder may be acquired as a result of retinal diseases involving the cones (retina) or inherited as an X-linked disorder featuring absent or abnormal cone pigment. [NIH] Complement: A term originally used to refer to the heat-labile factor in serum that causes immune cytolysis, the lysis of antibody-coated cells, and now referring to the entire functionally related system comprising at least 20 distinct serum proteins that is the effector not only of immune cytolysis but also of other biologic functions. Complement activation occurs by two different sequences, the classic and alternative pathways. The proteins of the classic pathway are termed 'components of complement' and are designated by the symbols C1 through C9. C1 is a calcium-dependent complex of three distinct proteins C1q, C1r and

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C1s. The proteins of the alternative pathway (collectively referred to as the properdin system) and complement regulatory proteins are known by semisystematic or trivial names. Fragments resulting from proteolytic cleavage of complement proteins are designated with lower-case letter suffixes, e.g., C3a. Inactivated fragments may be designated with the suffix 'i', e.g. C3bi. Activated components or complexes with biological activity are designated by a bar over the symbol e.g. C1 or C4b,2a. The classic pathway is activated by the binding of C1 to classic pathway activators, primarily antigen-antibody complexes containing IgM, IgG1, IgG3; C1q binds to a single IgM molecule or two adjacent IgG molecules. The alternative pathway can be activated by IgA immune complexes and also by nonimmunologic materials including bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides, and cell walls. Activation of the classic pathway triggers an enzymatic cascade involving C1, C4, C2 and C3; activation of the alternative pathway triggers a cascade involving C3 and factors B, D and P. Both result in the cleavage of C5 and the formation of the membrane attack complex. Complement activation also results in the formation of many biologically active complement fragments that act as anaphylatoxins, opsonins, or chemotactic factors. [EU] Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices are not considered standard medical approaches. CAM includes dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementary medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used to enhance or complement the standard treatments. Complementary medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Computational Biology: A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories applicable to molecular biology and areas of computer-based techniques for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets. [NIH] Computer Graphics: The process of pictorial communication, between human and computers, in which the computer input and output have the form of charts, drawings, or other appropriate pictorial representation. [NIH] Cone: One of the special retinal receptor elements which are presumed to be primarily concerned with perception of light and color stimuli when the eye is adapted to light. [NIH] Cone cells: One type of specialized light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors) in the retina that provide sharp central vision and color vision. [NIH] Cones (Retina): One of the two photoreceptor cell types in the vertebrate retina. In cones the photopigment is in invaginations of the cell membrane of the outer segment. Cones are less sensitive to light than rods, but they provide vision with higher spatial and temporal acuity, and the combination of signals from cones with different pigments allows color vision. [NIH] Conjunctiva: The mucous membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelids and the anterior part of the sclera. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Constitutional: 1. Affecting the whole constitution of the body; not local. 2. Pertaining to the

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constitution. [EU] Contraindications: Any factor or sign that it is unwise to pursue a certain kind of action or treatment, e. g. giving a general anesthetic to a person with pneumonia. [NIH] Contrast Sensitivity: The ability to detect sharp boundaries (stimuli) and to detect slight changes in luminance at regions without distinct contours. Psychophysical measurements of this visual function are used to evaluate visual acuity and to detect eye disease. [NIH] Coordination: Muscular or motor regulation or the harmonious cooperation of muscles or groups of muscles, in a complex action or series of actions. [NIH] Cornea: The transparent part of the eye that covers the iris and the pupil and allows light to enter the inside. [NIH] Coronary: Encircling in the manner of a crown; a term applied to vessels; nerves, ligaments, etc. The term usually denotes the arteries that supply the heart muscle and, by extension, a pathologic involvement of them. [EU] Coronary Thrombosis: Presence of a thrombus in a coronary artery, often causing a myocardial infarction. [NIH] Cortex: The outer layer of an organ or other body structure, as distinguished from the internal substance. [EU] Cortical: Pertaining to or of the nature of a cortex or bark. [EU] Cranial: Pertaining to the cranium, or to the anterior (in animals) or superior (in humans) end of the body. [EU] Crossing-over: The exchange of corresponding segments between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosia, forming a chiasma. [NIH] Cues: Signals for an action; that specific portion of a perceptual field or pattern of stimuli to which a subject has learned to respond. [NIH] Curative: Tending to overcome disease and promote recovery. [EU] Cyanide: An extremely toxic class of compounds that can be lethal on inhaling of ingesting in minute quantities. [NIH] Cyclic: Pertaining to or occurring in a cycle or cycles; the term is applied to chemical compounds that contain a ring of atoms in the nucleus. [EU] Cytotoxic: Cell-killing. [NIH] Databases, Bibliographic: Extensive collections, reputedly complete, of references and citations to books, articles, publications, etc., generally on a single subject or specialized subject area. Databases can operate through automated files, libraries, or computer disks. The concept should be differentiated from factual databases which is used for collections of data and facts apart from bibliographic references to them. [NIH] Decision Making: The process of making a selective intellectual judgment when presented with several complex alternatives consisting of several variables, and usually defining a course of action or an idea. [NIH] Degenerative: Undergoing degeneration : tending to degenerate; having the character of or involving degeneration; causing or tending to cause degeneration. [EU] Dendrites: Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other neurons. [NIH] Density: The logarithm to the base 10 of the opacity of an exposed and processed film. [NIH] Depigmentation: Removal or loss of pigment, especially melanin. [EU] Depolarization: The process or act of neutralizing polarity. In neurophysiology, the reversal

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of the resting potential in excitable cell membranes when stimulated, i.e., the tendency of the cell membrane potential to become positive with respect to the potential outside the cell. [EU] Depressive Disorder: An affective disorder manifested by either a dysphoric mood or loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. The mood disturbance is prominent and relatively persistent. [NIH] Deprivation: Loss or absence of parts, organs, powers, or things that are needed. [EU] Depth Perception: Perception of three-dimensionality. [NIH] Dermatoglyphics: The study of the patterns of ridges of the skin of the fingers, palms, toes, and soles. [NIH] Diabetes Mellitus: A heterogeneous group of disorders that share glucose intolerance in common. [NIH] Diabetic Retinopathy: Retinopathy associated with diabetes mellitus, which may be of the background type, progressively characterized by microaneurysms, interretinal punctuate macular edema, or of the proliferative type, characterized by neovascularization of the retina and optic disk, which may project into the vitreous, proliferation of fibrous tissue, vitreous hemorrhage, and retinal detachment. [NIH] Diagnostic procedure: A method used to identify a disease. [NIH] Digestion: The process of breakdown of food for metabolism and use by the body. [NIH] Direct: 1. Straight; in a straight line. 2. Performed immediately and without the intervention of subsidiary means. [EU] Discrimination: The act of qualitative and/or quantitative differentiation between two or more stimuli. [NIH] Disparity: Failure of the two retinal images of an object to fall on corresponding retinal points. [NIH] Distal: Remote; farther from any point of reference; opposed to proximal. In dentistry, used to designate a position on the dental arch farther from the median line of the jaw. [EU] Drug Interactions: The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug. [NIH] Dystrophy: Any disorder arising from defective or faulty nutrition, especially the muscular dystrophies. [EU] Ectopic: Pertaining to or characterized by ectopia. [EU] Edema: Excessive amount of watery fluid accumulated in the intercellular spaces, most commonly present in subcutaneous tissue. [NIH] Efficacy: The extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service produces a beneficial result under ideal conditions. Ideally, the determination of efficacy is based on the results of a randomized control trial. [NIH] Electrons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known negative charge, present in all elements; also called negatrons. Positively charged electrons are called positrons. The numbers, energies and arrangement of electrons around atomic nuclei determine the chemical identities of elements. Beams of electrons are called cathode rays or beta rays, the latter being a high-energy biproduct of nuclear decay. [NIH] Electrophysiological: Pertaining to electrophysiology, that is a branch of physiology that is concerned with the electric phenomena associated with living bodies and involved in their functional activity. [EU] Electroretinography: Recording of electric potentials in the retina after stimulation by light.

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[NIH]

Embryo: The prenatal stage of mammalian development characterized by rapid morphological changes and the differentiation of basic structures. [NIH] Empirical: A treatment based on an assumed diagnosis, prior to receiving confirmatory laboratory test results. [NIH] Endothelium: A layer of epithelium that lines the heart, blood vessels (endothelium, vascular), lymph vessels (endothelium, lymphatic), and the serous cavities of the body. [NIH] Endothelium-derived: Small molecule that diffuses to the adjacent muscle layer and relaxes it. [NIH] Environmental Health: The science of controlling or modifying those conditions, influences, or forces surrounding man which relate to promoting, establishing, and maintaining health. [NIH]

Enzymatic: Phase where enzyme cuts the precursor protein. [NIH] Enzyme: A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. [NIH] Epithelium: One or more layers of epithelial cells, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body. [NIH] Evoke: The electric response recorded from the cerebral cortex after stimulation of a peripheral sense organ. [NIH] Extensor: A muscle whose contraction tends to straighten a limb; the antagonist of a flexor. [NIH]

Eye Movements: Voluntary or reflex-controlled movements of the eye. [NIH] Family Planning: Programs or services designed to assist the family in controlling reproduction by either improving or diminishing fertility. [NIH] Fibrosis: Any pathological condition where fibrous connective tissue invades any organ, usually as a consequence of inflammation or other injury. [NIH] Flatus: Gas passed through the rectum. [NIH] Ganglia: Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized connective tissue located outside the central nervous system. [NIH] Gap Junctions: Connections between cells which allow passage of small molecules and electric current. Gap junctions were first described anatomically as regions of close apposition between cells with a narrow (1-2 nm) gap between cell membranes. The variety in the properties of gap junctions is reflected in the number of connexins, the family of proteins which form the junctions. [NIH] Gas: Air that comes from normal breakdown of food. The gases are passed out of the body through the rectum (flatus) or the mouth (burp). [NIH] Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein. [NIH]

Gene Expression: The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of gene action. [NIH] Gene Order: The sequential location of genes on a chromosome. [NIH] Generator: Any system incorporating a fixed parent radionuclide from which is produced a daughter radionuclide which is to be removed by elution or by any other method and used in a radiopharmaceutical. [NIH] Genetic Engineering: Directed modification of the gene complement of a living organism by

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such techniques as altering the DNA, substituting genetic material by means of a virus, transplanting whole nuclei, transplanting cell hybrids, etc. [NIH] Genetics: The biological science that deals with the phenomena and mechanisms of heredity. [NIH] Genotype: The genetic constitution of the individual; the characterization of the genes. [NIH] Germ Cells: The reproductive cells in multicellular organisms. [NIH] Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production. [NIH] Glucose: D-Glucose. A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. [NIH] Gonads: The gamete-producing glands, ovary or testis. [NIH] Governing Board: The group in which legal authority is vested for the control of healthrelated institutions and organizations. [NIH] Granulocytes: Leukocytes with abundant granules in the cytoplasm. They are divided into three groups: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. [NIH] Growth: The progressive development of a living being or part of an organism from its earliest stage to maturity. [NIH] Guanylate Cyclase: An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of GTP to 3',5'-cyclic GMP and pyrophosphate. It also acts on ITP and dGTP. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 4.6.1.2. [NIH] Habitual: Of the nature of a habit; according to habit; established by or repeated by force of habit, customary. [EU] Haptoglobins: Plasma glycoproteins that form a stable complex with hemoglobin to aid the recycling of heme iron. They are encoded in man by a gene on the short arm of chromosome 16. [NIH] Heme: The color-furnishing portion of hemoglobin. It is found free in tissues and as the prosthetic group in many hemeproteins. [NIH] Hemoglobin: One of the fractions of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c. Glycosylated hemoglobin is formed when linkages of glucose and related monosaccharides bind to hemoglobin A and its concentration represents the average blood glucose level over the previous several weeks. HbA1c levels are used as a measure of long-term control of plasma glucose (normal, 4 to 6 percent). In controlled diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin A is within the normal range, but in uncontrolled cases the level may be 3 to 4 times the normal conentration. Generally, complications are substantially lower among patients with Hb levels of 7 percent or less than in patients with HbA1c levels of 9 percent or more. [NIH] Hereditary: Of, relating to, or denoting factors that can be transmitted genetically from one generation to another. [NIH] Heredity: 1. The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring. 2. The genetic constitution of an individual. [EU] Homologous: Corresponding in structure, position, origin, etc., as (a) the feathers of a bird and the scales of a fish, (b) antigen and its specific antibody, (c) allelic chromosomes. [EU] Hormone: A substance in the body that regulates certain organs. Hormones such as gastrin help in breaking down food. Some hormones come from cells in the stomach and small

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intestine. [NIH] Hybrid: Cross fertilization between two varieties or, more usually, two species of vines, see also crossing. [NIH] Hydrogen: The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight 1. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are protons. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope tritium. [NIH] Hyperopia: Farsightedness; ability to see distant objects more clearly than close objects; may be corrected with glasses or contact lenses. [NIH] Hypesthesia: Absent or reduced sensitivity to cutaneous stimulation. [NIH] Hypnotic: A drug that acts to induce sleep. [EU] Hypogonadism: Condition resulting from or characterized by abnormally decreased functional activity of the gonads, with retardation of growth and sexual development. [NIH] Id: The part of the personality structure which harbors the unconscious instinctive desires and strivings of the individual. [NIH] Impairment: In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. [NIH] In situ: In the natural or normal place; confined to the site of origin without invasion of neighbouring tissues. [EU] Indicative: That indicates; that points out more or less exactly; that reveals fairly clearly. [EU] Infancy: The period of complete dependency prior to the acquisition of competence in walking, talking, and self-feeding. [NIH] Infantile: Pertaining to an infant or to infancy. [EU] Infarction: A pathological process consisting of a sudden insufficient blood supply to an area, which results in necrosis of that area. It is usually caused by a thrombus, an embolus, or a vascular torsion. [NIH] Infections: The illnesses caused by an organism that usually does not cause disease in a person with a normal immune system. [NIH] Inflammation: A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. [NIH] Initiation: Mutation induced by a chemical reactive substance causing cell changes; being a step in a carcinogenic process. [NIH] Insight: The capacity to understand one's own motives, to be aware of one's own psychodynamics, to appreciate the meaning of symbolic behavior. [NIH] Intestine: A long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a large intestine and a small intestine. Also called the bowel. [NIH] Intracellular: Inside a cell. [NIH] Ion Channels: Gated, ion-selective glycoproteins that traverse membranes. The stimulus for channel gating can be a membrane potential, drug, transmitter, cytoplasmic messenger, or a mechanical deformation. Ion channels which are integral parts of ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors are not included. [NIH] Ions: An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a

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positive charge are known as cations; those with a negative charge are anions. [NIH] Iris: The most anterior portion of the uveal layer, separating the anterior chamber from the posterior. It consists of two layers - the stroma and the pigmented epithelium. Color of the iris depends on the amount of melanin in the stroma on reflection from the pigmented epithelium. [NIH] Kb: A measure of the length of DNA fragments, 1 Kb = 1000 base pairs. The largest DNA fragments are up to 50 kilobases long. [NIH] Kinetics: The study of rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems. [NIH] Labyrinth: The internal ear; the essential part of the organ of hearing. It consists of an osseous and a membranous portion. [NIH] Lens: The transparent, double convex (outward curve on both sides) structure suspended between the aqueous and vitreous; helps to focus light on the retina. [NIH] Lethal: Deadly, fatal. [EU] Library Services: Services offered to the library user. They include reference and circulation. [NIH]

Linkage: The tendency of two or more genes in the same chromosome to remain together from one generation to the next more frequently than expected according to the law of independent assortment. [NIH] Lithium: An element in the alkali metals family. It has the atomic symbol Li, atomic number 3, and atomic weight 6.94. Salts of lithium are used in treating manic-depressive disorders. [NIH]

Lithium Carbonate: A lithium salt, classified as a mood-stabilizing agent. Lithium ion alters the metabolism of biogenic monoamines in the central nervous system, and affects multiple neurotransmission systems. [NIH] Liver: A large, glandular organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile. [NIH] Macula: A stain, spot, or thickening. Often used alone to refer to the macula retinae. [EU] Macula Lutea: An oval area in the retina, 3 to 5 mm in diameter, usually located temporal to the superior pole of the eye and slightly below the level of the optic disk. [NIH] Macular Degeneration: Degenerative changes in the macula lutea of the retina. [NIH] Mania: Excitement of psychotic proportions manifested by mental and physical hyperactivity, disorganization of behaviour, and elevation of mood. [EU] Manic: Affected with mania. [EU] Manifest: Being the part or aspect of a phenomenon that is directly observable : concretely expressed in behaviour. [EU] Mediate: Indirect; accomplished by the aid of an intervening medium. [EU] MEDLINE: An online database of MEDLARS, the computerized bibliographic Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System of the National Library of Medicine. [NIH] Meiosis: A special method of cell division, occurring in maturation of the germ cells, by means of which each daughter nucleus receives half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells of the species. [NIH] Melanin: The substance that gives the skin its color. [NIH] Membrane: A very thin layer of tissue that covers a surface. [NIH] Meninges: The three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. [NIH]

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Mental Retardation: Refers to sub-average general intellectual functioning which originated during the developmental period and is associated with impairment in adaptive behavior. [NIH]

MI: Myocardial infarction. Gross necrosis of the myocardium as a result of interruption of the blood supply to the area; it is almost always caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, upon which coronary thrombosis is usually superimposed. [NIH] Microbiology: The study of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, archaea, and viruses. [NIH] Microscopy: The application of microscope magnification to the study of materials that cannot be properly seen by the unaided eye. [NIH] Modification: A change in an organism, or in a process in an organism, that is acquired from its own activity or environment. [NIH] Molecular: Of, pertaining to, or composed of molecules : a very small mass of matter. [EU] Molecule: A chemical made up of two or more atoms. The atoms in a molecule can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or different (a water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be made up of many thousands of atoms. [NIH] Monocular: Diplopia identified with one eye only; it may be induced with a double prism, or it may occur either as a result of double imagery due to an optical defect in the eye, or as a result of simultaneous use of normal and anomalous retinal correspondence. [NIH] Morphological: Relating to the configuration or the structure of live organs. [NIH] Motion Perception: The real or apparent movement of objects through the visual field. [NIH] Mucins: A secretion containing mucopolysaccharides and protein that is the chief constituent of mucus. [NIH] Multiple sclerosis: A disorder of the central nervous system marked by weakness, numbness, a loss of muscle coordination, and problems with vision, speech, and bladder control. Multiple sclerosis is thought to be an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system destroys myelin. Myelin is a substance that contains both protein and fat (lipid) and serves as a nerve insulator and helps in the transmission of nerve signals. [NIH] Muscular Diseases: Acquired, familial, and congenital disorders of skeletal muscle and smooth muscle. [NIH] Muscular Dystrophies: A general term for a group of inherited disorders which are characterized by progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles. [NIH] Myocardium: The muscle tissue of the heart composed of striated, involuntary muscle known as cardiac muscle. [NIH] Myopia: That error of refraction in which rays of light entering the eye parallel to the optic axis are brought to a focus in front of the retina, as a result of the eyeball being too long from front to back (axial m.) or of an increased strength in refractive power of the media of the eye (index m.). Called also nearsightedness, because the near point is less distant than it is in emmetropia with an equal amplitude of accommodation. [EU] Natural selection: A part of the evolutionary process resulting in the survival and reproduction of the best adapted individuals. [NIH] NCI: National Cancer Institute. NCI, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the federal government's principal agency for cancer research. NCI conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis,

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prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the NCI Web site at http://cancer.gov. [NIH] Nearsightedness: The common term for myopia. [NIH] Necrosis: A pathological process caused by the progressive degradative action of enzymes that is generally associated with severe cellular trauma. It is characterized by mitochondrial swelling, nuclear flocculation, uncontrolled cell lysis, and ultimately cell death. [NIH] Need: A state of tension or dissatisfaction felt by an individual that impels him to action toward a goal he believes will satisfy the impulse. [NIH] Nerve: A cordlike structure of nervous tissue that connects parts of the nervous system with other tissues of the body and conveys nervous impulses to, or away from, these tissues. [NIH] Nervous System: The entire nerve apparatus composed of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. [NIH] Neural: 1. Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves. 2. Situated in the region of the spinal axis, as the neutral arch. [EU] Neuritis: A general term indicating inflammation of a peripheral or cranial nerve. Clinical manifestation may include pain; paresthesias; paresis; or hypesthesia. [NIH] Neurologist: A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the nervous system. [NIH] Neuromuscular: Pertaining to muscles and nerves. [EU] Neuronal: Pertaining to a neuron or neurons (= conducting cells of the nervous system). [EU] Neurons: The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the nervous system. [NIH] Neurophysiology: The scientific discipline concerned with the physiology of the nervous system. [NIH] Neuroretinitis: Inflammation of the optic nerve head and adjacent retina. [NIH] Neutrons: Electrically neutral elementary particles found in all atomic nuclei except light hydrogen; the mass is equal to that of the proton and electron combined and they are unstable when isolated from the nucleus, undergoing beta decay. Slow, thermal, epithermal, and fast neutrons refer to the energy levels with which the neutrons are ejected from heavier nuclei during their decay. [NIH] Night Blindness: Anomaly of vision in which there is a pronounced inadequacy or complete absence of dark-adaptation. [NIH] Nitric Oxide: A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells. It is synthesized from arginine by a complex reaction, catalyzed by nitric oxide synthase. Nitric oxide is endothelium-derived relaxing factor. It is released by the vascular endothelium and mediates the relaxation induced by some vasodilators such as acetylcholine and bradykinin. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic guanylate cyclase and thus elevates intracellular levels of cyclic GMP. [NIH]

Nitrogen: An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight 14. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells. [NIH] Nucleic acid: Either of two types of macromolecule (DNA or RNA) formed by polymerization of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and contain the information (genetic code) for the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the

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next. [NIH] Nucleus: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nystagmus: Rhythmical oscillation of the eyeballs, either pendular or jerky. [NIH] Occipital Lobe: Posterior part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Ocular: 1. Of, pertaining to, or affecting the eye. 2. Eyepiece. [EU] Odour: A volatile emanation that is perceived by the sense of smell. [EU] Oocytes: Female germ cells in stages between the prophase of the first maturation division and the completion of the second maturation division. [NIH] Opacity: Degree of density (area most dense taken for reading). [NIH] Opsin: A protein formed, together with retinene, by the chemical breakdown of metarhodopsin. [NIH] Optic cup: The white, cup-like area in the center of the optic disc. [NIH] Optic disc: The circular area (disc) where the optic nerve connects to the retina. [NIH] Optic Disk: The portion of the optic nerve seen in the fundus with the ophthalmoscope. It is formed by the meeting of all the retinal ganglion cell axons as they enter the optic nerve. [NIH]

Optic Nerve: The 2nd cranial nerve. The optic nerve conveys visual information from the retina to the brain. The nerve carries the axons of the retinal ganglion cells which sort at the optic chiasm and continue via the optic tracts to the brain. The largest projection is to the lateral geniculate nuclei; other important targets include the superior colliculi and the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Though known as the second cranial nerve, it is considered part of the central nervous system. [NIH] Optic Neuritis: Inflammation of the optic nerve. Commonly associated conditions include autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis, infections, and granulomatous diseases. Clinical features include retro-orbital pain that is aggravated by eye movement, loss of color vision, and contrast sensitivity that may progress to severe visual loss, an afferent pupillary defect (Marcus-Gunn pupil), and in some instances optic disc hyperemia and swelling. Inflammation may occur in the portion of the nerve within the globe (neuropapillitis or anterior optic neuritis) or the portion behind the globe (retrobulbar neuritis or posterior optic neuritis). [NIH] Orbital: Pertaining to the orbit (= the bony cavity that contains the eyeball). [EU] Palliative: 1. Affording relief, but not cure. 2. An alleviating medicine. [EU] Paralysis: Loss of ability to move all or part of the body. [NIH] Paraplegia: Severe or complete loss of motor function in the lower extremities and lower portions of the trunk. This condition is most often associated with spinal cord diseases, although brain diseases; peripheral nervous system diseases; neuromuscular diseases; and muscular diseases may also cause bilateral leg weakness. [NIH] Paresis: A general term referring to a mild to moderate degree of muscular weakness, occasionally used as a synonym for paralysis (severe or complete loss of motor function). In the older literature, paresis often referred specifically to paretic neurosyphilis. "General paresis" and "general paralysis" may still carry that connotation. Bilateral lower extremity paresis is referred to as paraparesis. [NIH] Paresthesias: Abnormal touch sensations, such as burning or prickling, that occur without an outside stimulus. [NIH]

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Parietal: 1. Of or pertaining to the walls of a cavity. 2. Pertaining to or located near the parietal bone, as the parietal lobe. [EU] Parietal Lobe: Upper central part of the cerebral hemisphere. [NIH] Particle: A tiny mass of material. [EU] Pedigree: A record of one's ancestors, offspring, siblings, and their offspring that may be used to determine the pattern of certain genes or disease inheritance within a family. [NIH] Peptide: Any compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Peptides are combined to make proteins. [NIH] Perception: The ability quickly and accurately to recognize similarities and differences among presented objects, whether these be pairs of words, pairs of number series, or multiple sets of these or other symbols such as geometric figures. [NIH] Peripheral Nervous System: The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system has autonomic and somatic divisions. The autonomic nervous system includes the enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic subdivisions. The somatic nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves and their ganglia and the peripheral sensory receptors. [NIH] Peripheral Nervous System Diseases: Diseases of the peripheral nerves external to the brain and spinal cord, which includes diseases of the nerve roots, ganglia, plexi, autonomic nerves, sensory nerves, and motor nerves. [NIH] Peripheral vision: Side vision; ability to see objects and movement outside of the direct line of vision. [NIH] PH: The symbol relating the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration or activity of a solution to that of a given standard solution. Numerically the pH is approximately equal to the negative logarithm of H+ concentration expressed in molarity. pH 7 is neutral; above it alkalinity increases and below it acidity increases. [EU] Pharmacologic: Pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. [EU] Phenotype: The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes and between the genotype and the environment. This includes the killer phenotype, characteristic of yeasts. [NIH] Phospholipases: A class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphoglycerides or glycerophosphatidates. EC 3.1.-. [NIH] Phosphorus: A non-metallic element that is found in the blood, muscles, nevers, bones, and teeth, and is a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP; the primary energy source for the body's cells.) [NIH] Photoreceptor: Receptor capable of being activated by light stimuli, as a rod or cone cell of the eye. [NIH] Phototransduction: The transducing of light energy to afferent nerve impulses, such as takes place in the retinal rods and cones. After light photons are absorbed by the photopigments, the signal is transmitted to the outer segment membrane by the cyclic GMP second messenger system, where it closes the sodium channels. This channel gating ultimately generates an action potential in the inner retina. [NIH] Physiologic: Having to do with the functions of the body. When used in the phrase "physiologic age," it refers to an age assigned by general health, as opposed to calendar age. [NIH]

Physiology: The science that deals with the life processes and functions of organismus, their cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH]

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Pigment: A substance that gives color to tissue. Pigments are responsible for the color of skin, eyes, and hair. [NIH] Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of the kingdom Plantae. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (meristems); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absense of nervous and sensory systems; and an alteration of haploid and diploid generations. [NIH] Platelet Activation: A series of progressive, overlapping events triggered by exposure of the platelets to subendothelial tissue. These events include shape change, adhesiveness, aggregation, and release reactions. When carried through to completion, these events lead to the formation of a stable hemostatic plug. [NIH] Platelet Aggregation: The attachment of platelets to one another. This clumping together can be induced by a number of agents (e.g., thrombin, collagen) and is part of the mechanism leading to the formation of a thrombus. [NIH] Platelets: A type of blood cell that helps prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called thrombocytes. [NIH] Polypeptide: A peptide which on hydrolysis yields more than two amino acids; called tripeptides, tetrapeptides, etc. according to the number of amino acids contained. [EU] Posterior: Situated in back of, or in the back part of, or affecting the back or dorsal surface of the body. In lower animals, it refers to the caudal end of the body. [EU] Postsynaptic: Nerve potential generated by an inhibitory hyperpolarizing stimulation. [NIH] Potentiation: An overall effect of two drugs taken together which is greater than the sum of the effects of each drug taken alone. [NIH] Practice Guidelines: Directions or principles presenting current or future rules of policy for the health care practitioner to assist him in patient care decisions regarding diagnosis, therapy, or related clinical circumstances. The guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by the convening of expert panels. The guidelines form a basis for the evaluation of all aspects of health care and delivery. [NIH] Prenatal: Existing or occurring before birth, with reference to the fetus. [EU] Presynaptic: Situated proximal to a synapse, or occurring before the synapse is crossed. [EU] Progression: Increase in the size of a tumor or spread of cancer in the body. [NIH] Progressive: Advancing; going forward; going from bad to worse; increasing in scope or severity. [EU] Prophase: The first phase of cell division, in which the chromosomes become visible, the nucleus starts to lose its identity, the spindle appears, and the centrioles migrate toward opposite poles. [NIH] Proprioception: The mechanism involved in the self-regulation of posture and movement through stimuli originating in the receptors imbedded in the joints, tendons, muscles, and labyrinth. [NIH] Protein C: A vitamin-K dependent zymogen present in the blood, which, upon activation by thrombin and thrombomodulin exerts anticoagulant properties by inactivating factors Va and VIIIa at the rate-limiting steps of thrombin formation. [NIH] Protein Conformation: The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. Quaternary protein structure describes the conformation assumed by

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multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain). [NIH] Protein S: The vitamin K-dependent cofactor of activated protein C. Together with protein C, it inhibits the action of factors VIIIa and Va. A deficiency in protein S can lead to recurrent venous and arterial thrombosis. [NIH] Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein. [NIH] Protons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known positive charge, found in the nuclei of all elements. The proton mass is less than that of a neutron. A proton is the nucleus of the light hydrogen atom, i.e., the hydrogen ion. [NIH] Proximal: Nearest; closer to any point of reference; opposed to distal. [EU] Psychophysics: The science dealing with the correlation of the physical characteristics of a stimulus, e.g., frequency or intensity, with the response to the stimulus, in order to assess the psychologic factors involved in the relationship. [NIH] Public Policy: A course or method of action selected, usually by a government, from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. [NIH] Pupil: The aperture in the iris through which light passes. [NIH] Quality of Life: A generic concept reflecting concern with the modification and enhancement of life attributes, e.g., physical, political, moral and social environment. [NIH] Quiescent: Marked by a state of inactivity or repose. [EU] Radiation: Emission or propagation of electromagnetic energy (waves/rays), or the waves/rays themselves; a stream of electromagnetic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, alpha particles) or a mixture of these. The most common source is the sun. [NIH] Radiopharmaceutical: Any medicinal product which, when ready for use, contains one or more radionuclides (radioactive isotopes) included for a medicinal purpose. [NIH] Randomized: Describes an experiment or clinical trial in which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. [NIH] Receptor: A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell. [NIH] Recombination: The formation of new combinations of genes as a result of segregation in crosses between genetically different parents; also the rearrangement of linked genes due to crossing-over. [NIH] Rectum: The last 8 to 10 inches of the large intestine. [NIH] Red Nucleus: A pinkish-yellow portion of the midbrain situated in the rostral mesencephalic tegmentum. It receives a large projection from the contralateral half of the cerebellum via the superior cerebellar peduncle and a projection from the ipsilateral motor cortex. [NIH] Refer: To send or direct for treatment, aid, information, de decision. [NIH] Reflective: Capable of throwing back light, images, sound waves : reflecting. [EU] Reflex: An involuntary movement or exercise of function in a part, excited in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the brain or spinal cord. [NIH] Refraction: A test to determine the best eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct a refractive error (myopia, hyperopia, or astigmatism). [NIH] Refractive Errors: Deviations from the average or standard indices of refraction of the eye through its dioptric or refractive apparatus. [NIH] Refractive Power: The ability of an object, such as the eye, to bend light as light passes

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through it. [NIH] Regeneration: The natural renewal of a structure, as of a lost tissue or part. [EU] Regimen: A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. [NIH] Retina: The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the optic nerve and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the choroid and the inner surface with the vitreous body. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent. [NIH] Retinae: A congenital notch or cleft of the retina, usually located inferiorly. [NIH] Retinal: 1. Pertaining to the retina. 2. The aldehyde of retinol, derived by the oxidative enzymatic splitting of absorbed dietary carotene, and having vitamin A activity. In the retina, retinal combines with opsins to form visual pigments. One isomer, 11-cis retinal combines with opsin in the rods (scotopsin) to form rhodopsin, or visual purple. Another, all-trans retinal (trans-r.); visual yellow; xanthopsin) results from the bleaching of rhodopsin by light, in which the 11-cis form is converted to the all-trans form. Retinal also combines with opsins in the cones (photopsins) to form the three pigments responsible for colour vision. Called also retinal, and retinene1. [EU] Retinitis: Inflammation of the retina. It is rarely limited to the retina, but is commonly associated with diseases of the choroid (chorioretinitis) and of the optic nerve (neuroretinitis). The disease may be confined to one eye, but since it is generally dependent on a constitutional factor, it is almost always bilateral. It may be acute in course, but as a rule it lasts many weeks or even several months. [NIH] Retinitis Pigmentosa: Hereditary, progressive degeneration of the neuroepithelium of the retina characterized by night blindness and progressive contraction of the visual field. [NIH] Retinol: Vitamin A. It is essential for proper vision and healthy skin and mucous membranes. Retinol is being studied for cancer prevention; it belongs to the family of drugs called retinoids. [NIH] Retinopathy: 1. Retinitis (= inflammation of the retina). 2. Retinosis (= degenerative, noninflammatory condition of the retina). [EU] Retrobulbar: Behind the pons. [EU] Rod: A reception for vision, located in the retina. [NIH] Saliva: The clear, viscous fluid secreted by the salivary glands and mucous glands of the mouth. It contains mucins, water, organic salts, and ptylin. [NIH] Salivary: The duct that convey saliva to the mouth. [NIH] Salivary glands: Glands in the mouth that produce saliva. [NIH] Sclera: The tough white outer coat of the eyeball, covering approximately the posterior fivesixths of its surface, and continuous anteriorly with the cornea and posteriorly with the external sheath of the optic nerve. [EU] Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. [NIH] Secretion: 1. The process of elaborating a specific product as a result of the activity of a gland; this activity may range from separating a specific substance of the blood to the elaboration of a new chemical substance. 2. Any substance produced by secretion. [EU] Secretory: Secreting; relating to or influencing secretion or the secretions. [NIH] Segregation: The separation in meiotic cell division of homologous chromosome pairs and their contained allelomorphic gene pairs. [NIH]

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Sharpness: The apparent blurring of the border between two adjacent areas of a radiograph having different optical densities. [NIH] Side effect: A consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other than the one sought to be benefited by its administration. [EU] Signal Transduction: The intercellular or intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GABA-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptormediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway. [NIH] Skull: The skeleton of the head including the bones of the face and the bones enclosing the brain. [NIH] Social Environment: The aggregate of social and cultural institutions, forms, patterns, and processes that influence the life of an individual or community. [NIH] Sodium: An element that is a member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23. With a valence of 1, it has a strong affinity for oxygen and other nonmetallic elements. Sodium provides the chief cation of the extracellular body fluids. Its salts are the most widely used in medicine. (From Dorland, 27th ed) Physiologically the sodium ion plays a major role in blood pressure regulation, maintenance of fluid volume, and electrolyte balance. [NIH] Sodium Channels: Cell membrane glycoproteins selective for sodium ions. Fast sodium current is associated with the action potential in neural membranes. [NIH] Sound wave: An alteration of properties of an elastic medium, such as pressure, particle displacement, or density, that propagates through the medium, or a superposition of such alterations. [NIH] Spastic: 1. Of the nature of or characterized by spasms. 2. Hypertonic, so that the muscles are stiff and the movements awkward. 3. A person exhibiting spasticity, such as occurs in spastic paralysis or in cerebral palsy. [EU] Spasticity: A state of hypertonicity, or increase over the normal tone of a muscle, with heightened deep tendon reflexes. [EU] Specialist: In medicine, one who concentrates on 1 special branch of medical science. [NIH] Species: A taxonomic category subordinate to a genus (or subgenus) and superior to a subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. In taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a Latin or Latinized adjective or noun. [EU] Specificity: Degree of selectivity shown by an antibody with respect to the number and types of antigens with which the antibody combines, as well as with respect to the rates and the extents of these reactions. [NIH]

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Sperm: The fecundating fluid of the male. [NIH] Spinal cord: The main trunk or bundle of nerves running down the spine through holes in the spinal bone (the vertebrae) from the brain to the level of the lower back. [NIH] Spinal Cord Diseases: Pathologic conditions which feature spinal cord damage or dysfunction, including disorders involving the meninges and perimeningeal spaces surrounding the spinal cord. Traumatic injuries, vascular diseases, infections, and inflammatory/autoimmune processes may affect the spinal cord. [NIH] Stabilization: The creation of a stable state. [EU] Stereoscopic: Accurate depth perception in the presence of binocular single vision, due to the slight disparity in the two retinal images of the same object. [NIH] Stimulus: That which can elicit or evoke action (response) in a muscle, nerve, gland or other excitable issue, or cause an augmenting action upon any function or metabolic process. [NIH] Stroma: The middle, thickest layer of tissue in the cornea. [NIH] Substance P: An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of pain, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses. [NIH]

Supplementation: Adding nutrients to the diet. [NIH] Synapses: Specialized junctions at which a neuron communicates with a target cell. At classical synapses, a neuron's presynaptic terminal releases a chemical transmitter stored in synaptic vesicles which diffuses across a narrow synaptic cleft and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell. The target may be a dendrite, cell body, or axon of another neuron, or a specialized region of a muscle or secretory cell. Neurons may also communicate through direct electrical connections which are sometimes called electrical synapses; these are not included here but rather in gap junctions. [NIH] Synapsis: The pairing between homologous chromosomes of maternal and paternal origin during the prophase of meiosis, leading to the formation of gametes. [NIH] Synaptic: Pertaining to or affecting a synapse (= site of functional apposition between neurons, at which an impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another by electrical or chemical means); pertaining to synapsis (= pairing off in point-for-point association of homologous chromosomes from the male and female pronuclei during the early prophase of meiosis). [EU] Synaptic Transmission: The communication from a neuron to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a synapse. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a neurotransmitter that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors. These activated receptors modulate ion channels and/or secondmessenger systems to influence the postsynaptic cell. Electrical transmission is less common in the nervous system, and, as in other tissues, is mediated by gap junctions. [NIH] Synaptic Vesicles: Membrane-bound compartments which contain transmitter molecules. Synaptic vesicles are concentrated at presynaptic terminals. They actively sequester transmitter molecules from the cytoplasm. In at least some synapses, transmitter release occurs by fusion of these vesicles with the presynaptic membrane, followed by exocytosis of their contents. [NIH] Temporal: One of the two irregular bones forming part of the lateral surfaces and base of the skull, and containing the organs of hearing. [NIH] Thalamic: Cell that reaches the lateral nucleus of amygdala. [NIH] Thalamic Diseases: Disorders of the centrally located thalamus, which integrates a wide

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range of cortical and subcortical information. Manifestations include sensory loss, movement disorders; ataxia, pain syndromes, visual disorders, a variety of neuropsychological conditions, and coma. Relatively common etiologies include cerebrovascular disorders; craniocerebral trauma; brain neoplasms; brain hypoxia; intracranial hemorrhages; and infectious processes. [NIH] Therapeutics: The branch of medicine which is concerned with the treatment of diseases, palliative or curative. [NIH] Thrombosis: The formation or presence of a blood clot inside a blood vessel. [NIH] Tissue: A group or layer of cells that are alike in type and work together to perform a specific function. [NIH] Tooth Preparation: Procedures carried out with regard to the teeth or tooth structures preparatory to specified dental therapeutic and surgical measures. [NIH] Toxic: Having to do with poison or something harmful to the body. Toxic substances usually cause unwanted side effects. [NIH] Toxicity: The quality of being poisonous, especially the degree of virulence of a toxic microbe or of a poison. [EU] Toxicology: The science concerned with the detection, chemical composition, and pharmacologic action of toxic substances or poisons and the treatment and prevention of toxic manifestations. [NIH] Toxins: Specific, characterizable, poisonous chemicals, often proteins, with specific biological properties, including immunogenicity, produced by microbes, higher plants, or animals. [NIH] Transcription Factors: Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process. [NIH] Transduction: The transfer of genes from one cell to another by means of a viral (in the case of bacteria, a bacteriophage) vector or a vector which is similar to a virus particle (pseudovirion). [NIH] Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA into cells, usually eukaryotic. It is analogous to bacterial transformation. [NIH] Transmitter: A chemical substance which effects the passage of nerve impulses from one cell to the other at the synapse. [NIH] Trees: Woody, usually tall, perennial higher plants (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, and some Pterophyta) having usually a main stem and numerous branches. [NIH] Unconscious: Experience which was once conscious, but was subsequently rejected, as the "personal unconscious". [NIH] Uvea: The middle coat of the eyeball, consisting of the choroid in the back of the eye and the ciliary body and iris in the front of the eye. [NIH] Vascular: Pertaining to blood vessels or indicative of a copious blood supply. [EU] Vasodilators: Any nerve or agent which induces dilatation of the blood vessels. [NIH] Vector: Plasmid or other self-replicating DNA molecule that transfers DNA between cells in nature or in recombinant DNA technology. [NIH] Veins: The vessels carrying blood toward the heart. [NIH] Venous: Of or pertaining to the veins. [EU] Venules: The minute vessels that collect blood from the capillary plexuses and join together to form veins. [NIH]

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Veterinary Medicine: The medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases in animals. [NIH] Viral: Pertaining to, caused by, or of the nature of virus. [EU] Virus: Submicroscopic organism that causes infectious disease. In cancer therapy, some viruses may be made into vaccines that help the body build an immune response to, and kill, tumor cells. [NIH] Visual Acuity: Acuteness or clearness of vision, especially of form vision, which is dependent mainly on the sharpness of the retinal focus. [NIH] Visual Cortex: Area of the occipital lobe concerned with vision. [NIH] Visual field: The entire area that can be seen when the eye is forward, including peripheral vision. [NIH] Vitiligo: A disorder consisting of areas of macular depigmentation, commonly on extensor aspects of extremities, on the face or neck, and in skin folds. Age of onset is often in young adulthood and the condition tends to progress gradually with lesions enlarging and extending until a quiescent state is reached. [NIH] Vitreous Body: The transparent, semigelatinous substance that fills the cavity behind the crystalline lens of the eye and in front of the retina. It is contained in a thin hyoid membrane and forms about four fifths of the optic globe. [NIH] Vitreous Hemorrhage: Hemorrhage into the vitreous body. [NIH] Xenograft: The cells of one species transplanted to another species. [NIH] Yeasts: A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers' and bakers' yeasts are Saccharomyces cerevisiae; therapeutic dried yeast is dried yeast. [NIH]

97

INDEX A Accommodation, 40, 73, 85 Acetylcholine, 73, 86 Acuity, 19, 73, 78 Adaptation, 5, 73, 86 Adjustment, 73 Adverse Effect, 73, 74, 92 Afferent, 73, 87, 88 A-HA, 10, 73 Albinism, 45, 73 Algorithms, 73, 75 Alkaline, 73, 76 Alpha Particles, 73, 90 Alternative medicine, 50, 73 Amber, 35, 73 Amblyopia, 25, 73 Amino Acid Sequence, 4, 6, 74 Amino Acids, 73, 74, 75, 88, 89, 90 Analogous, 8, 74, 94 Anatomical, 74, 83 Anesthesia, 44, 74 Animal model, 3, 74 Aniridia, 45, 74 Anomalies, 5, 74 Anterior chamber, 74, 84 Antibody, 74, 77, 82, 92 Antigen, 74, 78, 82 Aperture, 74, 90 Aqueous, 74, 75, 84 Arginine, 74, 86 Aromatic, 34, 74 Arterial, 74, 90 Arteries, 74, 75, 76, 79, 85 Arterioles, 75, 76 Astigmatism, 40, 75, 90 Ataxia, 5, 75, 94 Auditory, 45, 75 Axonal, 5, 75 B Bacteria, 74, 75, 85, 94 Bacterial Physiology, 73, 75 Bacteriophage, 75, 94 Basal Ganglia, 75, 76 Basal Ganglia Diseases, 75 Base, 6, 75, 79, 84, 93 Bilateral, 75, 87, 91 Bile, 75, 84 Biochemical, 7, 75

Biogenic Monoamines, 75, 84 Biotechnology, 9, 44, 50, 57, 75 Blood Coagulation, 76 Blood vessel, 39, 76, 81, 94 Body Fluids, 14, 76, 92 Bowel, 11, 76, 83 Bradykinin, 76, 86 Brain Diseases, 76, 87 Branch, 69, 76, 80, 92, 94 Breakdown, 76, 80, 81, 87 C Calcium, 44, 76, 77, 92 Carotene, 76, 91 Cataracts, 38, 45, 76 Cell, 4, 5, 7, 9, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94 Cell Differentiation, 76, 92 Cell proliferation, 76, 92 Central Nervous System, 9, 73, 76, 81, 84, 85, 87 Cerebellar, 5, 75, 76, 90 Cerebellum, 76, 90 Cerebral, 10, 28, 36, 75, 76, 77, 81, 87, 88, 92 Cerebral Palsy, 76, 92 Cerebrum, 76 Character, 6, 77, 79 Chorioretinitis, 77, 91 Choroid, 39, 77, 91, 94 Chromatopsia, 25, 77 Chromosomal, 10, 77 Chromosome, 4, 6, 15, 19, 77, 81, 82, 84, 91 Ciliary, 77, 94 Ciliary Body, 77, 94 CIS, 6, 77, 91 Clinical trial, 3, 57, 77, 90 Clone, 6, 77 Cloning, 5, 75, 77 Cofactor, 77, 90 Color Vision Defects, 4, 6, 77 Complement, 77, 78, 81 Complementary and alternative medicine, 25, 30, 78 Complementary medicine, 25, 78 Computational Biology, 57, 78 Computer Graphics, 38, 78 Cone, 4, 5, 7, 8, 16, 36, 45, 77, 78, 88 Cone cells, 36, 78

98

Color Blindness

Cones (Retina), 77, 78 Conjunctiva, 39, 78 Connective Tissue, 78, 81 Constitutional, 78, 91 Contraindications, ii, 79 Contrast Sensitivity, 39, 79, 87 Coordination, 5, 76, 79, 85 Cornea, 39, 74, 75, 79, 91, 93 Coronary, 79, 85 Coronary Thrombosis, 79, 85 Cortex, 28, 36, 74, 75, 76, 79, 81, 90 Cortical, 13, 74, 79, 94 Cranial, 76, 79, 86, 87, 88 Crossing-over, 79, 90 Cues, 9, 79 Curative, 79, 94 Cyanide, 14, 79 Cyclic, 7, 79, 82, 86, 88 Cytotoxic, 79, 92 D Databases, Bibliographic, 57, 79 Decision Making, 29, 79 Degenerative, 79, 84, 91 Dendrites, 79, 86 Density, 4, 79, 87, 92 Depigmentation, 79, 95 Depolarization, 79, 92 Depressive Disorder, 80, 84 Deprivation, 73, 80 Depth Perception, 9, 80, 93 Dermatoglyphics, 13, 14, 80 Diabetes Mellitus, 80, 82 Diabetic Retinopathy, 38, 80 Diagnostic procedure, 33, 50, 80 Digestion, 75, 76, 80, 83, 84 Direct, iii, 9, 80, 88, 90, 93 Discrimination, 5, 10, 12, 31, 34, 35, 36, 80 Disparity, 80, 93 Distal, 75, 80, 90 Drug Interactions, 80 Dystrophy, 18, 45, 80 E Ectopic, 5, 80 Edema, 80 Efficacy, 5, 80 Electrons, 75, 80, 83, 90 Electrophysiological, 4, 5, 7, 80 Electroretinography, 17, 80 Embryo, 4, 76, 81 Empirical, 8, 81 Endothelium, 81, 86 Endothelium-derived, 81, 86

Environmental Health, 26, 56, 58, 81 Enzymatic, 75, 76, 78, 81, 91 Enzyme, 14, 73, 81, 82, 92 Epithelium, 81, 84 Evoke, 81, 93 Extensor, 81, 95 Eye Movements, 8, 81 F Family Planning, 57, 81 Fibrosis, 27, 81 Flatus, 81 G Ganglia, 73, 75, 81, 86, 88 Gap Junctions, 81, 93 Gas, 34, 81, 83, 86 Gene, 4, 5, 6, 44, 50, 75, 81, 82, 91 Gene Expression, 6, 81 Gene Order, 6, 81 Generator, 40, 81 Genetic Engineering, 75, 77, 81 Genetics, 4, 6, 18, 82 Genotype, 4, 6, 82, 88 Germ Cells, 82, 84, 87 Gland, 82, 91, 93 Glucose, 16, 80, 82 Gonads, 82, 83 Governing Board, 82, 89 Granulocytes, 82, 92 Growth, 76, 82, 83, 89 Guanylate Cyclase, 82, 86 H Habitual, 77, 82 Haptoglobins, 14, 82 Heme, 82 Hemoglobin, 82 Hereditary, 8, 10, 14, 44, 74, 82, 91 Heredity, 19, 45, 81, 82 Homologous, 7, 79, 82, 91, 93 Hormone, 82, 92 Hybrid, 6, 77, 83 Hydrogen, 14, 75, 83, 85, 86, 88, 90 Hyperopia, 83, 90 Hypesthesia, 83, 86 Hypnotic, 14, 26, 27, 28, 83 Hypogonadism, 44, 83 I Id, 22, 29, 62, 68, 70, 83 Impairment, 38, 75, 77, 83, 85 In situ, 6, 83 Indicative, 35, 43, 83, 94 Infancy, 83 Infantile, 44, 83

Index 99

Infarction, 79, 83, 85 Infections, 83, 87, 93 Inflammation, 77, 81, 83, 86, 87, 91 Initiation, 83, 94 Insight, 5, 83 Intestine, 76, 83, 90 Intracellular, 7, 83, 86, 92 Ion Channels, 7, 83, 93 Ions, 75, 83, 92 Iris, 39, 74, 79, 84, 90, 94 K Kb, 56, 84 Kinetics, 8, 84 L Labyrinth, 84, 89 Lens, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 76, 84, 95 Lethal, 4, 79, 84 Library Services, 68, 84 Linkage, 12, 15, 16, 18, 84 Lithium, 15, 84 Lithium Carbonate, 15, 84 Liver, 17, 45, 75, 84 M Macula, 84 Macula Lutea, 84 Macular Degeneration, 38, 62, 84 Mania, 84 Manic, 10, 12, 18, 84 Manifest, 75, 84 Mediate, 7, 84 MEDLINE, 57, 84 Meiosis, 84, 93 Melanin, 79, 84 Membrane, 39, 77, 78, 80, 83, 84, 88, 91, 92, 93, 95 Meninges, 76, 84, 93 Mental Retardation, 5, 44, 85 MI, 71, 85 Microbiology, 73, 85 Microscopy, 7, 85 Modification, 38, 81, 85, 90 Molecular, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 18, 57, 59, 73, 75, 78, 85 Molecule, 74, 75, 78, 81, 85, 90, 92, 94 Monocular, 22, 85 Morphological, 14, 81, 85 Motion Perception, 7, 13, 85 Mucins, 85, 91 Multiple sclerosis, 85, 87 Muscular Diseases, 85, 87 Muscular Dystrophies, 80, 85 Myocardium, 85

Myopia, 44, 85, 86, 90 N Natural selection, 10, 85 NCI, 1, 55, 77, 85 Nearsightedness, 85, 86 Necrosis, 83, 85, 86 Need, 44, 47, 63, 86 Nerve, 74, 75, 79, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 93, 94 Nervous System, 9, 73, 76, 86, 88, 93 Neural, 5, 40, 73, 86, 92 Neuritis, 28, 86, 87 Neurologist, 47, 86 Neuromuscular, 73, 86, 87 Neuronal, 5, 86 Neurons, 8, 9, 79, 81, 86, 93 Neurophysiology, 28, 79, 86 Neuroretinitis, 86, 91 Neutrons, 73, 86, 90 Night Blindness, 38, 86, 91 Nitric Oxide, 7, 86 Nitrogen, 6, 86 Nucleic acid, 86 Nucleus, 75, 79, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90, 93 Nystagmus, 17, 44, 87 O Occipital Lobe, 87, 95 Ocular, 27, 38, 45, 87 Odour, 74, 87 Oocytes, 7, 87 Opacity, 76, 79, 87 Opsin, 4, 87, 91 Optic cup, 74, 87 Optic disc, 87 Optic Disk, 80, 84, 87 Optic Nerve, 74, 86, 87, 91 Optic Neuritis, 28, 87 Orbital, 87 P Palliative, 87, 94 Paralysis, 87, 92 Paraplegia, 5, 87 Paresis, 86, 87 Paresthesias, 86, 87 Parietal, 8, 88 Parietal Lobe, 88 Particle, 88, 92, 94 Pedigree, 10, 12, 88 Peptide, 88, 89, 90 Perception, 7, 9, 47, 78, 80, 88 Peripheral Nervous System, 87, 88, 93 Peripheral Nervous System Diseases, 87, 88

100 Color Blindness

Peripheral vision, 88, 95 PH, 5, 14, 88 Pharmacologic, 74, 88, 94 Phenotype, 4, 5, 6, 88 Phospholipases, 88, 92 Phosphorus, 76, 88 Photoreceptor, 4, 7, 78, 88 Phototransduction, 7, 88 Physiologic, 88, 90 Physiology, 16, 27, 36, 80, 86, 88 Pigment, 4, 6, 8, 73, 77, 79, 89 Plants, 82, 89, 94 Platelet Activation, 89, 92 Platelet Aggregation, 86, 89 Platelets, 86, 89 Polypeptide, 74, 89, 90 Posterior, 75, 76, 77, 84, 87, 89, 91 Postsynaptic, 89, 92, 93 Potentiation, 89, 92 Practice Guidelines, 58, 89 Prenatal, 81, 89 Presynaptic, 7, 89, 93 Progression, 74, 89 Progressive, 18, 45, 76, 82, 85, 86, 89, 91 Prophase, 87, 89, 93 Proprioception, 47, 89 Protein C, 74, 75, 89 Protein Conformation, 74, 89 Protein S, 44, 75, 89, 90 Proteins, 5, 6, 74, 77, 81, 85, 86, 88, 90, 94 Protons, 73, 83, 90 Proximal, 80, 89, 90 Psychophysics, 5, 28, 90 Public Policy, 57, 90 Pupil, 34, 39, 79, 87, 90 Q Quality of Life, 41, 90 Quiescent, 90, 95 R Radiation, 35, 90 Radiopharmaceutical, 81, 90 Randomized, 80, 90 Receptor, 17, 73, 74, 78, 88, 90, 92 Recombination, 6, 90 Rectum, 81, 90 Red Nucleus, 75, 90 Refer, 1, 77, 84, 86, 90 Reflective, 34, 36, 40, 90 Reflex, 81, 90 Refraction, 40, 85, 90 Refractive Errors, 62, 74, 90 Refractive Power, 40, 85, 90

Regeneration, 4, 91 Regimen, 80, 91 Retina, 4, 6, 7, 8, 16, 36, 38, 39, 75, 77, 78, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 95 Retinae, 6, 84, 91 Retinal, 4, 6, 7, 8, 39, 44, 77, 78, 80, 85, 87, 88, 91, 93, 95 Retinitis, 7, 38, 44, 91 Retinitis Pigmentosa, 7, 38, 44, 91 Retinol, 91 Retinopathy, 44, 80, 91 Retrobulbar, 87, 91 Rod, 7, 19, 38, 45, 88, 91 S Saliva, 26, 91 Salivary, 91 Salivary glands, 91 Sclera, 8, 77, 78, 91 Screening, 17, 77, 91 Secretion, 26, 85, 91 Secretory, 91, 93 Segregation, 90, 91 Sharpness, 92, 95 Side effect, 73, 92, 94 Signal Transduction, 7, 92 Skull, 92, 93 Social Environment, 90, 92 Sodium, 88, 92 Sodium Channels, 88, 92 Sound wave, 90, 92 Spastic, 5, 92 Spasticity, 92 Specialist, 63, 92 Species, 73, 83, 84, 92, 95 Specificity, 7, 92 Sperm, 77, 93 Spinal cord, 76, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 93 Spinal Cord Diseases, 87, 93 Stabilization, 8, 93 Stereoscopic, 9, 93 Stimulus, 36, 73, 83, 87, 90, 93 Stroma, 84, 93 Substance P, 91, 93 Supplementation, 27, 93 Synapses, 7, 93 Synapsis, 93 Synaptic, 7, 92, 93 Synaptic Transmission, 7, 93 Synaptic Vesicles, 93 T Temporal, 8, 78, 84, 93 Thalamic, 75, 93

Index 101

Thalamic Diseases, 75, 93 Therapeutics, 94 Thrombosis, 90, 94 Tissue, 74, 77, 78, 80, 84, 85, 86, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94 Tooth Preparation, 73, 94 Toxic, iv, 4, 28, 73, 79, 94 Toxicity, 80, 94 Toxicology, 58, 94 Toxins, 74, 94 Transcription Factors, 6, 94 Transduction, 7, 92, 94 Transfection, 75, 94 Transmitter, 73, 83, 93, 94 Trees, 73, 94 U Unconscious, 83, 94 Uvea, 39, 94

V Vascular, 77, 81, 83, 86, 93, 94 Vasodilators, 86, 94 Vector, 94 Veins, 76, 94 Venous, 90, 94 Venules, 76, 94 Veterinary Medicine, 57, 95 Viral, 94, 95 Virus, 75, 82, 94, 95 Visual Acuity, 39, 79, 95 Visual Cortex, 8, 73, 95 Visual field, 8, 85, 91, 95 Vitiligo, 44, 95 Vitreous Body, 77, 91, 95 Vitreous Hemorrhage, 80, 95 X Xenograft, 74, 95 Y Yeasts, 88, 95

102 Color Blindness

Index 103

104 Color Blindness