Civic Engagement and Service Learning in a Metropolitan University: Multiple Approaches and Perspectives

EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND SERVICE LEARNING IN A METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY: MULTIPLE APPROACHES AND PERSPECTIVES

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EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND SERVICE LEARNING IN A METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY: MULTIPLE APPROACHES AND PERSPECTIVES

MICHAEL W. LEDOUX STEPHEN C. WILHITE AND

PAULA SILVER

———————————————

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

Copyright ©2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com

NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‘ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Civic engagement and service learning in a metropolitan university : multiple approaches and perspectives / editors, Michael W. Ledoux, Stephen C. Wilhite, and Paula Silver. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-1-61209-032-0 (eBook) 1. Service learning--United States--Case studies. 2. Social work education--United States--Case studies. 3. Widener University--Curricula. I. Ledoux, Michael W. II. Wilhite, Stephen C. III. Silver, Paula (Paula T.) LC220.5.C56 2010 378.1'03--dc22 2010041352

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

CONTENTS Preface

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Dedication

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Foreword

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About the Authors

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Chapter 1

How Widener Developed a Culture of Civic Engagement and Fulfilled its Promise as a Leading Metropolitan University James T. Harris, III

Chapter 2

How Can I Help? The Seduction of Service Learning Jo Allen

Chapter 3

Faculty Motivation, Vitality, and Professional Growth: The Ingredients Embedded in a Service-Learning Faculty Development Program Arlene Dowshen and Marcine Pickron-Davis

Chapter 4

Teacher Education in the Community: Integrating and Transforming Field Work through Service Learning and Community Engagement Nadine McHenry

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21

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Chapter 5

Civic Engagement and Social Work Education John Poulin, Travis Sky Ingersoll and Paula Silver

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Chapter 6

Learning Service: Teaching Literature as Civic Engagement Daniel Robinson and Janine Utell

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Chapter 7

The Political Complexities of Establishing a University-Sponsored Charter School as an Interdisciplinary Service-Learning Opportunity Michael W. Ledoux, Stephen C. Wilhite and Paula Silver

Chapter 8

The Development of a Community Clinic: How a Signature Project Can Mobilize Commitment to Sustainable Community Kerstin M. Palombaro, Robin L. Dole and Jill Black Lattanzi

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vi Chapter 9

Contents Violence Prevention Initiatives with Communities and Organizations: The Center for Violence Prevention Jeannette Wyatt

Chapter 10

Service Learning in China Melanie Swain, John Poulin, Travis Sky Ingersoll, Heather Witt and Xu Shan

Chapter 11

International Service-Learning: The Building Blocks of a Successful Experience Beatriz Urraca

Chapter 12

Chapter 13

Index

Let‘s Talk about Pedagogy, Research and Practices Centered on Racial Identity Development Theory in Cultural-Based Service Learning Lori Simons, Lawrence Fehr, Nancy Blank, Brittany Russell, Andrew Goodman, Renee DeSimone, George Manampuram and Denise Georganas Evaluating the Impact of a University‘s Civic Engagement Projects on the Community Stephen E. Kauffman

109 121

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179 209

PREFACE This book offers a case study of a medium-sized, private, metropolitan university‘s adoption, implementation, and assessment of a civic engagement mission.. Situated in a city where the loss of a once robust industrial base has resulted in urban blight faced by many communities throughout the United States, this university is attempting to partner with community members to address the social and economic impact of these changes and to bolster the resiliency of residents and local organizations. While prompted by a genuine desire on the part of many in the university community to serve the community, this civic engagement initiative is also shaped by the belief that such service will enrich the educational experience of the university‘s students and provide additional professional development opportunities for faculty. It is our hope that these chapters will assist members of other institutions, especially smaller and medium-sized ones, in becoming more intimately involved in their surrounding communities, not only for the betterment of their community, but also for the improvement of their own institutions and enrichment of learning opportunities for their students. The tone of the following chapters varies as the authors‘ intentions and purposes differ. Therefore, to maximize the book‘s usefulness to readers, we have organized the chapters into sections based on topical similarity, and we offer the following overview of these sections.

SECTION I -NURTURING THE VISION Chapter 1 sets the stage for development of Widener University‘s mission and vision around civic engagement and service learning. Outlining some of the historic ―town and gown‖ issues, as well as, the internal conflicts within the university, President James T. Harris addresses the elements of developing a culture that is receptive to and accepting of the notion of civic engagement. Strategic planning, mission creation, stakeholder support, conflicts with the community and challenges faced in establishing this new vision are addressed in this chapter. Chapters 2 and 3 present insights into the adoption of service learning and the infrastructure support necessary within the university for its establishment, success and growth. In Chapter 2, Provost Allen offers commentary on a series of assumptions about service learning, explaining how those misconceptions have to be overcome if service learning is to become central to the institution‘s educational mission. In Chapter 3, Dowshen

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and Pickron-Davis then offer a detailed account of establishing a faculty development program on service learning, including the kinds of training and support that appear important to encouraging widespread adoption of the approach. This chapter will assist those interested in beginning or enhancing programs in service learning and faculty adoption of these programs.

SECTION II -INTEGRATING THE VISION AND THE CLASSROOM Chapters 4, 5 and 6 present approaches used in specific course offerings to support service learning, illustrating how differences in academic disciplines importantly shape the approach to service learning. A program named Earthforce is described by McHenry in Chapter 4 as a service learning approach in a teacher education program. In this chapter, she offers insights into the potential benefits of this approach, including the transformative elements of this program for teacher candidates, and also discusses the barriers for field implementation. McHenry also proposes how this model may be used for more generalized citizen education. In Chapter 5, Poulin, Ingersoll and Silver contextualize service learning within the university‘s social work curricula. This chapter outlines the progression of candidate involvement from undergraduate freshmen year through doctoral studies. Replete with details of projects, initiatives and outreach programs, the chapter offers a guide for establishing service learning programs that can be tailored to fit many educational or social service initiatives. A unique perspective is taken in Chapter 6 by members of the English faculty. Rather than describing the actual implementation of a program of service learning, authors Robinson and Utell suggest that the use of particular readings in literature can help to provide a needed foundation of understanding for service learning activities. Alluding to the educational philosophical battles of perrenialists versus social reconstructivists, the authors take a stand that the critical thinking skills learned through literature offer students, ―…the tools required to engage with social and civic life and responsibilities.‖

SECTION III-DEVELOPING UNIVERSITY-BASED CIVIC INITIATIVES Chapters 7, 8, and 9 explore civic engagement initiatives launched by some of the university‘s schools and colleges and how these projects can provide service learning opportunities. Preeminent among these is the establishment of a university-sponsored charter school, described in Chapter 7. Here the authors describe in detail the evolution of the charter school initiative as an interdisciplinary effort within one of Widener‘s professional schools that is attempting to provide a remarkably enriched educational option for some of the families in one of the most distressed districts in the state and possibly the nation. Ledoux, Wilhite and Silver, all of whom have been part of the project from its inception, offer details of the political and cultural pitfalls, as well as the rewards, of embarking on a project of this magnitude as administrators in a private, tuition-driven institution with limited resources.

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Chapter 8 provides an in-depth account of the establishment of a sustainable health care clinic for the community. Physical therapy faculty members Palombaro, Dole and Lattanzi describe an integrated model for the delivery of physical therapy services through a studentrun pro bono clinic. This clinic combines outreach to the community with opportunities for students in an entry-level Doctor of Physical Therapy program to hone their newly acquired therapy skills and to augment their leadership and management abilities. The chapter clearly illustrates how a project of this scope can only be mounted when there is university, schoollevel, and departmental commitment to community service as a fundamental component of the educational process. The emphasis on the sustainability of the projects described in this chapter is important, as critics of such initiatives often describe them as an educational fad. Jenny Wyatt (Chapter 9) describes a grant funded program that was developed to help coordinate various organizations and services in the prevention of violence. Students in communication studies, social work, criminal justice and environmental studies are all part of this report in which initiatives and student involvement are described, as well as the major aspects of the programs strengths, challenges and best practices.

SECTION IV-DEVELOPING INTERNATIONAL SERVICE LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES Focusing on international projects, Chapters 10 and 11 report on service learning projects on two different sides of the world. Chapter 10 describes a long-term collaboration between Widener‘s social work faculty and a social work program at a Chinese university. The collaboration has led to the introduction of the concept of service-learning pedagogy to Chinese educators, as well as international service learning opportunities for social work graduate students. Chapter 11 presents the lessons learned in implementing a short term intensive service-learning project for undergraduate students in rural Argentina. These two chapters will assist those who wish to take on international projects provide concrete suggestions for the development of international projects as well as personal reflections on the perceived value of the experiences to the participants.

SECTION V-ASSESSING OUTCOMES AND IMPACTS Two very different approaches to assessment of service learning projects are offered in the final two chapters. Simons et al. (Chapter 12) look at racial identity theory and the impact of service learning on students‘ cultural competence. This chapter offers some interesting conclusions about the types of activities that should be included in and omitted from the preparation and implementation of service learning activities. The authors also present student perceptions into the value of these service learning courses. The chapter begins with a description of how Widener‘s adoption of a civic engagement mission directly contributed to the development of the service learning course examined in the study, as well as the emergence of the authors‘ research agenda focused on the scholarship of teaching and the scholarship of engagement.

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Finally, Kauffman (Chapter 13) offers a more holistic assessment of the impact on the community of the various civic engagement projects and activities sponsored by the university. The author addresses such issues as resource allocation, cost-benefit analysis, factors important in successful implementation, and the types of projects that should be taken on by a medium-sized, tuition-driven institution. Kauffman describes in detail a comprehensive assessment approach for civic engagement initiatives; and, in the process he attempts to provide guidance in critically examining assumptions, targeting specific constituencies, and developing ongoing assessments. Although this book certainly does not address every aspect of civic engagement or service learning reflected in the community outreach of colleges and universities across the United States, it is hoped that the variety of approaches offered here will serve as a springboard for further research on and implementation of civic engagement projects in higher education institutions of all sizes and varieties. The authors and editors have attempted to relate the great benefits that their students, their institutions, and they themselves have realized through a comprehensive, institution-wide program of civic engagement. These dynamic projects will continue to evolve through collaboration with community partners and stakeholders.

DEDICATION To Dr. James T. Harris, III, president of Widener University, whose vision, inspiration and belief have helped transform a university and a community.

FOREWORD Ira Harkavay The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA

In the spirit of full disclosure, I am not a disinterested observer of Widener University‘s serious, significant, sustained effort to become a fully engaged, democratic, cosmopolitan, civic university. Since 2003, I have been a member of Widener‘s Board of Trustees and chair of the Board‘s Civic Engagement Committee since its creation in 2005. Obviously, I have more than a passing interest in the University, and, along with my fellow Trustees, have contributed to Widener‘s development during President James Harris‘s tenure. Having devoted my academic career to studying and implementing university-community partnerships, service learning, and civic engagement programs, I would like to think that my assessment of Civic engagement and service learning in a metropolitan university: Multiple approaches and perspectives is largely based on knowledge of these fields, as well as a personal commitment to help advance the development of democratic, civic engagement through clear-eyed, reflective, empirically-based analysis and action. In any event, from my standpoint, the Widener story is well worth telling, not because it is extremely impressive, which it surely is, but because there are ideas, approaches, and strategies that colleagues at other colleges and universities may well find useful as they work to advance democratic civic engagement on campus and with their communities. Widener‘s path to become the ―nation‘s preeminent metropolitan university‖ (a goal of its strategic plan) has not been haphazard, a mere collection of approaches and initiatives. To the contrary, certain concepts have been central from the beginning and have become clearer and more significant over time through implementation and ongoing reflection. Preeminent among them is mission-driven change and development. Civic engagement is not a Widener program, it is Widener‘s mission, defining the university‘s purpose and providing its standard for evaluation and assessment. Among other things, the University‘s focus on mission has helped to facilitate institutional alignment in which the various campuses (Widener has three), schools, faculties, and departments could effectively work together to realize a common superordinate goal, contributing their unique orientations, methods, and knowledge (Sherif, 1958). The comprehensiveness of Widener‘s approach, one that involves every aspect of the institution, curricular and co-curricular, academic and administrative, and students, faculty,

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and staff, would not have been possible without a mission-driven approach. Democratic, civic engagement is the primary historic mission of American higher education in general (Benson, Harkavy & Puckett, 2007). As Widener has shown, by working to realize that mission, colleges and universities can tap, galvanize, and effectively integrate resources from across the institution. Of course, the progress Widener has made is more than the result of a civic mission. The process of implementing that mission is no less important and even more difficult to figure out and do. As the distinguished organizational theorists, C. West Churchman and Ian Mitroff, have argued, ―the most difficult problem of all. . .[is] how to change people and human institutions [emphasis added] (1994, p. 117).‖ Civic engagement and service learning in a metropolitan university: Multiple approaches and perspectives focuses in large part on the implementation problem in courses, programs, and schools, as well as the university as a whole. Although many innovative, creative ideas and suggestions are presented, a democratic implementation strategy defines the overall Widener approach. In his chapter, President Harris details an inclusive participatory democratic planning process, which led to the identification of civic engagement as the most appropriate institutional mission. Widener benefited from Harris‘s democratic leadership style, as well as from key faculty members who were equally committed to transparency, participation, and democratic action. Any discussion of Widener‘s development since 2002 would be incomplete without highlighting the university‘s focus on working with and contributing to the wellbeing of Chester, Pennsylvania, its local community. By any measure, Chester is a deeply troubled city. Widener has been, and is affected by, these troubles, including poverty, violence, high unemployment, and extremely poor schools. Clearly, recognizing that Widener‘s future and the future of Chester are intertwined, President Harris and his colleagues focused civic engagement activities on improving the quality of life in the university‘s local community. Functioning as an active anchor institution, Widener has partnered with government, other higher educational institutions and medical centers (eds and meds), and neighborhood organizations to spur commercial and community development, housing, and public education (Harkavy, et al.2009). Central to these and other local efforts, has been the involvement of Widener faculty and students through service learning courses, internships, and other academic programs. Recognizing the educational benefits of service learning and other active pedagogies, Widener has placed democratic civic engagement at the core of its academic program, functioning as the primary process and goal of teaching and learning. Although Widener has been able to connect and integrate local, national, and international service-learning projects, Chester has appropriately been the main focus of student and faculty work. Chester‘s issues and problems, such as poverty and poor schooling, are not exclusive to Chester. To the contrary, they are universal problems (afflicting communities and cities throughout the world) that are manifested locally. Service learning courses that work with Chester‘s communities provide faculty and students with the opportunity to study and help solve perhaps the most significant problems of our time, simultaneously increasing their learning and their contributions to knowledge. It has been a genuine pleasure to have been a Trustee as Widener has worked to realize its civic engagement mission and significantly increase its contributions to learning, teaching, research, and service. Although much remains to be done, a great deal has been accomplished in a remarkably brief amount of time. The Widener story is a most powerful addition to the

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university democratic, civic engagement movement that is reshaping higher education for the better in the United States and around the world (Huber & Harkavy, 2007).

REFERENCES Benson, L., Harkavy, I., & Puckett, J. (2007). Dewey's dream: Universities and democracies in an age of education reform. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Churchman, C.W., & Mitroff, I. I. (1998). The management of science and the mismanagement of the world. In W. N. Dunn (Ed.), The experimenting society: Essays in honor of Donald T. Campbell (pp. 103-123). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishing. Harkavy, I., et al (2009). Anchor institutions as partners in building communities and local economies. In Brophy, P., & Godsil, R. (Project directors), Retooling HUD for a Catalytic Federal Government: A Report to Secretary Shaun Donovan (pp.147-168). Philadelphia: Penn Institute for Urban Research and Rockefeller Foundation. Huber, J. & Harkavy, I., eds. (2007). Higher education and democratic culture: Citizenship, human rights and civic responsibility. Strasbourg, Council of Europe Publishing. Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate goals in the reduction of intergroup conflict. American Journal of Sociology, 63, 349-356.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Chapter One Dr. James T. Harris, III is the President of Widener University and holds the rank of Professor of Education. He serves as a member of several state and national higher education association boards and has published widely on the topic of civic engagement. Chapter Two Dr. Jo Allen is the Senior Vice President and Provost and Professor of English at Widener University. Her disciplinary specialization is in technical and professional communication. In addition to other books and publications, her most recently released book is Assessment in Technical and Professional Communication (Baywood Press, 2010) Chapter Three Dr. Arlene Dowshen is the coordinator of the Academic Service-Learning Faculty Development Program and an Associate Professor of Mathematics Education at Widener University. Her areas of research include the impact of intensive and sustained professional development on elementary school teachers' mathematical knowledge and the impact of professional development for faculty who teach service-learning courses. She is the co-editor of IMAGES, A Resource Guide for Improving Measurement and Geometry in Elementary Schools. Dr. Marcine Pickron-Davis joined Widener University as the special assistant to the president for community engagement in October 2003. In this position, she serves as the university liaison and the president‘s delegate to build community relations and strategic partnerships with the city of Chester. A major priority of her work is to advance Widener‘s institutional mission to contribute to the vitality and well-being of the Chester community. Dr. Pickron-Davis assisted in the development and implementation of the Academic Faculty Development Seminars and has a faculty appointment with the Center for Social Work Education at Widener University.

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Chapter Four Dr. Nadine McHenry is the director of the Science Teaching Center and associate professor of education at Widener University. Her research focuses on collaborative professional development of elementary teachers in science and environmental education. She is currently working on linking classrooms and nature centers in the US and Trinidad. Chapter Five Dr. John Poulin is a professor of social work at Widener University. His research focuses on cross-cultural social work, social work practice, and civic engagement. He has published numerous journal articles and is the author of Strengths-Based Generalist Practice: A Collaborative Approach. Travis Sky Ingersoll is a doctoral candidate in Human Sexuality Education at Widener University. His research interests include cross-cultural sexuality, elderly care and men's roles in domestic violence agencies. Dr. Paula Silver is the Director of the Center for Social Work Education at Widener University and an associate dean for the School of Human Service Professions. She serves on the Board of Directors for the Widener Partnership Charter School as Vice Chair. Her research interests include: service learning pedagogy, civic engagement and higher education, international social work. Chapter Six Dr. Daniel Robinson is Professor of English at Widener University and Editor of the publications of the College English Association. His research interests include British literature, particularly poetry and poetic form, of the Romantic period. His most recent books are William Wordsworth's Poetry (Continuum, 2010) and The Poetry of Mary Robinson: Form and Fame (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). Dr. Janine Utell is Associate Professor of English at Widener University. Her research focuses on the relationships among narrative, postmodern ethics, and the erotic. She is the author of James Joyce and the Revolt of Love (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010). Chapter Seven (The Editors) Dr. Michael W. Ledoux is the Director for the Center for Education and an associate dean of the School of Human Service Professions at Widener University. He is a member of the Board of Trustees of the Widener Partnership Charter School. His research includes preservice teacher preparation, continuing education of teachers at all levels. Dr. Stephen Wilhite is Dean of the School of Human Service Professions and Associate Provost for Graduate Studies at Widener University. Dr. Wilhite also serves as the Chairperson of the Board of Trustees of the Widener Partnership Charter School. His current

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research interests include the development of emotional competence in students in higher education settings, dimensions of effective leadership in higher education, and civic engagement as a means of promoting active learning. Dr. Paula Silver is the Director of the Center for Social Work Education at Widener University and an associate dean for the School of Human Service Professions. She serves on the Board of Trustees for the Widener Partnership Charter School as Vice Chair. Her research interests include: service learning pedagogy, civic engagement and higher education, international social work. Chapter Eight Dr. Kerstin M. Palombaro is assistant professor and community engagement coordinator for the Institute for Physical Therapy Education at Widener University. Her teaching and research focuses on health promotion and wellness, service learning, and women‘s health. She serves as a faculty advisor to the Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic. Dr. Robin L. Dole is the Director of the Institute for Physical Therapy Education at Widener University and the associate dean for the School of Human Service Professions. She also serves as a member of the Board of Trustees for the Widener Partnership Charter School. Dr. Jill Black Lattanzi is a Clinical Assistant Professor in the Institute for Physical Therapy Education at Widener University in Chester, PA. She is involved in the Institute's community engagement initiatives and serves as the Pro Bono Service Coordinator Chapter Nine Dr. Jeannette Wyatt is the Assistant Director and Assistant Professor at Widener University‘s Center for Social Work Education. In addition to administrative duties, she teaches courses in social work practice, treatment of children and adolescents, mental health policy and practice, brief treatment and diversity to Masters level students and social theory, clinical practice and international curriculum development to Doctoral students. She is also Director of the Center for Violence Prevention, which works to decrease violence in Delaware County through public awareness, education, and advocacy by collaborating and networking with professionals and the community. Chapter Ten Melanie A. Swain is a family based clinician with interests in international social work, adolescents, family therapy, and women's health. She has designed and facilitated numerous presentations and workshops on human sexuality, adolescent health and generalist social work practice. Dr. John Poulin, is a professor of social work at Widener University. His research focuses on cross-cultural social work, social work practice, and civic engagement. He has

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published numerous journal articles and is the author of Strengths-Based Generalist Practice: A Collaborative Approach. Travis Sky Ingersoll, is a doctoral candidate in Human Sexuality Education at Widener University. His research interests include cross-cultural sexuality, elderly care and men's roles in domestic violence agencies. Heather Witt is a doctoral student in Human Sexuality Education at Widener University. Her professional research interests include sexuality, infertility, transcultural social work and sexuality research, and scale validation. She is a licensed social worker and works with underserved populations. Shan Xu is a social worker with the Philadelphia Corporation for Aging providing case management services to elderly Chinese immigrants in Philadelphia, PA. Her interests in international social work and clinical social work practice with families and the elderly. Chapter Eleven Dr. Beatriz Urraca is Associate Professor of Spanish at Widener University. Her current research involves social change in contemporary Argentine cinema. She is the author of several articles on Argentine cinema and literature, and the co-author of an article on international service-learning in Bolivia. Chapter Twelve Dr. Lori Simons is an Associate Professor of Psychology and the Coordinator of the Undergraduate Psychology Practicum and Internship Program. Her research focuses on academic-based service-learning, diversity service-learning, and community perceptions of experiential education programs. Dr. Lawrence Fehr is a Professor of Psychology. He served as the Social Science Division Practicum and Internship Coordinator for 23 years. His is the author of two books and has written journal articles on topics such as Elder Abuse, Children‘s Cognitive Development, and Service-Learning. Dr. Nancy Blank is an Associate Professor of Criminal Justice and the Coordinator of the Undergraduate Criminal Justice Practicum and Internship Program. Her research focuses on academic-based service-learning, diversity service-learning, and youth court programs. Student contributors include: Brittany Russell, BA Psychology; Andrew Goodman, Undergraduate BA Psychology; Renee DeSimone, Undergraduate BSN Nursing George Manampuram, BA Psychology; and Denise Georganas, BA Psychology.

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Chapter Thirteen Dr. Stephen E. Kauffman is an associate professor in the Center for Social Work Education at Widener University. He teaches courses in research, community practice and social policy. In addition to evaluations of housing, substance abuse, and teenage pregnancy, Dr. Kauffman‘s main research and publication focuses on citizen participation and volunteerism

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

HOW WIDENER DEVELOPED A CULTURE OF CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND FULFILLED ITS PROMISE AS A LEADING METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY James T. Harris, III President, Widener University; Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Developing mission and vision around civic engagement and service learning is a primary task in creating a culture of service in a university. Outlining some of the historic ―town and gown‖ issues, as well as, the internal conflicts within the university, this chapter addresses the elements of developing a culture that is receptive to and accepting of the notion of civic engagement. Strategic planning, mission creation, stakeholder support, conflicts with the community and challenges faced in establishing this new vision are all addressed. The author discusses how this change in vision has led to a university that has moved from survival mode to a finding its unique place in the higher education community.

INTRODUCTION: HISTORY OF WIDENER UNIVERSITY Widener University has a long and proud history. Founded in 1821, the school which would eventually become known as the Pennsylvania Military College moved to Chester in the middle of the nineteenth century. Throughout its history as a military college, the institution was known for producing highly successful graduates who were civically involved and who had an impact on society. In addition to the significant contributions its graduates made to various branches of the United States military, numerous graduates had gone on to successful careers in a myriad of fields. During the 1960‘s as interest in a military education diminished, the college added civilian programs to increase enrollment. In 1972 when the corps of cadets was retired the school became known as Widener College. Three years later

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Widener acquired the Delaware School of Law (now known as the Widener School of Law) and in 1979 it earned university status. The next three decades were a time of expansion with a new campus added in Harrisburg, total enrollment climbing to over 9000 by 1990 and the addition of several new academic programs, especially at the graduate level. The university also achieved accreditation from appropriate discipline specific accrediting bodies for many of its professional programs. Over the decades since it changed from PMC, Widener had developed into a doctoral-granting institution with eight colleges and schools on three campuses. However, during the 1990‘s the University experienced an unplanned and precipitous drop in the overall student population and by 2000, the total student enrollment had shrunk to 6700. What is interesting to note about Widener at the turn of the 20th century is that although it was providing high quality academic programs at both the undergraduate and graduate levels it lacked a common mission that united the amalgam of campuses, schools and programs at the university. Although Widener managed its limited endowment and resources well over the years, as an enrollment dependent institution it had continued to add new programs so long as they were financially viable without considering whether those programs were consistent with some long term vision of the university. By 2001, when the university Board of Trustees announced a search for a new president Widener had no clear sense of mission, was recovering from a decade of declining enrollments and desperately needed to find new ways to address issues associated with a troubled city where the main campus was located. In the documents prepared for the potential presidential candidates, the Board indicated that it was seeking a president who could help the University create a new and unifying vision through an inclusive planning process. During the interview, search committee members expressed their concerns about the lack of a clear vision for the future. In one public forum on the main campus someone asked me what my vision for Widener would be as president. My response was that I planned on leading a comprehensive planning effort and that through that process the various stakeholders at Widener would help me decide on a common vision. I did, however, say that the board should not hire me unless they felt strongly about Widener being more engaged in the communities it served and be willing to make a strong commitment to diversity. On July 1, 2002, my tenure as the ninth president of Widener University began.

THE INTRODUCTION OF STRATEGIC PLANNING AT WIDENER UNIVERSITY Prior to 2002, Widener University had not engaged in any formal strategic planning process. Planning and budgeting were highly centralized with budgeting priorities established by the president, relying on consultation with the provost and the vice president for administration and finance, each of whom brought forward requests and priorities from the administrative units reporting to him (Widener University, MSA Self-Study, 2006). These annual priorities were presented to the Board of Trustees in May of each year as part of the budget approval process and finalized after the new academic year began in the fall. The board was aware of annual university priorities but had not developed a mechanism for evaluating the long term effectiveness of the university‘s decisions over time.

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Throughout my transition time and into my first academic year at Widener, I personally visited with hundreds of people. In addition to members of the Board of Trustees, I met with faculty leaders, department chairs, deans, staff, senior administrators, alumni, students, elected officials and community leaders. In every case I would ask what they thought my priorities should be as president and what they thought Widener could do better. When meeting with internal constituents, I asked them to name the people they thought would be good choices to serve on a strategic planning committee. There were two things that stood out for me after conducting those interviews. First, the unanimity of opinion that Widener needed to be more involved in the local community where its main campus was located, Chester, Pennsylvania. The second thing that struck me was that most constituents, with the exception of the Board of Trustees, were unfamiliar with the basic principles of strategic planning for a university and that it would take more time than I thought to work out a planning model that would be acceptable to the entire university community. By the end of the 2002 fall semester, I named a strategic planning committee with Joe Baker, Vice President for Administration and Finance as its chairperson. Mr. Baker‘s name had been mentioned by several faculty and administrators as someone well prepared to lead such an effort based on his previous experience in the corporate world and due to the way he handled himself on some key issues at the university during his tenure. The rest of the 12 person committee included key faculty and administrative leaders as well as an undergraduate student. The provost and I were both ex-officio members. The university‘s history of top-down management was inimical to developing a truly inclusive and comprehensive strategic planning process. First, the senior administration was unaccustomed to sharing information or decision making regarding non-academic matters with faculty leaders and other constituents. Secondly, this approach was perceived by some as threatening the current academic governance structure at the university because the faculty had not been accustomed to being so deeply involved in university wide decision-making. This new process created suspicion among some faculty who felt it was an attempt to usurp the existing governance structure. Based on this early feedback, we decided to move slowly and extended the development of a plan by an additional twelve months to develop more trust in the process from the various constituents on all three campuses.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW UNIVERSITY MISSION During the first year of discussions the strategic planning committee had received significant feedback and ideas about the future direction of the university. What the committee discovered was a common theme that seemed to permeate the Widener culture across academic disciplines and its different campuses and was also consistent with the University‘s history. As a committee we decided that the best way to describe this theme was civic engagement. After months of consultation and discussions, including hosting a series of lectures on the topic by nationally recognized scholars on the subject, the committee adopted a definition of civic engagement developed by Anne Colby and a group of her colleagues in 2003. According to that description, civic engagement was defined as ―an approach to learning that

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focuses on students‘ understanding of ethical and social issues, consideration of multiple perspectives on these issues, willingness to take responsibility for their own actions, commitment to contribute to society, and appreciation of cultural pluralism and global interdependence‖(Colby, Ehrlich, Beaumont, & Stephens, 2003, p. 52). In addition to developing a working definition of civic engagement, the committee agreed that Widener should define itself as a metropolitan university and join the Coalition of Urban and Metropolitan Universities, a national consortium of universities committed to working closely with their local communities to solve some of society‘s most pressing issues. This idea was new to the university but given that each of Widener‘s three campuses were located in distinct metropolitan areas (greater Philadelphia, Wilmington, DE, and Harrisburg, PA) the committee thought it was appropriate to designate Widener as a metropolitan university. In the fall of 2003, the strategic planning committee held a visioning summit on the main campus that included members of the board, faculty, alumni, community leaders, administrators, staff and students. The summit was an attempt to present the work of the strategic planning committee to date and to seek feedback on specific goals and objectives the university should pursue in the future as well as to solicit input as to what should be included in the University‘s mission and vision statements. A month later a smaller group of trustees, faculty and administrators, including Trustee Chairman David Oskin and Chairperson of the Faculty Patricia Lawler, met at my house for a day long session to write a new mission and vision for the university. Over the next six weeks we shared the new statements and sought feedback from the entire university community. In December of 2003 the board approved a new mission that included a statement that Widener was ―a Leading Metropolitan University‖ and that we would achieve our mission by ―creating a learning environment where curricula are connected to societal issues through civic engagement‖ (Widener University, 2004). Once these two definitions and a new mission and vision were agreed upon it was easier to see how individual schools, campuses and disciplines could relate to each other while not losing their own unique identities. For example, on the main campus, in early 2000, the Center for Social Work Education, partnered with the Chester Education Foundation to establish the Social Work Consultation Services (SWCS. From it inception, SWCS articulated a dual mission – to improve the lives of low income citizens in the Chester and to train competent and caring social work leaders (Silver, Poulin, & Wilhite, 2006, p 51). While this new entity was well received in the community, the former university administration did not publicly support its creation, leaving the social work faculty to raise the resources to manage SWCS on their own. Although the rest of this chapter will specifically focus on Widener‘s engagement with the city of Chester, it is important to note that the new mission was particularly relevant to the Widener School of Law. Over the years, the School of Law had developed civil law clinics where students worked with a variety of clients including victims of domestic violence, the elderly, and veterans. Each year the Widener School of Law civil law clinics logged over 10,000 hours of pro bono support for underserved populations in Delaware and Pennsylvania. This was viewed as great opportunity for our students but was never articulated as a distinguishing characteristic of a Widener Law School experience until the new university mission was developed. With the new definition of civic engagement, SWCS and both School of Law campuses could more clearly see that their work was consistent with the university‘s new mission and

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how they each contributed to a common university goal. With a new mission, vision and plan in place it was time to turn our attention to developing strategies to address one of the most pressing issues facing the university, the city of Chester.

CITY OF CHESTER The city of Chester is located just outside Philadelphia in southeastern Pennsylvania. Founded in1644 by Swedish settlers, William Penn later renamed the small settlement ―Chester.‖ Chester played a prominent role in the early colonies and was viewed as a vital asset during the industrial revolution of the late 19th century. During the 20th century, Chester emerged as one of the nation‘s leading industrial cities. Thanks to its role in ship building and manufacturing during the first half of the century, the city‘s population swelled to 66,000. It was during this time Chester gained additional recognition for being the birthplace of the blues and jazz vocalist, Ethel Waters, and the city where Martin Luther King, Jr. earned his degree in divinity at Crozer Seminary. By midcentury, Chester had many points of pride and was a city that had earned its motto ―what Chester makes, makes Chester.‖ However, by the middle of the 1960‘s the city began experiencing economic difficulties as manufacturing and other industries moved out of the city. By the time of the new millennium, the city faced the challenges of an urban environment in decline. By 2000 the city population had dropped to under 37,000 with more than 27% of all individuals categorized as living in poverty and 41% of the adults listed as outside the labor force (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). By 2008 the median family income in Chester was $31,928 as compared to $51,170 nationally and $62,223 for the surrounding county (Chester, Pennsylvania, n.d.; Semega, 2009). The citizens of Chester elected a new mayor in 1998, Dominic Pileggi, who brought a fresh vision which included several initiatives to spur economic growth, reduce violence and improve the infrastructure of the aging city. After four years he was elected state senator and continued to use his influence to help Chester grow. He was followed as Mayor by Wendell Butler, the former Chester Police Commissioner, who followed similar strategies and early in his tenure the city attracted some new businesses that brought some hope for the future.

WIDENER’S HISTORICAL RELATIONSHIP WITH CHESTER Over the years, Widener‘s predecessor institution, PMC was viewed an integral part of Chester. However, the 1960‘s were tumultuous times in Chester. As the city declined, the crime rate grew, further damaging the city‘s reputation. When the tax base narrowed and the middle class migrated to the suburbs, Widener was caught in a difficult situation. Facing a number of serious issues including an increase in the percentage of people living in poverty, local political corruption and a lack of control over the issues outside its campus boundaries, Widener attempted to distance itself from Chester. As a growing university with limited resources, it needed to be careful in how it invested its funds. As the city continued to

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deteriorate, the university started developing a citadel mentality and warned its faculty and students of the dangers that lurked just beyond the walls of the academy. As the quality of the public schools declined and the property taxes rose, fewer Widener faculty and staff were choosing to live in the city, further driving a wedge between the university and the community. Whereas during the more prosperous days of Chester the majority of PMC employees lived in the city and participated in local issues, by the year 2000, less than 10% of Widener employees lived within the city limits. Increasingly, local citizens began to view Widener as an institution that was only concerned about promoting its own self interest. As the mayor said to me in 2003; ―Widener is viewed by most citizens as a dragon that eats up land that otherwise would be generating tax dollars for the city.‖ Although, there was no university-wide plan in place to strategically engage the local community, Widener had created a partnership with the Crozer-Chester Medical Center and local organizations to establish University Technology Park, a non-profit corporation designed to attract high technology firms to Chester. Unfortunately, within a few years, UTP was in financial trouble with only Widener and Crozer remaining as partners. By 2002, Widener was viewed as a university located in a troubled urban environment, with no strategy in place for systematically addressing the significant issues facing Chester. While the university was experiencing better relationships with the local government, there was quite a bit of pent up anger in the community about Widener‘s apparent lack of interest in Chester.

ENGAGING CHESTER The new university vision statement proclaimed that Widener would become the ―nation’s preeminent metropolitan university” within a decade (Widener University, 2004, p. 1). The designation of Widener as a ―metropolitan university‖ was viewed as a new direction for the University. Many people had not heard of the term ―metropolitan‖ with regard to a university and some saw it as possibly limiting the scope of Widener‘s potential. However, most saw the potential for the university to make its mark nationally by focusing locally on important issues. To help support this new direction, the Widener University Board of Trustees created a standing board committee called the Civic Engagement Committee, to monitor and support the university‘s efforts in the community. When the final plan was approved by the Board of Trustees in May, 2004, our focus on the metropolitan region (which for the Chester campus was defined as the Greater Philadelphia metropolitan area) was concentrated on three critical areas: community development, economic development and enhancing educational opportunities for children, with a special emphasis on the city of Chester. While everyone that participated in the planning process shared a common belief that Widener had the potential to achieve new levels of distinction academically, it was clear that most Chester community leaders were skeptical that Widener had the ability to lead or even participate in a meaningful way in a renaissance in the city. It was also evident that few thought Widener had the fortitude to take on some of the toughest issues, especially those dealing with economic development and the Chester-Upland School district.

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DEVELOPING MEANINGFUL COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS Prior to my arrival at Widener, a small group of faculty had been meeting to discuss the exciting pedagogical approach to teaching commonly referred to as service learning. This group included faculty from a few of our main campus academic programs who saw the potential benefit of using this approach in Chester. As of 2002, no service-learning courses were being taught at Widener. However, there were courses that mirrored some of the basic tenets of service learning, but no formal structure was in place to support these efforts. In addition to no formal university-wide support for service learning, we discovered that very few of the non-profit agencies in Chester had the infrastructure to sustain University initiatives or to even formally support the work of faculty and students in their organizations. Once we had identified the university as a metropolitan university, we started sending delegations of Widener faculty and staff to the Coalition of Urban and Metropolitan Universities annual conference to discover the best practices nationally on how to engage Chester in mutually beneficial ways. At the first conference, Associate Provost and Dean of the School of Human Service Professions, Stephen Wilhite, learned of a program at another university that created a fund to support community based/service-learning approaches proposed by faculty. We quickly adopted this approach and found funding to create a servicelearning program where faculty would receive release time to create new community-based learning courses and administrative support from the university to implement their ideas. This program, described further in Chapter three of this book, was led by Arlene Dowshen, Professor of Math Education, and Marcine Pickron-Davis, the Special Assistant to the President for Community Engagement. Dr. Dowshen, a tenured faculty member, was the leader of the informal service-learning group, and Dr. Pickron-Davis had just assumed a new position on my senior staff created to help address community issues and identify community partners capable of sustaining mutually beneficial relationships with the university. These two were supported by our new Provost, Jo Allen, who encouraged this new pedagogical approach, and within the first five years, over 60 new community-based courses were in the curriculum, and over 1000 students had participated in a semester long academic experience in Chester. We quickly realized that in addition to finding organizations that could support our work in Chester, we needed to work closely with our neighbors to address the lack of grass roots leadership in the communities directly adjacent to the university. In these neighborhoods the residents faced the same urban issues that the rest of city experienced; but, in addition, they felt the university was not actively engaged with its own students who lived in the community and who at times were not good citizens. This led to the university‘s creation of the Sun-Hill Task Force, which provided a forum for local citizens and the university to work together to identify and solve issues of mutual concern. We also used this forum to identify citizens who had potential to be liaisons to the university and the city and provided a small group of these individuals with leadership training. As Widener began to demonstrate its commitment to the community, we discovered opportunities to work with new partners in ways we had not originally considered.

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ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT As the university continued its planning process, we asked each college, school and administrative unit to develop its own strategic plan with the caveat that all plans be consistent with the university‘s vision. At first, some units were reluctant to move in such a direction, and the first efforts were half-hearted at best. However, a few schools and administrative units embraced this opportunity and created remarkable new approaches to express our new university mission. Over the years, once all plans were directly tied to the budgeting process, more units received the message that no new funding would be forthcoming from the university unless the unit plans were tied to the new mission. One great example of how this worked was within the School of Business Administration. Once the school formally identified its intention to be more actively involved in the community, its faculty identified new opportunities to form partnership that were mutually beneficial. For years, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania had sponsored a program that created small business development centers throughout the state. Most of these were associated with colleges and university business schools that typically provided a match of inkind services. Widener lobbied the state for support of such a program in Chester and after a few years was successful in its bid. Within the first two years of operations, the Delaware County Small Business Development Center, sponsored by the Widener University School of Business Administration, had worked with dozens of entrepreneurs in the county to bring new business ideas to fruition and stimulate the economy in Chester and the entire county. Likewise, the university‘s School of Engineering partnered with another university in the area, the city of Chester and other economic development groups to create a Keystone Innovation Zone. Keystone Innovation Zones were established by the state to provide grant funds to community/university partnerships to generate job growth through technology transfer and entrepreneurship. Very quickly Widener was emerging as a player in economic development in the region, and several other opportunities evolved. The first was the creation of a deeper relationship with the Crozer-Keystone Medical Center located just blocks from our campus. Although most of the Medical Center sits in Upland Township rather than the city of Chester, it is the single largest employer of Chester residents, and it too faced many of the same community relations issues as Widener. Over several years, this partnership has grown to the point where Crozer and Widener are equal partners in several ventures that should have significant impact on the community for years to come. For example, when Widener created a partnership with a local firm using Widener property to establish a new hotel, convenience store and other amenities for the neighborhood, Crozer made its own commitment to a regional bank to ensure that a branch would be developed in this new center. What made this project even more special is that the property was returned to the city for tax purposes, creating new revenue for the city and the troubled school district. It was the first time in the city‘s history that a university willingly converted land that was once tax-exempt back to taxable property, and many believe that this is one of the few examples nationally of such a move by a university to support its surrounding community. In addition, Crozer and Widener partnered to place a new police substation in this new center and committed resources to the city to hire two new police officers to patrol the neighborhood.

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ENGAGING THE CHESTER-UPLAND SCHOOL DISTRICT By 2002, the Chester Upland School District served a total enrollment of slightly under 5000 students from kindergarten through 12th grade. In 1994, CUSD was identified by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as the worst-performing school district in the state, ranking 501 out of 501 on state-wide standardized testing. Its multimillion dollar budget deficit coupled with the poor performance by students led to a state take over of the district. The district remained under the administrative oversight of an appointed Control Board until 2007 when a new state-appointed Empowerment Board was put in place in the face of continued poor fiscal management and lack of achievement of students. For example, in 2006-07 only 9% of all 11th grade students passed the state-wide proficiency test in language arts and only 3% passed the math proficiency test (Chester Upland Schools, 2008). From the moment of my arrival, one of the top concerns I heard from almost every constituent group was the Chester-Upland School District and Widener‘s apparent lack of interest in helping the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania‘s worst school district. Elected officials and representatives from economic development organizations would tell me that the city would never overcome its troubles until it had a better school system that would attract new families and businesses to the city. Local citizens and parents were justifiably concerned about the welfare of the children of Chester, and many non-profit agencies in the city had mounted efforts offering tutoring or mentoring programs for children to address this concern but with no discernable results. In all fairness to Widener, the university had attempted in its own way to be involved with the district on several occasions, but it seemed that each time Widener would get involved, a change would occur in the district that would disrupt our efforts. One primary reason was that during the previous decade, the school district had suffered from inconsistency in board leadership as well as in the position of superintendent, with eight different people serving in that role. This created a lack of confidence among our faculty that they could be involved with the school district in a meaningful way. In my discussions with national and local foundations, corporations and individual philanthropists, I found a sympathetic but reluctant audience. Practically all of the major philanthropic organizations I spoke to had supported some initiative in Chester in the past decade; but, without exception, they all walked away from the experience convinced that the funding had not been effectively used and were, therefore, reluctant to fund any new projects with the school district. It was clear that, if Widener wanted to pursue a new arrangement with the Chester-Upland School District, it would be on its own. After several frustrating years of attempting to find a new model for community schooling that would work in Chester, the university proposed a radical new approach – create the first university-sponsored charter school in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. In the beginning, our proposal was dismissed as a bad idea by a few community leaders who characterized our efforts as an attempt to take money out of the state‘s most troubled district. One community leader who had made a significant financial contribution to the university to help with its outreach efforts severed his ties to Widener stating that we had ―lost the moral high ground by moving in this direction.‖ On the other hand, several parents and local elected officials in the community applauded this new approach; and, after several months of heated debate in public hearings, Widener was granted a charter to create the Widener Partnership Charter School serving children from kindergarten through fifth grade.

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As part of our planning process, we decided our charter school would be a not-for-profit entity and that we would seek private funding to support our efforts and supplement the state funding we would receive. We decided on an elementary school model because it played to our strength and expertise within Widener‘s Center for Education. We informed the district that we would place a cap on our enrollment at 300 students, starting with 100 students in kindergarten and 1st grade and adding a new cohort of 50 kindergarteners over the following four years. We proposed this cap in order to allow the district to plan adequately for these enrollment changes and to address the issue with the existing charters in the district that accepted as many students as they could enroll. We also decided to create a charter school that would accept children from throughout Chester by lottery; and, as a public charter school, we had to plan for enrolling students for whom English was a second language as well as children with special needs. We also decided that we would strive to have all of our teachers state-certified and that the salaries we offered would be competitive to attract well qualified candidates. The mission of the Widener Partnership Charter School was crafted to mirror the university‘s mission. The charter school‘s mission statement emphasizes developing urban elementary students with the behaviors, task commitment and creativity to succeed in an ever changing world. It also stresses the importance of preparing students to be citizens of character who can contribute to the vitality and well-being of the region. The end result was a community school that serves a broadly diverse group of students whose composition is representative of the rest of the district. Within this book there are several references to the public school system in Chester, as well as a more in depth look at the Widener Partnership Charter School. Therefore, in this chapter, I have only introduced the topic of the formation of the school, and I have attempted to put the school‘s creation in the context of the development of a culture of civic engagement at Widener. It is important to note, however, that at the time of the first PSSA standardized tests for the third grade class of the Widener Partnership Charter School that the children outperformed every other school in the district and exceeded the standards set by the federal ―No Child Left Behind‖ legislation.

CONCLUSION Over the years, Widener has grown from an institution that was focused on survival to a mission-driven metropolitan university. In the 2007 report to the Middle State Commission on Higher Education, Widener was congratulated by the visiting team for ―its efforts to link planning with budgeting, decision making, assessment and institutional renewal‖ (Gilmour, Johnson, Jones, Lennox, & Van Wyk, 2007, p. 5), and the report noted that it was evident that Widener‘s budget and planning process was ―markedly more consultative and decentralized than the one that was in place only a few years ago‖ (Gilmour, et al., 2007, p. 6). The visiting team also applauded Widener for the care and attention it has taken to coordinate its planning with a broad range of constituents in the process of adopting its new mission and vision. Over the past few years the University has received national recognition for its work in Chester and the other communities it serves and has become a model for civic engagement. It was one of the first 100 universities in the country to receive the Carnegie Foundation for the

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Advancement for Teaching designation as a ―civically engaged university,‖ it has been asked to join several national civic engagement initiatives including being one of only 26 schools that are part of Project Pericles and has been ranked for the past five years in the top 100 universities in the country that do the most for our nation by the Washington Monthly Magazine. Our endowment has more than doubled, philanthropic giving to the University has reached record levels and by the fall of 2009 Widener had the largest undergraduate enrollment in its history. It is clear that Widener University‘s commitment to civic engagement has changed the institution for the better. This would not have been possible without the hard work and dedication of an incredibly energetic and creative faculty, a supportive Board of Trustees, and incredible community partners who encouraged a university to fulfill its promise.

REFERENCES Chester, Pennsylvania. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.city-data.com/city/ChesterPennsylvania.html Chester Upland schools: State failed students. (2008, April 29). The Philadelphia Inquirer, p. A10. Colby, A., Ehrlich, T., Beaumont, E., & Stephens, J. (2003). Educating citizens: Preparing America‘s undergraduates for lives of moral and civic responsibility. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gilmour, J. E., Johnson, M., Jones, K. F., Lennox, P., & Van Wyk, C. (2007). Report to the faculty, administration, trustees and students of Widener University by an evaluation team representing the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. Philadelphia: Middle States Commission on Higher Education. Semega, J. (2009). Median household income for states: 2007 and 2008 American community surveys. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Silver, P.T., Poulin, J. E., & Wilhite, S.C. (2006). From rogue program to poster child: A department‘s shaping of a university‘s mission. In K. Kecskes (Ed.), Engaging departments: Moving faculty culture from private to public, individual to collective focus for the common good (pp. 45-62) . Boston: Anker Publishing. U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). United States census 2000. Washington, DC.: Author. Widener University. (2004). Strategic plan. Chester, PA: Author. Widener University. (2006). Middle States Association self-study. Chester, PA: Author.

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

HOW CAN I HELP? THE SEDUCTION OF SERVICE LEARNING Jo Allen Widener University; Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Service learning can be seductive. This chapter addresses some of the reasons why faculty members may not choose to become involved with service learning and some of the assumptions that must be examined in order to establish a meaningful and educationally enriching program. The author concludes that effective teaching and assessment of desired outcomes must be achieved in order to be able to communicate the values of service learning to the broader community.

INTRODUCTION The rise and expansion of service learning in American colleges and universities attests to a new wave of interest in reconnecting higher education‘s original mission – to better serve humanity – to the contemporary reality that many of our institutions have neglected that role. The growth of service learning also points to substantial research demonstrating that active and experiential learning pedagogies lead to deeper learning, more engaged students, and higher rates of satisfaction among students and faculty with the educational experience. [See, for example, Astin, Sax, & Avalos (1999); Berson & Younkin (1998); and Strage (2000).] As just one common measure, the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) surveys students about their experiences, directly chronicling their participation in effective educational practices, including active learning, as benchmarked against peer and all institutions. The preponderance of evidence leaves little doubt that service learning provides powerful opportunities for students to connect their in-class learning with community-based contexts, leading them to analyze problems more deeply, develop and test a broader range of solutions, and ground the power of their learning experience in the contexts of real human

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beings who are actually facing those issues. [For a summary of research, see Pascarella & Terenzini (2005).] So, why isn‘t everybody doing service learning? And why do some faculty who have done service learning turn away from it? In this chapter, I want to explore some assumptions that might be casually overlooked when trying to build a sustainable service-learning program. Borne of my own experiences as a faculty member and administrator, in collaboration with other faculty, I would suggest that these assumptions be carefully scrutinized and recognized for their potential to derail a program as it is being established or enhanced.

1. EVERY COMMUNITY AGENCY WILL WELCOME THE INSTITUTION’S STUDENTS OFFERING SUPPORT With so many community agencies suffering budget cutbacks and with many agents seriously overworked, it is tempting to believe that any agency would leap at the chance to have more help. Many agencies, however, feel a serious mismatch between college students (especially traditional age college students) and their clients -- whether because of age, ―real world experience,‖ maturity, or the perception of wealth and privilege that is often attached to college students, regardless of their true situation. And students who enter a service-learning environment as an opportunity to do charity work or who have little idea of the complexities of the environment may do grave damage to the agency and its clientele. In short, college students can sometimes create more work for agency personnel who feel they must orient and, in fact, teach the students a great deal before the students can be useful participants in the agency‘s work.

2. EVERY COMMUNITY AGENCY KNOWS HOW TO SUPPORT STUDENTS IN SERVICE-LEARNING CLASSES As many faculty members know, working with students outside the classroom on special projects (e.g., research, administrative tasks, etc.) is quite unlike working with students inside or outside the classroom on curricular matters. Developing a true plan of work for work study students or for undergraduate or graduate researchers, for instance, requires understanding the students‘ goals as well as being able to articulate, both short- and long-range needs for a particular project. A faculty member who is feeling overwhelmed by her research agenda and publication schedule may desperately seek student aid, only to discover that the amount of time it takes to explain what is expected of the student (and sometimes even train that student) may be more time-consuming than doing the work herself. Similarly, the unfortunate truth is that many community agents really do not know how to work with college students. Misunderstandings or ignorance about students‘ emotional, intellectual, and developmental status can lead to inflated expectations about their abilities to perform as fully operating professionals or, conversely, to limited expectations about their abilities to do much more than ―gopher‖ work. Getting the working assignments just right

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requires extensive work with the faculty who must help community agents understand where students are in their development. Other factors can also weigh in on the complications -- matters such as confidentiality, personal safety, facilities and equipment security, risk management, and so on. Depending on the agency, for instance, a well-intentioned student may believe he is offering empathy and sound advice for a service recipient, only to do untold damage because he is unaware of the person‘s history, proclivities, and challenges that may be confidential. Putting students in settings and situations where they can do no damage is tempting, but those contexts are probably also the least satisfactory sites in terms of student interest and learning. The very carefully crafted context, therefore, requires the faculty member and the agency representatives to screen for dangers and obstacles while creating the best learning experience possible, returning over and over to review the situational elements and the students‘ responses to them.

3. EVERY FACULTY MEMBER CAN READILY CONNECT HER CLASSROOM AND SERVICE-LEARNING LESSONS How students learn has long been a core research pursuit for faculty, including educators, neuroscientists, psychologists, and others. The connection between instruction and experience is becoming clearer to us, thanks to fascinating research from all these fields, but that does not mean that all faculty have necessarily done their due diligence in understanding that connection. Consequently, making those links work is sometimes more difficult than is, on the surface, obvious. First, faculty members have to determine the suitability of their classroom lessons for service-learning environments. For instance, is the community a good place to explore geometric functions? Perhaps -- perhaps not. The answer has to do with the ways in which geometric functions might actually hold some community-based meaning. I am impressed, for instance, with the work that two of our faculty, Drs. Marina Barnett (social work) and Chad Freed (environmental science), who have collaborated to develop a service-learning course that uses global positioning instrumentation to map the assets of Chester, PA, home of Widener University. The results have been presented as a series of concentric circles that provide a unique view of where populations and resources do and do not overlap in our city. Long-held beliefs, for instance, about where the wealthy or where certain races and ethnicities reside have been discounted; and the identification of areas where resources such as grocery stores, schools, police substations, and other assets are unavailable leads to great class discussions about politics, economies, and development opportunities. And the conversation can change with the expansion or diminution of the circles (i.e., reducing or enlarging the radius). In short, the geometry of the exercise is critical to the research and analysis; equally important, perhaps, is that the work provides direct evidence contradicting the student who insists that she will never have to use math in her job -- that even as a social worker or politician, a student may indeed have to know math in her work as a professional. It should be clear that such work is, indeed, work, and requires great effort for the faculty to re-envision their disciplinary lessons to include a viable service component, and some

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disciplines may not be as suitable for service learning as others. For institutions in rural heartlands, for instance, foreign language courses might provide a difficult forum for service learning, if no native speakers of that language reside nearby. For those institutions in larger cities, of course, more opportunities would likely exist. Being creative in using technology, field trips, or other resources to provide a foundation for a service experience may be required.

4. BECAUSE ―OUTSIDERS‖ HELP BUILD THE CURRICULUM, FACULTY SPEND LESS TIME IN SERVICE-LEARNING COURSES I can say that in my more than ten years of being involved in establishing, supporting, and assessing various aspects of service learning, I have never heard a faculty member say that s/he spent less time using this pedagogy. This is hardly surprising. Cultivating community partners, revising a course, establishing boundaries for students and agencies, and evaluating the experiences all take a great toll on faculty time. It is little wonder that some faculty, even those who see the value in service learning, turn away from the pedagogy because of the time required. Further, the kind of help that others give faculty in establishing and implementing service learning may or may not actually build the curriculum. Most often, their contributions are about access and context -- not about lessons, reflections, and evaluations. Indeed, most faculty would firmly resist abdicating their role as the disciplinary expert on the scholarly content and context serving as the foundation of the service experience.

5. STUDENTS WILL APPRECIATE SERVICE LEARNING BECAUSE IT’S TIME AWAY FROM CLASSROOMS AND LECTURES From their prior education, students have been conditioned for specific expectations of what a class will be, and the first experience with service learning can be disorienting. Although students typically value hands-on experiences and active learning opportunities far more than lectures that sometimes defy their engagement, service learning can be a challenge as students often have to negotiate the time and transportation to get to and from a servicelearning site. In addition, students realize they still have to learn textbook materials for tests and projects, in addition to the actual service experiences and reflections required. As such, the service component of a service-learning course can feel burdensome to them. Further, some students may not be developmentally or morally conditioned for the learning that service experiences can provide. Students who know they are ―supposed‖ to feel differently about their learning from their service experience, of course, certainly know what to say to teachers and will play along for the sake of a grade; those who are either unaware of the social dynamic between student and teacher or who are simply indignant about helping others in this (or any other) context, however, can be surprisingly vocal about their resistance to participating in the experience. Faculty have sometimes received poor evaluations from students who feel the faculty member has somehow abdicated his responsibility by taking the students outside the classroom (e.g., ―the faculty member rarely lectured,‖ ―the faculty

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member made us do touchy-feely reflections,‖ or ―the faculty member expected way too much work‖). Key to offering a service-learning experience is guiding the students‘ expectations and helping them shape their time management decisions. For students who have not participated in a service-learning course, for instance, a peer mentor may be highly valuable as the course and service experience progress.

6. SERVICE-LEARNING OUTCOMES ARE READILY ASSESSED As difficult as it may be to assess student learning outcomes, the ability to assess both learning and emotional development, which are often two of the goals of service-learning programs, is doubly difficult. We know that deep learning results from pedagogies that focus on the development of thinking (e.g., problem solving, inquiry, critical thinking) as opposed to the memorization of facts and figures. Therefore, using well-designed service-learning courses to promote deep learning seems a natural fit because the context is visible -- there is a real person, place, and situation at hand. Both learning and emotional development, however, take time. As profoundly as some students will be touched by their service-learning experience, which may result in deep learning, it is nonetheless easier to measure their satisfaction with the experience than their true learning, which explains why so many evaluation instruments, as opposed to true assessment instruments, measure satisfaction. That does not mean, however, that we should not continue to work on our assessment of service learning. We need to continue research on intellectual and cognitive development, as well as long-term retention of knowledge resulting from service-learning approaches. (See, for instance, the work of Batchelder & Root, 1994; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Eyler, Giles, Lynch & Gray, 1997; and Eyler, Giles, Root, & Price, 1997). We also need to carefully consider how we define and measure emotional development, taking care not to resort to mirroring emotional responses (i.e., do you feel this as profoundly as I do?) but instead using the results of research to examine the particular aspects of emotional development -- self-efficacy, empathy, peer relations, etc. -- that may be nurtured in our students.

7. ONCE FACULTY HAVE DONE SERVICE LEARNING A TIME OR TWO, THEY DON’T NEED ANY ADDITIONAL SUPPORT Unlike the development of lectures, which conscientious faculty members still spend time updating each semester, offering service-learning courses requires significant ongoing and committed attention. Like the movie 50 First Dates, service-learning courses often feel like start-up courses every semester. It is not that faculty don‘t use the experiences of last semester‘s service-learning course to plan and develop the next semester‘s course; it is simply that the real-life, real-time, human situations in which they are placing their students have the fluidity of context that is always challenging: new people, new policies, or deteriorating conditions all alter the ―puzzle‖ of the learning experience. Faculty must not only update whatever lecture component they include for introducing topics and then promoting classroom discussions, but they must also vigilantly monitor the

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quality of the service experience and subsequent reflections. Being ―in the act‖ of service, especially in a problem-solving mode with real people and real situations, offers all sorts of obstacles and opportunities to go awry. Students get distracted and disengage, or they get overly engaged and disrupt processes, lines of authority, and time-commitments. With the very best (or worst) of intentions, students can cross lines, and it is the faculty member‘s responsibility to teach boundary setting as a critical skill in any form of engagement. In all this work and with all this responsibility, faculty often need guidance themselves. An experienced service-learning administrator at whatever level in the institution is critical for answering questions or directing faculty to institutional or community resources that might be helpful. Even knowing at what point to engage legal counsel, government agencies, police, medical personnel, or any of a number of others is a special problem-solving skill that sometimes requires sophisticated consultations and discernment. Just as students should not be abandoned to a service-learning experience to see what they learn, neither should faculty. As the adage goes, ―the road to hell is paved with good intentions.‖

CONCLUSION Ultimately, and sadly, the key assumption that may still derail a service-learning program is the one made about the quality of teaching and learning, as well as the quality of the faculty themselves who are engaged in service learning. Service learning certainly went through some painful early years as faculty tried to defend the methodology as a legitimate intellectual pursuit, with others casting aspersions that we were having students ―sweep the front porches‖ in the communities. Fortunately, some really strong research is providing what many service-learning faculty have felt for so long: service learning is an effective pedagogy for promoting learning and emotional development (Pascarella & Terrenzini, 2005). While I certainly understand and applaud a faculty member‘s commitment to keeping abreast of her discipline‘s state-of-the-art knowledge, it is also important that faculty become aware of such educational research results. Creating campus forums or study groups for discussions of such results, especially about evidence of how and why students actually learn, is a critical need on many college campuses. Today, the resistance to service learning, even when the time commitment can be managed, is likely to be whether and how the institution recognizes the pedagogy and any related publications (even those that are peer reviewed) in tenure and promotion practices. Increasingly, forums and organizations that promote service learning (e.g., Campus Compact) as well as those that provide a forum for chief academic officers and deans to discuss current issues (e.g., ACE Chief Academic Officers Institute, the Council of Independent Colleges‘ Chief Academic Officers Institute, and various institutes and workshops for department chairs) are fostering examination of institutional practices and policies in faculty handbooks to ensure that research on service learning (as well as other pedagogies) is accepted as evidence of the person‘s suitability for promotion and tenure. Equally promising is the use of Ernest Boyer‘s Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate (1990) and other works to drive conversations about the variety of ways that faculty can contribute to a scholarly body of knowledge, including publishing research on teaching strategies within their disciplines.

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The final caution of this tale of seduction is that we be explicit about the reasons we engage in service learning, the resources required for doing it well, and the results for our students‘ education. It is no secret that we live in a time when the public is increasingly vocal -- and even sometimes hostile -- about higher education‘s practices and results. As a result, we must attend consciously and consistently to providing evidence of desired outcomes. It is tempting (ah, the nature of seduction) to believe that this pedagogy is inevitable -- that based on the research we have at hand, we simply must engage in service learning as an effective way to promote student learning. But, if we have not even done a good job educating each other about the research on service learning, think how easy it would be for the public to believe any or all of what some might propose to be the ―seven deadly sins‖ of service learning. Proactive and frequent communication with our many constituencies about the evidence we have that higher education promotes both student learning and the communities‘ well-being will take us a long way toward retaining the goodwill that most Americans rightfully feel about our colleges and universities.

REFERENCES Astin, A., Sax, L., & Avalos, J. (1999). Long-term effects of volunteerism during the undergraduate years. Review of Higher Education, 22, 187-202. Batchelder, T., & Root, S. (1994). Effects of an undergraduate program to integrate academic learning and service: Cognitive, prosocial cognitive, and identity outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 17, 341-355. Berson, J., & Younkin, W. (1998, November). Doing well by doing good: A study of the effects of a service-learning experience on student success. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Miami, FL. Boyer, E. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. New York: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Eyler, J., & Giles, D. (1999). Where’s the learning in service learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Eyler, J., Giles, D., Lynch, C., & Gray, C. (1997, March). Service learning and the development of reflective judgment. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. Eyler, J., Giles, D., Root, S., & Price, J. (1997, March). Service learning and the development of expert citizens. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. Pascarella, E., & Terenzini, P. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Strage, A. (2000, April). Service learning as a tool for enhancing student outcomes in a college-level lecture course. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans LA.

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

FACULTY MOTIVATION, VITALITY, AND PROFESSIONAL GROWTH: THE INGREDIENTS EMBEDDED IN A SERVICE-LEARNING FACULTY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM Arlene Dowshen and Marcine Pickron-Davis Widener University; Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Renewed concerns regarding faculty motivation, vitality, and professional growth have prompted higher education institutions across the United States to sharpen their focus on service-learning as innovative pedagogy and an avenue to engagement. (Bowen & Kiser, 2009). In what ways can higher education assume leadership in promoting pedagogical innovation and civic engagement? This chapter will focus on the Academic Service-Learning Faculty Development Program (ASLFDP) at Widener University, an innovative initiative created in fall 2004, to fulfill the university's mission to combine academic excellence with civic and social responsibility. The program provides faculty with resources, time, and experiences that enable them to develop a course with a servicelearning component. The chapter presents an analysis of data gleaned from oral and written surveys from the faculty fellows on the impact of the ASLDP on their pedagogical and community engagement practices.

INTRODUCTION Studies of faculty motivation to participate in service learning have found that it is most often related to the desire to improve student learning, enhance curriculum, provide service to their community, and encourage students to personally value engagement in the life of their community (Forbes, Wasburn, Crispo, & Vandeveer, 2008). In this chapter, we present findings from evaluations, faculty surveys, and interviews that describe factors which influence faculty motivation to teach service learning at an urban metropolitan university like

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Widener. Although an increasing number of U.S. universities have established servicelearning faculty fellows programs, very little is known about the outcomes or effectiveness of these programs (Bowen & Kiser, 2009). Additionally, the studies published about servicelearning faculty fellows programs have been limited to research and comprehensive universities. Driscoll (2000) argues the need for furthering the research on faculty involvement in service learning and offers a proposed framework for inquiry. Using this framework, this chapter aims to examine the impact of Widener‘s Academic ServiceLearning Faculty Development Program (ASLFDP) on: faculty motivation; pedagogical practices; satisfactions reported by faculty; supports needed by service-learning faculty fellows; and the difficulties, obstacles, and challenges faced by faculty engaged in service learning.

PROGRAM DESCRIPTION The ASLFDP at Widener University was initiated in the fall 2004 semester. The program, modeled after a program at Eastern Michigan University (Stacey, Rice, & Langer, 2001), was intended to provide faculty with resources and experiences that would enable them to do one of the following: convert a traditional course to an academic service-learning course; modify and enrich a course that was already being offered with an academic servicelearning component; or develop a new course employing an academic service-learning methodology. The development and enhancement of courses with academic service-learning experiences cohere with the university‘s commitment to creating a learning environment where curricula are connected to societal issues through civic engagement. In addition, expanding the number and quality of academic service-learning courses offered would contribute to the attainment of strategic goals and objectives that derive from the university‘s commitment to civic engagement through experiential learning (Widener University, 2004). Initially, the program was a two-semester experience involving a cohort of seven to ten faculty members selected for participation through a competitive application process. Those faculty selected to participate in the program received a one-course release from teaching for each of the two semesters of the program. During the first semester the faculty fellows participated in two-hour weekly seminars designed to provide them an opportunity to explore in depth issues associated with service learning and to develop specific plans for offering an academic service-learning course the following semester. During the 2004-2005 and 2005-2006 academic years, a new cohort of Faculty Fellows started the program each semester with ten, eight, eight and seven new faculty members participating each semester, respectively. For the next two academic years, a new cohort began only in the spring semester with eight Faculty Fellows in 2007 and five in 2008. Recruiting faculty who could take a course release became more difficult so in the 2008-2009 academic year, we altered the model to accommodate the reality of our faculty members‘ situations. We offered our seminar series to a group of five nursing faculty and one communications studies faculty member over the entire academic year, meeting about once every three weeks over lunch and then meeting for extended time periods during finals week at the end of both semesters. These Faculty Fellows received a stipend in lieu of course

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releases. Although the seminar series was not as intense we feel that we were able to cover the same content and create a cohesive group. During the 2009-2010 academic year, the authors co-facilitated a seminar series with faculty who are interested in infusing service learning into a freshman seminar course. We plan to continue the regular seminar series during the next academic year employing the more recent model used with the nursing faculty. The seminar series was co-facilitated by the authors, Arlene Dowshen, the Coordinator of the Academic Service-Learning Faculty Development Program and Associate Professor of Mathematics Education, and Marcine Pickron-Davis, Assistant to the President for Community Engagement and Diversity Initiatives, and also included presentations by a number of experts in the field and by faculty with direct experience in offering academic service-learning courses. The topics covered in our introductory seminar series have included: defining service learning, student learning outcomes and course goals; identifying components of a service-learning course; designing reflection activities; defining community and developing community partners; addressing diversity issues; preparing students for working in the community; developing a syllabus for a service-learning course; assessing outcomes and research methods grading strategies; and preparing to teach a service-learning course. Readings were assigned for each seminar session, and various resources were distributed to the faculty fellows for each of the topics covered. With each cohort we also included a tour of the city of Chester which was led by an individual knowledgeable about the community‘s social and political history and current needs. To evaluate the impact of this program, at the end of each seminar series an evaluation was distributed to the faculty fellows. After teaching their first service-learning course each faculty fellow completed a faculty survey. Finally, two years after starting the program each faculty fellow was interviewed by the authors. Funds have also been available for the faculty fellows to attend conferences and for resources that they might need for teaching their service-learning courses.

FACULTY FELLOWS Since the inception of the ASLFDP, 52 faculty members (35 females and 17 males) at varying stages in their academic careers and representing disciplines from all six colleges on the university‘s Chester campus developed and taught curricular engagement courses. A total of 45 participants were full-time tenure-track and seven were non-tenure-track with teaching experiences ranging from 3-35 years. Although six faculty members have left the university, the remaining 46 faculty fellows represent 15% of the full- time faculty (tenure track and nontenure track) for the 2009-2010 academic year. Two faculty members participated in the introductory seminar series but did not receive course releases and have not taught a servicelearning course due to administrative duties. Since spring 2005, over 80 different servicelearning courses have been taught by the faculty fellows; some courses have only been taught once, but others are offered on a regular basis and courses were taught at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. As shown in Table 1, the academic fields represented include: hospitality management, engineering, business administration, social work, clinical psychology, nursing, English, communications studies, computer science, women‘s studies,

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sociology, criminal justice, modern language, and art history and music. For the majority of the faculty fellows, their first experience teaching service learning occurred after completing the faculty development seminar series. Table 1. Academic Fields of Faculty Fellows College/School & Discipline Arts & Sciences Art History Biology Chemistry Communication Studies Computer Science Criminal Justice English Environmental Studies Modern Language Music History Psychology Sociology Business/Management Business Law Economics Management Management Information Systems Engineering Hospitality Management Human Service Professions Education Social Work Clinical Psychology Nursing Grand Total

Number of Faculty

Total Number for College/School 25

1 1 1 3 3 1 3 3 2 1 3 3 5 1 1 2 1 1 2 5 3 1 10 52

1 2 9

10

METHODOLOGY To understand and document the effectiveness of the service-learning faculty development program in preparing faculty fellows to teach service learning, we created a post-seminar evaluation. The evaluation was administered to participants following their completion of the seminar and explores aspects of the seminar that added value to course development, degree of confidence in teaching service learning, anticipated challenges, supports needed, and recommendations for program improvement. We collected and analyzed the data for 46 participants from spring 2005 to spring 2009. Second, we designed a faculty survey to gather data on the faculty fellows‘ experiences after teaching their service-learning course. Copies of the survey were emailed to the faculty

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fellows and included a mix of Likert-style scale items (respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement) and both quantitative and qualitative questions. The quantitative data revealed: years of higher education teaching experiences, number of service-learning courses taught, the academic level of students in service-learning courses taught, and knowledge about the principles of good practice in service learning. The qualitative data informed us about the challenges of teaching and instruction with the integration of service learning, student learning outcomes, and feedback about supports needed to continue teaching service learning. Of the 52 participants, 33 faculty fellows completed the survey. Finally we conducted faculty interviews with each faculty fellow two years after he or she started the program. In the spirit of reflection, we were interested in offering a structured opportunity for each fellow to discuss his or her experiences with our service-learning faculty development program and with teaching a service-learning course. A list of questions was distributed to each faculty fellow prior to the interview to guide the discussion. The questions included a request for information about accomplishments in the area of service learning, motivation for continuing to teach a service-learning course, challenges or obstacles faced, resources needed, and impact on teaching practices. To date, 31 faculty fellows have been interviewed.

MAJOR FINDINGS: PROGRAM IMPACT In this section, we present the findings about the impact of the Academic ServiceLearning Faculty Development Program on the faculty fellows‘ professional development, pedagogical practices, and motivation.

POST-SEMINAR EVALUATIONS We begin first with a summary of the data from an evaluation we disseminate to the faculty fellows at the end of the ASLFDP seminar series. We asked the fellows to provide feedback on: (1) aspects of the ASLFDP that were most valuable; (2) recommendations for program improvements; (3) anticipated challenges teaching service learning; (4) supports needed; and (5) changes in perceptions about service learning. More than of the faculty fellows reported that the opportunity to interact with other faculty members across disciplines added value to the seminar. In their study conducted on the influence of a service-learning faculty fellows program at two comprehensive universities, Bowen and Kiser (2009) observed that the collaborative relationships and sense of community proved crucial to their professional development. Their findings are consistent with the experiences shared by our faculty fellows that collaboration promotes a ―community of scholars.‖ Other research reveals that the integration of service learning varies by discipline and type of engagement activity (Wade & Demb, 2009). Participants appreciated the diversity of disciplines represented in each seminar and learning about the creative strategies faculty members were integrating in their respective courses. Because faculty members in the helping professions such as education, nursing, and social work are more likely to engage in service-oriented activities, the seminar facilitated atypical and robust

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conversations among those faculty fellows and those from other disciplines, such as social science, engineering or others. Regarding confidence to teach a course with a service-learning component, the majority of the faculty fellows indicated the seminar enhanced their level of preparedness. Sixty-five percent reported feeling very or well prepared after participating in the seminar. According to Bowen and Kiser‘s (2009) research on service-learning faculty fellows programs, gives evidence that through the creation of knowledge- and skill-development activities systematically designed and delivered, faculty members will become competent servicelearning practitioners. The findings suggest that the seminar also contributed to the growth and development of those faculty fellows who already had some experience in teaching service-learning courses. One of the fellows responded: ―I am already teaching a service-learning course, but I feel more comfortable in assessing students and encouraging reflections – as well as conducting research into the problems affecting the community.‖ Another participant observed: ―I‘ve been teaching Introduction to Nursing so this was a huge help and clarified the principles of service learning for me – I no longer feel like the ―imposter‖ teaching service learning.‖ Research about the challenges faculty members experience teaching service learning confirm that, ―the two strongest potential deterrents‖ to continuing service-learning efforts appear to be that ―service-learning courses are time-intensive‖ and therefore cut into time for other professional responsibilities and ―difficulty coordinating the community service component of the course.‖ (as cited in Forbes, et al.., 2008, p. 32). Our faculty fellows cited logistical issues with students‘ schedules, transportation, identifying community partners, and the time commitment of teaching service learning as anticipated challenges for them. A recurring theme in our data was participants‘ concerns about finding the time required to develop, sustain, and work effectively with community partners. Common phrases included:   

The identification and working with community partners is the greatest challenge. A challenge will be matching/finding out about the needs of the community partner and how this would work with the needs of the course. The biggest challenge will be setting up appropriate partners and in getting everybody on the same page.

In a qualitative study conducted about the experiences of community partners and service learning, one of the most important issues identified by community organizations is that for service learning to be successful, finding effective ways to build relationships and communicate with faculty members is essential (Tyron, Hilgendorf, & Scott, 2009). As part of the faculty development seminar, we devote a session to ―Establishing and Sustaining Effective Community Partnerships‖ facilitated by an external consultant whose expertise is on collaborative approaches to community partnerships. The importance of frequent and ongoing communication, establishing mutual outcomes, reciprocity, and assessment is presented as fundamental to establishing effective partnerships. In addition, faculty fellows are encouraged to involve community partners in the development of student learning outcomes, to extend invitations to partners to visit classes, and to maintain ongoing communication with community partners.

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Another anticipated challenge identified by the faculty fellows in teaching service learning is ―working in a tight time frame‖ and ―not enough time to do everything that is intended at the quality level that one would like.‖ Service learning requires a substantial investment of time, and faculty members often have competing demands on their time. (Bowen & Kiser, 2009). Despite the expected time constraints articulated by the fellows, they acknowledged the significance of linking service learning in their teaching practices. Several fellows agreed that their motivation for teaching service-learning courses was the possible enhanced level of student engagement with the curriculum. Accordingly, Forbes, et al.., (2008) describe faculty members motivation to teach service learning as influenced by the desire to: improve student learning; enhance curriculum; provide service to their community; and encourage students to personally value engagement in the life of their community. When asked about supports they would need to teach a service-learning course, the faculty fellows underscored the availability of the seminar facilitators to address questions and/or concerns as well as access to the resource library as key to their continued motivation. One fellow noted: ―Continue to offer advice as problems arise.‖ Others requested continued financial support and frequent updates on service-learning professional development opportunities and conferences. These supports are identified in the literature as facilitating the institutionalization of service learning. In their case study about faculty members motivation to teach service learning, Forbes, et. al, (2008, p. 33) conclude that ―the success of service learning seems dependent upon how well it is institutionalized and how faculty members adopt and implement it.‖ According to the literature, enhancing the campus institutionalization of service learning requires both tangible and symbolic rewards such as: faculty development; program funding; support from department heads; transportation for students to sites; release time; formal awards and recognition; and consideration for promotion and tenure. Many faculty fellows credited the ASLFD program for reconceptualizing their teaching practices by assisting them with ―developing clearer connections to link service-learning activities with academic coursework.‖ Others described gaining a better understanding about the value of reflection in enhancing student learning. During the seminar, the faculty fellows are introduced to various approaches on the integration of reflection by an invited speaker. They learn that ―the ultimate goal of reflection in service learning is to help students explore and express what they are learning through their service experiences so that both the learning and the service are enhanced‖ (Ash & Clayton, 2004, p. 139). Several faculty fellows acknowledged a shift in their perspective about ―service learning‖ vs. ―community service.‖ One fellow noted: ―I always viewed service learning as ‘community service‘ or some form of charity.‖ Others described their experience of the ASLFDP as broadening their view of service learning:   

I have a much better understanding of the philosophy and criteria for servicelearning. …better awareness of the fact that the ‗learning‘ aspect should be as prominent as the ‗service‘ aspect. …did not realize how much a part of service learning is reflection‖

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These comments reveal the authentic engagement of the fellows in the teaching, learning and practice of service learning.

FACULTY MEMBER SURVEYS In this section, we present an analysis of questions pertaining to the ASLFDP from a survey disseminated to faculty fellows after teaching their first service-learning course. Table 2 shows the mean ratings for ten items from a section of the survey, with ratings ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 2. Faculty Member Responses Related to the Faculty Development Program in Service Learning Survey Item Mean Rating 1. I have a basic understanding of the pedagogy of service learning. 2. I know how to design a service-learning course. 3. I understand the process of selecting an appropriate placement site for the servicelearning component of a course. 4. I understand the purpose and techniques of reflection. 5. I understand evaluation/assessment techniques and grading in service learning. 4.06 6. I have a basic understanding of how to develop, implement, and evaluate a Servicelearning activity. 7. I understand the purpose of service learning in higher education. 8. I have learned more about best teaching practices. 9. I have collaborated more with faculty from other departments. 10. I am familiar with the ―Principles of Good Practice‖ for service learning.

4.58 4.47 4.44 4.39 4.30 4.73 4.50 4.45 4.09

The results show that the faculty fellows understand the purpose of service learning in higher education and feel that they have learned more about teaching practices related to service-learning pedagogy and to teaching in general. These results are consistent to those found in other faculty fellows program studies. (Bowen & Kiser, 2009; Hale & Brascia, 2005). Issues related to assessment, reflection, and implementing a service-learning activity had slightly lower means. Table 3 includes some of the survey items related to teaching a service-learning course that were also ranked on the same scale. Table 3. Faculty Member Responses Related to Teaching a Service-Learning Course Survey Item Service learning proved to be a teaching strategy that enhanced my ability to communicate the core competencies of the subject matter I teach. Using service learning required more of my time as a teacher, but it was worth it. I received enough assistance with the mechanics of service learning (identifying placement sites, logistics, etc.). I will use service learning as a teaching strategy with future courses. Service learning helps fulfill our university‘s mission.

Mean Rating 3.97 4.45 4.12 4.33 4.84

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Despite the issue of time constraints, our faculty fellows show a strong commitment to continuing to teach service-learning courses and see this as fulfilling the university‘s mission. They did, however, express a lesser degree of confidence with using service learning to enhance their ability to communicate the core competencies of the subject matter that they teach. Another survey item listed possible challenges encountered when teaching a servicelearning course: time constraints; unpredictable nature of community work; communication with community partners; assessment of student‘s learning; supervision of students; reduced time for classroom instruction; costs; coordination of placements; and other. For the 33 fellows who completed the survey, time constraints, the unpredictable nature of community work, and communication with community partners were the challenges selected most frequently and are consistent with the feedback gleaned from the post-seminar evaluation and the interviews. As one faculty fellow stated, ―…the communication with community partners was the most difficult aspect of the course I taught. I hoped that our students would have more contact with them.‖ Other comments focused on improving the integration of reflection in their courses. One fellow acknowledged: ―I‘m not very good at reflecting.‖ Assessment of student learning, supervision of students, coordination of placements, and reduced time for classroom instruction were ranked by many fellows as major concerns in their teaching practices. Like similar studies on service-learning faculty development programs, (Bowen & Kiser, 2009; Wade & Demb, 2009; Forbes, et al., 2008; Harwood, et al.., 2005; Driscoll, 2000), our findings suggest that faculty member motivation to teach service learning can be impeded by the difficulties, obstacles, and challenges inherent in teaching and public service. When asked to provide recommendations on the resources needed to facilitate successful service-learning experiences, the faculty fellows indicated a continued need for course reductions, funding for professional development, and logistical support. Driscoll (2000, p. 37) concludes that ―…faculty need support for teaching service-learning classes‖ because this pedagogy may be beyond their ―pedagogical familiarity and embodies unpredictability of, and requires oversight for, students‘ community experiences.‖

FACULTY MEMBER INTERVIEWS Two years after starting the program, the ASLFDP faculty fellows have been interviewed by the authors to glean information about the impact over time of teaching service learning on their scholarship and teaching practices, their motivation for continuing to teach a servicelearning course, and the challenges that they face. Overall, our faculty fellows have reported positive experiences with teaching service-learning courses and the ability to adapt to the unpredictable nature of teaching such courses, but they continue to struggle with some of their anticipated challenges. Many of the same themes emerged here that were present in the surveys completed after teaching a service-learning course following the seminar series. A positive impact of service-learning faculty development programs on scholarship and teaching practices has been reported by other studies (Bowen & Kiser, 2009; Harwood, et al.., 2005). Of our 31 faculty fellows interviewed, 8 have had articles accepted for publication or already published, 18 have given presentations on their service-learning work at local, statewide, and national conferences, and 13 have received funding through grants, both internal

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and external, for enhancing their service-learning courses. One of the motivations for teaching service-learning courses expressed by one of our faculty fellows was to broaden the horizons or world view of our typical undergraduate students. For our faculty fellows, participating in our faculty development program and teaching service-learning courses have enhanced their pedagogical practices. These faculty members report moving away from traditional lecture teaching to opening up their classrooms to discussion and reflection. A sentiment often expressed was that despite the obstacles of teaching a service-learning course, the fellows could not now think of teaching this course without the service-learning component. Some comments included: I am a better teacher because I need to stay current, think out of the box, think on my feet, and trust students to be in charge of their own learning. The issue of control was huge; it was hard to let the students be the project managers, but they did rise to the occasion. SL provided an additional positive dimension to my teaching/learning mission, yet consumed tremendous time in the process. I was able to assess student learning in a way I had not been able to before. It has made me more conscious of the need to clearly articulate the very specific criteria on which the students‘ grades will be based.

Some fellows stated that not only have they incorporated new techniques in the teaching of their service-learning courses, but also in other courses they teach; one fellow ―uses reflection in his regular [non-service-learning] … courses‖ and is ―much more conscious about course design.‖ When asked what motivates them to continue teaching service-learning courses, our faculty fellows gave reasons similar to those found in O‘Meara and Niehaus (2009) and Harwood, et al.. (2005). The positive feedback from students is a key motivational factor for our fellows. As one fellow stated about a graduate service-learning course, ―The experiences that students report they are doing with their community partners is evidence that the servicelearning component of this course is valuable… .Students have developed skills in the area of negotiating with community partners… .Other advantages are the networking that goes on, skill building in the area of collaboration, and the preparation for the field experience semester.‖ Service learning seems to add value to even courses that were experiential in nature before faculty members added a service-learning component: ―When students do a service-learning project they seem to be more invested in it than when they do a typical experiential learning experience. They feel that they are doing something worthwhile.‖ As with the other data collected, the interview responses suggested that the greatest challenges that faculty members face when teaching a service-learning course are time constraints and issues related to working with community partners. Some faculty members stated that without a course release they would find it difficult to develop a new servicelearning course and community partnerships. As one fellow stated, ―Challenges have been the coordination of service-learning experiences for large numbers of students across several sections with different instructors. Coordination with the agencies is also difficult at times. It would be helpful to have a person who could do the coordination and update volunteer opportunities.‖ Concern was also expressed that when the service-learning ―course was done the community partner did not have anyone to maintain what was developed.‖ Despite these concerns, our faculty fellows expressed a strong degree of satisfaction with their courses.

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At the end of the interviews, we asked the fellows if there was anything else they would like to share with us. They appreciated the opportunity to meet and engage with faculty members from other disciplines and found the discussions of pedagogical issues to be intellectually stimulating. Comments indicative of this were:   

The service-learning seminars are the only place where one has the time to talk about teaching – pedagogy and assessment. Additionally this is a great way to motivate faculty members who have been teaching or a while and are looking for new ways to reconceptualize their courses. The seminar I took on service learning has improved my understanding of the students and the need to communicate to the students what they need to do to be successful in the course. It was course that increased my own enthusiasm for teaching.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This chapter examined the impact of the Academic Service-Learning Program on faculty members‘ motivation, pedagogical practices, and professional development of servicelearning faculty fellow participants. Our findings are consistent with other studies on the impact of service-learning faculty fellows programs (Bowen & Kiser, 2009; Wade & Demb, 2009; Hale & Brascia, 2005; Stanton, 1994; and Harwood, et al., 2005). For example, faculty members‘ motivation is influenced by factors such as, institutionalized infrastructures that support their success. At Widener, service-learning faculty fellows are attracted to and motivated by the role of the ASLFDP with assisting them in developing their knowledge and expertise in curricular engagement. Bringle, Hatcher, Jones, and Plater (2006, p. 67) write: ―Metropolitan universities have a particular interest in intentionally organizing infrastructure and designing faculty development activities that, in part, assist faculty members in being successful in contributing to the civic engagement component of their respective institution‘s mission.‖ Our data also show that the ASLDFP fostered faculty members‘ engagement and collaboration. According to Bowen and Kiser (2009), becoming connected to colleagues is identified as good practice in faculty members‘ socialization. The collaborative relationships and sense of community evolved into the development and co-teaching of interdisciplinary courses, conference presentations, and co-authorship of publications for several of the fellows. Lastly, our findings indicate that faculty member motivation is tied to institutional support in the form of course releases, development grants, and community partner placements. The service-learning literature recognizes that if there is administrative support for service, faculty members will be more likely to participate in engagement initiatives (Wade & Demb, 2009). The faculty fellows indicated that the ASLFDP positively influenced their pedagogical practices. Since the inception of the program in 2004, the number of service-learning course offerings has increased over time. Each semester, approximately 12-20 different servicelearning courses are taught at both the graduate and undergraduate levels. A significant number of fellows described the integration of service learning as ―deepening students understanding of the material‖ and ―enriching the learning experience‖ and facilitating ―more

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in-depth learning, problem-solving skills, and critical thinking.‖ Following the seminar, many fellows expressed appreciation for their enhanced learning about classroom teaching and instruction. They described an overall benefit of the ASLFDP was the opportunity to engage in stimulating discussions with faculty members in other disciplines about innovative teaching strategies. Faculty development activities have the greatest appeal and integrity when they develop faculty members‘ knowledge and expertise that contribute to: (a) faculty members achieving their professional goals; and (b) institutions achieving objectives consistent with their mission (Bringle, et al., 2006). The ASLFDP aligns with the university‘s strategic plan to connect societal issues with civic engagement. The program also aims to recruit, coach, and support faculty fellows who desire to embed service learning into the institutional life of the university and to serve as a resource in their ongoing professional development. Our faculty fellows have indicated that despite the obstacles and challenges of teaching a service-learning course, many of them will continue to use this worthwhile pedagogy. To maintain a robust service-learning program, faculty members must be able to count on receiving support in the areas of need that they identify. As Driscoll (2000, p. 39) states, ―The future growth and sustainability of service learning depends to a large extent on the faculty, and the success with which universities are able to support and reward their efforts.‖

REFERENCES Ash, S., & Clayton, P. (2004). The articulated learning: An approach to guided reflection and assessment. Innovative Higher Education, 29, 137-154. Bowen, G.A., & Kiser, P.M. (2009). Promoting innovative pedagogy and engagement through service-learning faculty fellows programs. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 13(1), 27-43. Bringle, R.G., Hatcher, J.A., Jones, S., & Plater, W.M. (2006). Sustaining civic engagement: Faculty development, roles, and rewards. Metropolitan Universities Journal, 17(1), 6274. Driscoll, A. (2000). Studying faculty and service learning: Directions for inquiry and development. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, Special Issue No. 1, 3541. Forbes, B.A., Washburn, M.H., Crispo, A.W., & Vandeveer, R.C. (2008). Teaching service learning: What‘s in it for faculty at research universities?. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 12(4), 29-43. Hale, A., & Brascia, K. (2005). Faculty empowerment through refined service learning. Metropolitan Universities Journal, 16(4), 112-129. Harwood, A.M., Ochs, L., Currier, D., Duke, S., Hammond, J., Moulds, L., Stout, K., & Werder, C. (2005). Communities for growth: Cultivating and sustaining service-learning teaching and scholarship in a faculty fellows program. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 12(1), 41-51. O‘Meara, K., & Niehaus, E. (2009). Service learning is…How faculty explain their practice. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 16(1), 17-32.

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Stacey, K., Rice, D.L., Hurst, K. & Langley, C. (October 2001). Academic service-learning faculty development manual. Ypsilanti, MI: Eastern Michigan University. Stanton, T.K. (1994). The experience of faculty participants in an instructional development seminar on service learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 1(1), 7-20. Tryon, E., Hilgendorf, A., & Scott, I. (2009). The heart of partnership: Communication and relationships. In R. Stoecker, E.A. Tryon, & A. Hilgendorf (Eds.). The unheard voices, Community organizations and service learning (pp. 97-115). Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Wade, A., & Demb, A. (2009). A conceptual model to explore faculty community engagement. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 15(2), 5-16. Widener University. (2004). Strategic plan. Chester, PA: Author.

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE COMMUNITY: INTEGRATING AND TRANSFORMING FIELD WORK THROUGH SERVICE LEARNING AND COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT Nadine McHenry Widener University; Chester, PA.

ABSTRACT Scholars in teacher education have long purported that using the field as a laboratory for a richer understanding of teaching and learning is of paramount importance in the initial preparation of teachers. However, collaborating with local school districts on the design and implementation of effective fieldwork experiences continues to elude the field. This chapter focuses on the use of Earth Force as a fieldwork experience that is problem-based and student-initiated. Teacher candidates learn the CAPS model (Community-Action Problem Solving) and help children in their field work classrooms identify and solve an environmental problem that is pervasive in their community. Since citizenship education is one of the seminal purposes of the American public school system, teacher candidates become familiar with the kinds of skills that are required in order to help young people as well as themselves to move beyond understanding environmental problems and issues in their communities toward addressing and solving them. Earth Force builds the basis for action – students and their teachers can actually see their work move from the drawing board in their classrooms to implementation in their communities

INTRODUCTION Dewey‘s Pragmatist philosophy has long purported the importance of making connections between what we know and what we do; the need to apply what we think is central to our construction of meaning. Dewey claims that learners continually develop ideas about how they perceive the world and how it works, practice these ideas in the appropriate

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context, and eventually change their original thoughts based on reflections of the experience. ―From Dewey on, scholars in teacher education have suggested the importance of linking field work experiences to preparation at the university--of using the field as a laboratory for a richer understanding of teaching and learning‖ (Grossman, Hammerness, McDonald, & Ronfeldt, 2008, p. 273). Movement from the theoretical to the practical is central to growth of the individual (Dewey, 1916). As such, teacher education must make every effort to provide teacher candidates with the types of experiential learning that allow their ideas about teaching to be tested in authentic contexts – classrooms, thus supporting their growth as teachers. Experiential learning has been more recently described as an ―alternation between action and reflection which occurs in five phases (1) action, (2) looking back on the action, (3) awareness of essential aspects, (4) creating alternative methods of action, and (5) trial, which itself is a new action and therefore the starting point of a new cycle‖ (Korthagen, 2001, p. 7)., Teacher candidates must use what they learn from their course work in classrooms, reflect on that experience, consider evidence of effectiveness and consistency with one‘s values, attitudes and emotions, revise their thinking based on this reflection, and experiment with their revisions again in practice. Teacher educators need to focus on experiential learning as a continuum of looking forward and backward, cycling from theoretical ideas to practical application through filters of emotion, values, dispositions, attitudes, etc. ―Critical reflection on practice is a requirement of the relationship between theory and practice‖ (Freire, 1998, p. 30) and provides the basis from which theoretical ideas become part of cognitive and affective schema. In order for teacher candidates to seriously consider theoretical constructs, they must have concrete problems and authentic needs to apply them to (Korthagen & Lagerwerf, 1996). If teacher candidates cannot see the usefulness of these theoretical constructs in classroom reality, they disregard theory as a symptom of the ivory tower of the professoriate. Institutions of higher education promote the importance of reflective practice where theory can be translated into praxis in the development of new teachers. According to Darling-Hammond (2006), we have learned a great deal about how to create stronger, more effective teacher education programs. She calls for ―tight coherence and integration among courses and between course work and clinical work in schools, extensive and intensely supervised clinical work integrated with course work using pedagogies that link theory and practice, and closer, proactive relationships with schools that serve diverse learners effectively and develop and model good teaching‖ (Darling-Hammond, 2006, p. 300) as critical components of such programs. Research supports the idea that ―an important factor promoting transfer from teacher education to practice was the extent to which the teacher education curriculum had an integrative design, that is, the degree to which there was an alternation and integration of theory and practice within the program‖ (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999, p. 5). Currently in many schools of education, field work is launched as early as first semester of freshman year. These early experiences are typically used as a means of exploration, allowing young university students to observe classroom life and reflect on what they see as they decide if teaching is indeed their vocation. As they progress in their university course work, teacher candidates participate in scaffolded experiences adding increasingly complex teaching tasks to each field experience as they advance through the program. Teaching tasks in field work evolve from early observations, to tutoring individual students, to working with small groups, to whole class instruction.

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The need for field experiences to become increasingly more difficult and complicated should parallel the same sort of developmental changes that novice teachers go through, gradually transitioning from one level of complexity to the next, without any abrupt changes (National Commission for Excellence in Teacher Education, 1985). Program faculty aim toward this sort of scaffolded field work integrated into university course work so that teacher candidates can experience the translation of theory to practice in developmentally appropriate ways. However, ensuring quality, scaffolded placements that link the theoretical to the practical throughout a teacher candidate‘s university experience continues to elude the field of teacher education. As professors of education or entire offices charged with placing teacher candidates in the field search for classrooms that answer this call, they tend to settle for experiences that fit their logistical requirements rather than the pedagogical goals integrated in teacher education course work. Although many universities are involved in reform efforts with school partners, much of their work has had little effect on the redesign of teacher preparation. Some programs increase clinical preparation but maintain much of the traditional preparation program. Others develop collaborative courses but continue to implement an existing credentialing program. Still others offer collaborative programs but involve few tenure-track faculty. Although these partnerships may improve aspects of teacher preparation programs, they generally result in relatively minor modifications to existing programs or are tangential to business as usual at universities. (Burstein, Kretschmer, Smith, & Gudoski, 1999, p. 106). According to DarlingHammond, field work continues to be the ―Achilles heel‖ of teacher preparation (as cited in Zeichner, 2010, p. 91).

BARRIERS TO INTEGRATION Many variables impact the integration of field work into course work and questions of a logistical nature seem to dominate the discussions among teacher educators. Time is a constant battle where such seemingly superficial questions impact the selection of field experiences. Does field work occur during course work and what percentage of course work is legitimately deducted from total seat time? If field work occurs outside of course work, what sort of consideration must be given to scheduling so that teacher candidates and professors are available to one another in ways that are beneficial for all participants? How will teacher candidates and their professors work together in this often variable situation? How does the teacher educator ensure that teacher candidates will be able to apply the theoretical constructs of their course work in classrooms that may or may not be using the same sorts of techniques supported by research? How will professors be compensated for this work if it does occur outside of their scheduled course work? Though teacher educators consistently site field work as the most important kind of learning for pre-service teachers, these logistical questions tend to drive the selection and design of field placements, leaving more salient criteria out of the discussion. The practical barriers outlined above are coupled with more substantive barriers that prevent true integration of field work into university course work. The first barrier is the lack of focus on the field placement context. Shulman (1987, p. 5) notes that ―when advocates of

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reform suggest that requirements for the education of teachers should be augmented and periods of training lengthened, they assume there must be something substantial to be learned.‖ The substance of this argument should be pedagogical content knowledge, ―that special amalgam of content and pedagogy that is uniquely the province of teachers, their own form of professional understanding…it represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction‖ (p.8). The development of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is essential to the growth of the novice teacher. The key elements in Shulman‘s conception of PCK are knowledge of representations of subject matter on the one hand and understanding of specific learning difficulties and student conceptions on the other. These elements are intertwined and can be viewed as the translation of the teacher candidate‘s understanding of content into representations that will make sense to real children who come to these experiences with a myriad of misconceptions, preconceptions, learning differences, cultural differences, etc. ―The more representations teachers have at their disposal and the better they recognize learning difficulties, the more effectively they can deploy their PCK‖ (van Driel, Verloop, & de Vos, 1998, p. 675 ) and facilitate their students‘ learning. Development of PCK then necessarily requires field work that is closely linked to university course work. PCK can be developed in new teachers when they learn the pedagogical foundations of teaching strategies and are able to apply these theoretically grounded ideas in a classroom whose children and community have been studied. In many cases, teacher educators devote much time to teaching pedagogy but little time is devoted to learning about the context in which these new skills will be used. Teacher educators must constantly change school locations/classrooms used for their field work because teaching assignments and administrative policy are in constant flux where even teacher educators have a difficult time getting to know the community/classrooms in which their teacher candidates will work. Zeichner (2010, p. 89) goes so far as to call for a ―paradigm shift in teacher education programs‖ where focus on the children and their community is at the heart of teacher candidate learning. PCK can then authentically be developed as the interactions between curricular content and the children in a particular community. In addition to the need for community context and knowledge of the learner as a precursor to the development of PCK in field work, other issues plague teacher education. Because teacher candidates are first and foremost learners themselves, they come with preconceptions about teaching rooted in the way they themselves learn best. These preconceptions can become blinders, limiting their view of the diversity of learning styles found in any classroom. Because teachers are inherently curious about the teaching-learning act, they come to their classrooms with only their own view of learning since they have not had the experience of working with others who learn differently. Simply put, the children with whom most beginning teachers will work are very different from themselves. …at least 25% of students live in poverty and many of them lack basic food, shelter, and health care; from 10% to 20% have identified learning differences; 15% speak a language other than English as their primary language (many more in urban settings); and about 40% are members of racial/ethnic ―minority‖ groups, many of them recent immigrants from countries with different educational systems and cultural traditions. Not only is the kind of practice needed to teach students with a wide range of learning needs

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an extremely complex, knowledge- intense undertaking—requiring extraordinary personal and professional skills—but also U.S. schools rarely support this kind of practice. (Darling-Hammond, 2006, p. 301)

In order for teacher candidates to be better prepared for this novel setting, they need to be aware of and appreciate how their students differ from themselves and use this knowledge as they sharpen their pedagogical practices in quality field experiences. In addition to having these preconceptions about their students‘ learning, they are inundated with an inordinate number of decisions to make throughout every lesson and every minute that they work with their students; and, they have little time to consider these decisions. ―Teachers need quick and concrete answers to situations in which they have little time to think. This type of action-guiding knowledge is rather different from the more abstract, systematized and general expert-knowledge that teacher educators often present to student teachers (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999, p. 5). Close examination of the problems associated with integrating teacher candidate field work into university course work has been outlined above. Logistical problems, the need for pedagogical content knowledge, the developmental nature of teacher candidacy, their preconceptions about teaching and learning, and their need for action-oriented answers to complex classroom problems are some of the most salient barriers to this integration. Despite all of these issues, teacher educators continue to call for ―the importance of extensive and intensely supervised clinical work – tightly integrated with course work – that allows candidates to learn from expert practice in schools that serve diverse students‖ (DarlingHammond, 2006, p. 307). So what sorts of solutions are available to the field of teacher education that would break down some of these barriers and allow for the kinds of field experiences that truly prepare teacher candidates for their entrance into the field of teaching? The crucial missing link is rooted in the construct of PCK – where teacher candidates must not only learn about pedagogical and developmental theories and the translation of these into teaching strategies and techniques, but where they must also understand and appreciate the context within which these theoretical constructs will be applied. Service learning has the capacity to provide this missing link.

TRANSFORMING FIELD WORK THROUGH SERVICE LEARNING AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT Calling for a redesign of teacher education programs, Burstein, Kretschmer, Smith, and Gudoski (1999) compare the characteristics of a redesigned program with a traditional teacher education program in terms of field experience. In their redesign, they call for scaffolding extensive and intensive field experiences that integrate theory with practice, where alignment with the calendar on the school site is of primary consideration. They compare this to the traditional program where there are limited and random field experiences culminating in student teaching. In the traditional program, Burstein et. al. (1999) claims little linkage across theory and practice where alignment to university concerns is of paramount importance. Redesigning teacher education is concomitantly accompanied by a recent trend in higher education to embed civic engagement and service learning in institutional mission statements. The National and Community Service Act of 1990 (PL 106-170) calls for post-secondary

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institutions to fill their role as civic institutions that ―meet the human, educational, environmental, or public safety needs of neighboring communities‖ (p. 20). In his summary of Zeichner‘s seminal review of teacher education research since 1978, O‘Keefe (2000) lists the following emergent themes: ―…recommendation for new and more connected relationships between school-based and campus-based courses; … [and] service-learning experiences that expose students to local culture‖ (p. 537). Frequently, teacher educators espouse the view that they are ahead of the learning curve within higher education, as service learning is something that the field of education has done for many years. They note that schools and colleges of education have always had a presence in their local school districts. However, service-learning research views K-12 schools as more than mere locations in a community. Institutions of higher education are called on to link to their communities by including service learning as a key to the education of pre-service teachers and have defined service learning as: a method under which students or participants learn and develop through active participation in thoughtfully organized service that is conducted in and meets the needs of a community; is coordinated with an elementary school, secondary school, institution of higher education, or community service program, and with the community; and helps foster civic responsibility; and that is integrated into and enhances the academic curriculum of the students, or the educational components of the community service program in which the participants are enrolled; and provides structured time for the students or participants to reflect on the service experience. (National and Community Service Act of 1990, p. 5)

As teacher candidates begin to develop their professional persona, they need to realize their connection to and fit within the community. If schools are truly microcosms of society as Dewey envisioned, then teachers need to view themselves as change agents who can build, alongside their students, on the strengths and address the most pressing issues of their school‘s community. ―By involving youth in collaboration and dialogue, so as to assess community needs and capacities, and decide jointly on actions that might solve identified problems, youth can take leadership and effect changes‖ (Anderson, 1998, p. 5). Through service learning, the illusive construct of citizenship can become concretized where it is viewed as ―a method of engaging young people in the joint creation of a genuinely democratic culture; a sustainable, community-based culture in which people participate directly in maintaining a healthy public sphere‖ (Morton & Enos, 2002, p. 88). Service learning can be used as a vehicle for developing the construct of citizenship and simultaneously help to develop positive dispositions toward the community in both teachers and their students. The use of service learning as a form of civic engagement may be capable of reducing youth vulnerability to high risk behaviors that is associated with lack of connection to the family, school, and community (Andersen, 1998). Though many teacher educators claim to do service learning, the field of teacher education must critically examine this definition to determine if, in fact, the discipline‘s use of K-12 schooling for field work is actually in line with the basic tenets found within the construct of service learning. ―A basic tenet in the service-learning field is that we are cultivating civically-minded individuals -- young people who feel connected and needed, who know they are part of the bigger whole, that they can make a difference and have skills, attitudes, and strategies to do it‖ (Bardwell & Kaplan, 2008, p. 11). The use of local

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classrooms as a laboratory for teacher candidates to experiment with and apply teaching strategies learned in their university coursework falls short of this construct. Typically, education courses provide very little preparation regarding the community or children with whom teacher candidates will work. The culture of the school/school district may be implicitly acknowledged but investigation into these areas may not occur until student teaching, where a teacher work sample related to the school culture may be required. There may or may not be any focus on the ideology of civic responsibility. In Anderson and Erickson‘s 2003 survey of 874 teacher education programs, ―59 percent reported including service learning…only 24 percent of programs had a service-learning requirement for their students, and in all but a few programs, the use of service learning was confined to a small number of faculty members‖ (Keilsmeier, 2010, p. 12). Those faculty who do choose to use service learning in their teacher education courses claim that it is an effective means of exposing their students to the communities where they will teach. The National Center for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) has also pointed toward service learning ―as a characteristic of programs at the highest level of proficiency in terms of the design, implementation, and evaluation of field experiences and clinical practice‖ (Keilsmeier, 2010, p. 12). If service learning can bridge the gap between theory and practice and provide knowledge of the often ignored context of students in their community, then universities, and schools of education in particular, must examine ways to create linkages that expand the traditional view of field experience beyond mere locations for practicing pedagogy. The remainder of this chapter will focus on one approach to using service learning as a form of civic engagement/field work in methods courses offered through the Center for Education at Widener University. This example will demonstrate how undergraduate preservice teachers are exposed to Earth Force, a national environmental education program that concentrates on the development of problem solving and critical thinking skills applied to environmental issues in the local community that are identified and investigated by young students. In their science methods course at Widener, teacher candidates study constructivist pedagogy in the form of inquiry-based learning as theory translated into practice. Their field work is a direct extension of these theoretical/practical discussions and incorporates experimentation with pedagogy as applied to a particular group of young students in a particular community using Earth Force. If one of the goals of teacher education is to provide teacher candidates with opportunities to apply theoretical constructs with children in authentic classroom contexts and, if understanding the context is a necessary condition for meaningful learning, then this example can serve as a model for teacher educators to effectively utilize the field in ways that will become a basis for teacher candidates‘ future practice.

EARTH FORCE AS A SERVICE-LEARNING MODEL FOR INTEGRATED FIELD EXPERIENCE/CIVIC ENGAGEMENT Citizenship education is one of the seminal purposes of the American public school system. According to Earth Force (2010b, p. 6),

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Nadine McHenry Citizenship education (CE) helps young people understand how public policy affects them and how they can affect public policy. The scope of CE includes private policies and community practices that affect the quality of public life. Students need to know how the democratic process works, and CE helps them learn about democracy by observing, discussing, and ―doing‖ democracy…Earth Force students gather community information, distinguish important facts from trivia, generate lists of problems, decide which problems to address, make judgments about which solutions to try, and promote their solutions. Every segment of the Earth Force framework calls for communication and relies on cooperation.

Teacher candidates need to become familiar with the kinds of skills that are required in order to help young people as well as themselves to move beyond understanding environmental problems and issues in their communities toward addressing and solving them. Earth Force builds the basis for action – students and their teachers can actually see their work move from the drawing board in their classrooms to implementation in their communities. Earth Force is a service-learning program that began in 1994 as a way to address two national trends in youth – their concern for the environment and their movement toward increasing volunteerism. Though it began as a means for youth to tackle national problems like wildlife preservation, in 1997 the organization shifted its focus to local communities where youth engage in activities that are meaningful to them and that address issues that can be affected by policy advocacy or community education (Earth Force, 2010a). Typically, inservice teachers attend professional development sessions in CAPS (Community Action Problem Solving) where Earth Force staff members take teachers through a problem-based, student-initiated process where they first identify a community environmental problem, conduct research on the problem, look for a variety of solutions to the problem, apply those solutions, and finally reflect on the experience. Bardwell and Kaplan (2008, p. 4) describe CAPS as a six step process that involves: 1. Checking It Out: The youth define the community they want to explore and conduct a community environmental survey, listing the issues in their community, its strengths, and resources. 2. Deciding What‘s Wrong: The group establishes criteria for selecting an issue and then chooses one to work on. 3. Sleuthing: The youth research the issue, gaining a better understanding of it, exploring its causes (and effects), finding out what others are doing that affects the issue and assessing how effective those strategies are. 4. Deciding What to Do: The youth look at the options they have for affecting the issue and select one to work on as their project. 5. Taking Action: The group develops and implements an action plan it thinks will address the issue for the long-term. 6. Looking Back and Ahead: The youth evaluate and reflect on their actions and learning, and, of course, celebrate! Once teachers are familiar with CAPS, Earth Force staff members are available to support its implementation and guide teachers and their children through to fruition.

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Earth Force‘s effectiveness has been tracked over the past 14 years by researchers at Brandeis University‘s Heller School for Social Policy and Management. Researchers there collect data on program implementation, participant outcomes, and impacts on Earth Force educators. Recent results of these evaluations provide evidence that ―educators are more positive about their own teaching, their students, and their commitment to use community and environmental issues in their classes‖ (Melchoir, 2009, p. 1). While over half of the participating students come from low-income, disadvantaged schools where they are vulnerable to high risk behaviors due to the lack of community connectedness (Andersen, 1998), ―student and educator surveys over the past four years consistently show that taking part in Earth Force enhances students‘ civic skills, attitudes, and knowledge‖ (Melchoir, 2009, p. 2). Though the program is nearly 15 years old with outcomes that demonstrate positive trends for both teachers and their students, the focus has traditionally been on in-service teachers with very little exposure in teacher education. In a national study of environmental education in pre-service teacher education programs, Heimlich, McKeown-Ice, Braus, Barringer-Smith, and Olivolo (2004) found that awareness and use of environmental education resources is overall very low in teacher-preparation programs. Earth Force is one of the programs that is not used by more than half of the teacher preparation programs that reported awareness of printed EE resources. Some effort is being made to change this current situation. In 2008, a process for embedding Earth Force in Pre-Service Teacher Education programs began at Murray State University, Western Kentucky University, and the University of Wisconsin – Stevens Point. The results from this spring 2009 pilot provide data in which more than 80 percent of teacher candidates claim that they would like to use Earth Force projects in their classrooms when they are teaching; and 95 percent self-reported that they were likely to use project-based learning in their teaching (Earth Force, 2010c). Though promising, this research is preliminary, and there are several considerations that must be made when examining the applicability of such findings. First, the pilot uses selfreported statements that represent teacher candidates‘ ideals that must be sustained through student teaching and first year teaching contexts that may or may not be supportive of this approach. In addition, programs of longer durations (18 weeks or more) where all six steps in CAPS are completed show significantly greater gains on student attitudinal measures. Since the pilot was conducted in a semester format, it can be assumed that the duration was less than 18 weeks and so the teacher candidates were not exposed to the most effective application of Earth Force. To afford the context for teacher education to effectively use this sort of service-learning experience as part of extensive and intensive field work, a service-learning approach can be connected to course work that extends across the academic year – both fall and spring semesters – and that includes several different disciplinary methods courses. In this particular case, Earth Force was embedded in Widener‘s junior block program where third year teacher candidates go through an interdisciplinary series of four courses over an academic year. In the fall semester, teacher candidates register for language arts methods I and science methods; in the spring semester, this same cohort registers for language arts methods II and social studies methods. In all cases, professors co-design the syllabi to include Earth Force as the field experience component for all four courses, allowing for a much larger time frame within which teacher candidates can learn about the community and the children that reside there,

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the issues that are important to them, and ways to address these issues through policy advocacy or community education. Earth Force holds an educational philosophy that views students as ―civic actors (social studies) addressing environmental problems (science) by promoting changes in policies and practices (language arts)‖ (Earth Force, 2010b, p. 9). Hence, Earth Force became the nexus linking four major methods courses in a teacher education curriculum where communication and social discourse become the venue through which teacher candidates learn pedagogical content knowledge as reflective practitioners. In science methods, teacher candidates concentrate on inquiry-based teaching techniques (e.g., the learning cycle or 5E model) grounded in the tradition of social constructivism. The 5E model uses a series of steps that allow teachers to plan instruction starting with the engage phase where students are positioned to ask questions about the phenomenon under study using their prior knowledge and experience as guides. The prior knowledge held by students is carefully examined by the teacher so that any preconceptions or misconceptions can be identified and used in planning future instruction. Next students ―mess about‖ or explore the phenomena under study by raising questions, developing hypotheses to test, and work in cooperative learning groups without direct instruction from the teacher. The explain phase is teacher-directed so that newly discovered information is discussed and the teacher is able to explain the scientific concept associated with the exploration using the appropriate vocabulary and asking questions that will further clarify and concretize their students‘ explorations. During the expand or elaborate phase, the students are asked to use this newly formed concept in a real-world situation, while the teacher helps students make generalizations. Finally, in the evaluate phase, the teacher brings closure to the instructional unit by helping students summarize what they learned and reflect on their learning. Professors in the junior block use the learning cycle to teach the learning cycle by taking teacher candidates through the process as learners and having them write a reflective inquiry project that they must execute within the confines of their science methods course. Concomitantly, teacher candidates are exposed to the Earth Force program and CAPS, looking at similarities in the two approaches. Earth Force takes a learner-centered approach paying deliberate and careful attention to the community context, further extending the power of inquiry-based teaching techniques. Professors, teacher candidates, school teachers, their students, and the school‘s community provide a rich tapestry for all to learn from one another. Earth Force as service learning ―involves mutual exchange between ‗helper‘ and ‗recipient‘…enabling students of all ages to see that they have much to learn from each other and from working together in real-world situations with people in different circumstances trying to make a difference‖ (Andersen, 1998, p. 10). In social studies methods, teacher candidates examine the thematic approach that the National Council for Social Studies (NCSS) presents as a means of inquiry into the interdisciplinary nature of civic education. The 10 thematic strands include: culture; time, continuity, and change; people, places, and environment; individual identity and development; individuals, groups and institutions; power, authority, and governance; production, distribution, and consumption; science, technology, and society; global connections; and civic ideals and practices. If the purpose of social studies is to promote civic competence (NCSS, 1994), then these ten themes can easily be demonstrated in the context of environmental education and Earth Force. ―Understanding environmental problems and potential solutions and developing the civic engagement/social responsibility attitudes and

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skills required to help create a more humane and environmentally sustainable future is necessarily an interdisciplinary venture‖ (Rowe, 2002, p. 83). As such, teaching social studies ―through the context of the local environment, rather than showing teachers a curriculum that deals with a specific – and at times abstract – environmental topic to be tacked on to a social studies unit‖ helps teacher candidates develop ―broad and comprehensive educational philosophies…that motivate and empower them to design longer-term community based units that involve in-depth study of local environmental issues and result in students taking action to resolve those issues‖ (Powers, 2004, p. 10) Language arts provides the communication base through which teacher candidates and their students can navigate CAPS using various forms of reading, writing, listening, speaking, and viewing. By continuously focusing on the importance of communication, teacher candidates take their students through CAPS by first asking children to brainstorm and write a survey that will identify the issue of greatest concern as well as the strengths and resources found within their community. The teacher candidates and their students then go through the process of establishing criteria for selecting the one issue to be pursued, a process based on collaboration and open conversation. An integral part of CAPS involves teacher candidates and their students in conducting research to gain clarification regarding the selected issue and its causes/effects, to find out what others are doing that affects the issue, and to assess how effective those strategies are. Once their research is complete, teacher candidates and their students examine the options they have for affecting the issue and select one that is eventually developed and implemented as an action plan for addressing the issue for the long-term. Finally, as critical and reflective thinkers, the youth and their teacher candidates evaluate, reflect on, and celebrate their actions and learning. While ―both science and civic education emphasize critical thinking‖ (Schusker & Krasny, 2007, p. 272), the language arts becomes the means by which this thinking comes alive to both teacher candidates and their students. The teacher candidates are first introduced to the program by Earth Force (EF) staff and their professors who model CAPS. After a week of class sessions devoted to CAPS, EF staff and professors ask teacher candidates to examine the program in its entirety by distributing an EF teacher‘s manual to each candidate; next, teacher candidates develop a list of questions that they have regarding the program in general or its implementation in particular. A second week of class is then dedicated to discussion regarding Earth Force, its comparison to the learning cycle and the 5E model (engage, explore, explain, expand, and evaluate) and an overview of the structure of their upcoming field experience. Finally, the teacher candidates are asked to examine the school within which the field work will take place. Teacher candidates and their professors are introduced to the school and its culture by the classroom teacher and administrator who have committed to participating and who have agreed to answer any questions that these emerging teachers may have regarding the classroom and the children with whom they will be working. Teacher candidates are led around the school grounds/neighborhood to get a sense of the types of environmental issues, as well as strengths and resources, that the children may observe when they actually conduct their community inventory as the first step of CAPS. Once all of the preparation is complete, teacher candidates delve into the actual planning of their field experience. This field experience occurs outside of their regularly scheduled class time as part of an extended school day program offered at the participating school. In consultation with the classroom teacher, children are divided into small groups so that a team of teacher candidates (two per team) can conduct each step of CAPS separately yet in parallel

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so that at the end of each EF session, a large group discussion is held to allow for focus on a single class project. Each large group discussion is led by one of the teacher candidate teams, thereby giving the teacher candidates experience with small group as well as large group instruction. At times, professors and EF staff model particular parts of CAPS so that teacher candidates can visualize issues that are typically difficult for new teachers to implement, e. g. , classroom management techniques, assessment strategies, and interdisciplinary connections. Teacher candidates are also asked to keep a journal of observations and questions each time they visit their EF classroom. These observations and questions then become the basis for inclass discussions and provide a strong foundation for understanding the culture, learning styles, diversity, and developmental characteristics of the children in their charge. Since the field experience is scheduled over the academic year, teacher candidates and their professors are able to cover steps one and two completely in the fall. Led by teacher candidates, children complete their community inventory and are able to develop criteria and select the issue on which they would like to work. By the end of the fall semester, teacher candidates will have had the time to launch their small groups into step three where the children will be able to conduct research on the selected issue independently with the help of their classroom teacher. When teacher candidates return for the spring semester, they are enrolled in language arts II and social studies methods, which provides the perfect context within which to move their students into step four, where they decide what to do about the selected issue based on their research and take action (step five). Finally, the children and their teacher candidate teams have the opportunity to reflect on their experiences together, to see the results of their work, to view one another as both teachers and learners, and to present the results of their collaboration at a Youth Summit where all of the Earth Force classrooms in the region meet to share and celebrate their experiences. Freire (1998) claims that reflection is an integral component to changing teacher perceptions. In this particular case, teacher candidates who, on average, come from very different backgrounds than their disadvantaged students, learn that, when children are viewed as capable individuals who have access to community resources, they can solve complicated problems. Allowing children to take the lead in problem solving while providing the necessary support and openness through the EF structure has resulted in two different antilitter campaigns, an examination of abandoned buildings in the neighborhood, and a schoolyard beautification project.

CONCLUSIONS Earth Force provides teacher candidates the opportunity to use inquiry and problembased teaching techniques in an authentic context. As participants in his program, teacher candidates also bear witness to the power of the local community, particularly the problem solving prowess of the children who reside there. Teacher candidates begin to use the community context as an important consideration in their teaching across disciplines. When teachers are better prepared in this way, their students can become civically engaged in a more meaningful way. Widener‘s experience in the use of Earth Force suggests that this approach addresses ―three dimensions of teachers' preparation have been identified as

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important: teachers' content knowledge, teachers‘ pedagogical content knowledge, and teachers' beliefs (for example, their sense of confidence in teaching the subject matter)‖ (Torney-Purta, Barber, & Richardson, 2005, p. 1). It appears that Earth Force may provide a good model for meeting the needs of teacher educators as they continue to search for field experiences that adequately and appropriately prepare teacher candidates to work within the web of connections, both internal and external, that make up the place we call school. Evidence that Earth Force, in fact, accomplishes these goals will have to be gathered through further empirical study.

REFERENCES Andersen, S. M. (1998). Service learning: A national strategy for youth development. Position statement issued by the Educational Policy Task Force, Institute for Communitarian Policy Studies, George Washington University. Bardwell, L. , & Kaplan, S. Creating a generation of problem-solvers: A cognitive perspective on service learning. Service-learning research with children and youth. Retrieved February 16, 2010 at http://www. servicelearningpartnership. org/ifa_journal/ winter_2008/CreatingaGenerationofProblemSolvers. pdf Burstein, N., Kretschmer, D. , Smith, C. , & Gudoski, P. (1999). Redesigning teacher education as a shared responsibility of schools and universities. Journal of Teacher Education, 50, 106-118. Commission on National and Community Service Act of 1990 (as amended 12/17/1999), PL 106-170. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillan Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57, 300-314. DOI: 10. 1177/0022487105285962 Earth Force. (2010a). History. Denver: Author. Retrieved from http://earthforce. org/section/aboutef/history Earth Force. (2010b). Philosophy. Denver: Author. Retrieved from http://earthforce. org/content/article/detail/843/ Earth Force. (2010c) Pre-service education project enters its second semester. Denver: Author. Retrieved from http://earthforce. org/content/article/detail/2377. Freire, P. (1998). Pedagogy of freedom: Ethics, democracy, and civic courage. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Grossman, P. , Hammerness, K. M. , McDonald, M. , & Ronfeldt, M. (2008). Programs constructing coherence: Structural predictors of perceptions of coherence in NYC teacher education Journal of Teacher Education, 59, 273-287. DOI: 10. 1177/002248710832212 Heimlich, J. E. , McKeown-Ice, R. , Braus, J. , Barringer-Smith, L. , & Olivolo, B. (2004). Environmental education and preservice teacher preparation: A national study. The Journal of Environmental Education, 35(2), 17-21. Keilsmeier, J. C. (2010). Build a bridge between service and learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(5), 8-15.

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Korthagen, F. A. J. (2001, April ). Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, Washington. Korthagen, F. A. J., & Kessels, J. P. (1999). Linking theory and practice: Changing the pedagogy of teacher education. Educational Researcher, 28(4), 4-17. Korthagen, F. A. J. & Lagerwerf, B. (1996). Refraining the relationship between teacher thinking and teacher behaviour: Levels in learning about teaching. Teachers and Teaching, 2, 161-190. DOI: 10. 1080/1354060960020202 Melchoir, A. (2009). Earth Force 2007-2008 program evaluation. Waltham, MA: Brandies University Center for Youth and Communities. Morton, K. , & Enos, S. (2002). Building deeper civic relationships and new and improved citizens. Journal of Public Affairs, Supplement 1(6), 83-102. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. National Commission for Excellence in Teacher Education. (1985). A call for change in teacher education. Washington, DC: American Association of Colleges in Teacher Education. National Task Force for Social Studies Standards (1994). Expectations of excellence: Curriculum standards for social studies. Silver Springs, MD: National Council for the Social Studies. O‘Keefe, J. M. (2000). Research on teacher recruitment and retention. Catholic Education: A Journal of Inquiry and Practice, 3, 533-539. Powers, A. (2004). Teacher preparation for environmental education: Faculty perspectives on the infusion of environmental education into preservice methods courses. The Journal of Environmental Education, 35(3), 3-11. Rowe, D. (2002). Environmental literacy and sustainability as core requirements: Success stories and models. In Leal Filho W. (Ed. ) Teaching sustainability at universities (pp. 79-103). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Schusker, T., & Krasny, M. (2007). Youth participation in local environmental action: Integrating science and civic education. In A. Reid, B. Jensen, J. Nikel, & V. Simovska (Eds.), Participation and learning: Perspectives on education and the environment, health and sustainability (pp. 268-284). New York: Springer. Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-21. Torney-Purta, J. , Barber, C. , & Richardson, W. (2005). How teachers' preparation relates to students' civic knowledge and engagement in the United States: Analysis from the IEA civic education study. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on February 19, 2010 at www.civicyouth.org van Driel, J. H., Verloop, N., and de Vos, W. (1998). Developing science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35, 673-695. Zeichner, K. (2010). Rethinking connections between campus courses and field experiences in college- and university-based teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 61, 8899

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION John Poulin, Travis Sky Ingersoll and Paula Silver Widener University

ABSTRACT Poulin, Ingersoll and Silver contextualize service learning within the university‘s social work curricula. This chapter outlines the progression of candidate involvement from undergraduate freshmen year through doctoral studies. Replete with details of projects, initiatives and outreach programs, the chapter offers a guide for establishing service learning programs that can be tailored to fit many educational or social service initiatives.

INTRODUCTION As noted in earlier chapters, institutions of higher learning are increasingly developing civic engagement and service-learning initiatives that contribute to the social and economic well-being of their surrounding communities (Harkavy, 2006; Jacoby, 2003; Mulroy, 2004; Silver, Poulin & Wilhite, 2006). Numerous studies have shown that service-learning experiences positively impact students‘ attitudes, skills, perceptions and values towards civic engagement (Astin & Sax, 1998; Driscoll, Holland, Gelmon, & Kerrigan,1996; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Hunter & Brisbin, 2000; Myers-Lipton, 1998; Rice & Brown,1998). Widener University‘s mission embraces civic engagement. The institution is committed to contributing to the vitality and well being of the communities it serves through experiential learning, service learning, educational initiatives, economic development, and community building (Widener University, 2009). Service learning is ―a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote student learning and development. Service learning

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combines service objectives with learning objectives with the intent that the activity changes both the recipient and the provider of the service‖ (Jacoby 1996, p. 5). Civic engagement and service learning are integral to the pedagogical and social mission of Widener University‘s Center for Social Work Education. Currently, the Center offers a number of service-learning courses and a wide range of civic engagement activities. This chapter describes the service-learning components of the Center‘s Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) curriculum and then reviews four of the Center‘s major civic engagement initiatives.

THE LOCAL COMMUNITY By any objective measure, the local community of Chester, Pennsylvania (population 36,284), in which the university is located, is facing extraordinary challenges. Strongly affected by the economic changes of the post-World War II era, the city lost 32% of its jobs between the 1950s and the 1980s (Chester Housing Authority, 1997). During those years, the economic base collapsed, the tax base narrowed, and much of the middle class moved out. These economic changes were coupled with a period of ―organized‖ political corruption that only ended when the Commonwealth interceded in the1980s. Throughout the last two decades of the century, the city‘s steep slope of decline continued, and by 2000 it had lost almost 20% of its 1980 population (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2002). These changes created a variety of related socio-economic problems, such as high rates of unemployment, crime, and substance abuse, and pervasive dependence on income maintenance. As of 2000, more than 22% of all families and 27% of all individuals were classified as living in poverty, the unemployment rate stood at just under 10% and 41% of the adults were outside of the labor force (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2002). These numbers are among the highest in the state, and have consistently been so since the late 1970s. The city‘s schools have similarly tremendous challenges. Dropout rates, the percentage of students planning to pursue education following high school, and standardized test results are all significantly below state averages. The school district has been taken over by the state, and approximately 35% of the students in the district attend a large for-profit charter school (Pennsylvania Department of Education, 2009). Compounding these social problems, the social service infrastructure in the community had become seriously compromised. Social service agencies in the community are generally under-resourced in terms of staff and funding. In one community study (Kauffman & Goldberg-Glenn, 1998), more than half of the respondents to a survey (51%) indicated that waiting lists created difficulties when seeking services. Transportation (37%), service worker attitudes (37%), and awareness of services (38%) were seen as other significant barriers to securing needed services.

THE CENTER FOR SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION AND STUDENT LEARNING NEEDS The Center for Social Work Education was established in 1992 in order to provide a more autonomous governance structure to administer the undergraduate (BSW) program and a

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newly established graduate (MSW) program. The Center has experienced significant growth and development since its formation. As of September 2010, there were 17 full-time and 12 part-time faculty, 52 full-time undergraduate social work majors, 250 full-time and part-time MSW students, and 18 Ph.D. students. Given the extensive needs of the local community, the faculty of the Center came to believe that the involvement of the university‘s human capital in supporting local revitalization was critical. In addition, the learning opportunities for faculty and students through involvement in such revitalization were seen to be potentially enormous. Shortly after the creation of the Center for Social Work Education, the social work faculty decided to work towards extending the professional resources of the school to meet the dire needs of the local community through service learning, student internships and Center-sponsored civic engagements initiatives. Although social work faculty members, individually, were very involved in a variety of community service activities, the faculty envisioned a more systematic approach in which the Center, as a unit, would become substantially involved with the local community in collaborative service projects. Influenced by new educational models of civic engagement, the faculty began to think about how the school might involve faculty and students in local community revitalization efforts. The faculty believed that widening the focus of the field internship beyond that of professional skills training in established social service organizations to include the idea of the field internship as an opportunity for service learning and community engagement would be an innovative approach to the problem. This would require setting up a Center-based field internship program that would be focused on the local community. Additionally, the faculty decided to expand the service-learning opportunities for undergraduate students by developing an integrated model of service learning throughout the BSW curriculum.

SERVICE LEARNING IN THE BSW CURRICULUM In the fall of 2000, the Center re-organized its social work undergraduate curriculum to include an incremental service-learning program. Service learning is infused across the curriculum from freshman through senior year. Each semester social work majors are required to take at least one course that has a service-learning component. As students progress through the BSW curriculum, the service-learning course requirements become more extensive and complex. For example, during their freshman year, students take an Introduction to Social Work course with a service-learning component that requires interviewing three practicing social workers and completing 10 hours of volunteer service with a human service agency. During the students‘ senior year, they are required to complete a year-long, two-day a week internship with a human service organization and a year-long community service/research project with a community-based organization or group. The service-learning program is intended to promote the students‘ sense of civic responsibility, both professionally and personally, and to enhance the students‘ cultural competency by providing experiences that challenge their biases, prejudices and assumed privileges. The BSW curriculum‘s emphasis on service learning, social caring, and addressing social and economic barriers experienced by disempowered populations is intended to prepare

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social work students for working in the field and for providing social work services to disadvantaged populations upon graduation.

The Freshman Year: Introduction to Community Service During the freshman year, students often experience significant life transitions as a result of their new college experience. Such transitions can increase a student‘s willingness to try new things, especially within the context of an educational setting. Freshman students who take the Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare course are introduced to civic engagement through their community service requirement. The community service requirement helps socialize the students into social work as a community-oriented field that recognizes the role of diversity, social justice, empowerment and social welfare (Poulin, 2010).

The Sophomore Year: The Role of Human Development BSW sophomores take a year-long human behavior sequence, which addresses theories of human development over the lifespan from a social work perspective. As the person-inenvironment perspective is paramount to understanding human functioning, students are assigned to visit and work with community partners (social service agencies), which provide social services to populations at varying developmental levels (e.g. children and youth, older adults, etc.). Students must then submit insight-oriented journal entries for each hour of community involvement that reflects sociocultural literacy and sound theoretical application of human development. In other words, students must explain their experiences using developmental theory while discussing the role of diversity.

The Junior Year: Understanding Community and Diversity During the junior year, BSW students focus on understanding the role of communities and organizations in human functioning and social systems as well as the significance of privilege and oppression in these systems. Service-learning assignments, such as community mapping, diversity exposure and insight-oriented reflection, are intended to help students develop practice techniques for working with larger social systems. Grasping the broader aspects of social work practice is based on the development of such practice skills and the awareness of professional values.

The Senior Year: Professional Application Finally, BSW seniors are required to work 16 hours per week in the field for their field placements. Using our integrated field model, where the social work practice professor is also the faculty member who visits the student in the field, students apply their knowledge of

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service learning to their field placement. BSW seniors often select which field placement they would like to pursue based upon their experience thus far in service-learning courses. Additionally, students have developed a strong sense of professionalism and professional identity as a result of their service-learning experiences. During the senior year students are also required to complete a two semester research project in which they work with a community agency conducting a needs assessment or program evaluation. Thus, through increasingly complex and demanding service-learning experiences, the undergraduate social work students engage in collaborative projects that enhance their learning while providing valuable resources and service to local community members and organizations.

An Evaluation Study To assess the perceived impact of the integrated model of service learning, 69 students in five BSW social work classes completed a short questionnaire on their service-learning experiences. The questionnaire contained three open-end questions covering social work skills used, challenges or obstacles faced, and the impact on their professional development. The classes were a freshman level introduction to social work, a sophomore level human behavior in the social environment course, a junior level course on community practice, a junior level course on social policy analysis, and a senior level qualitative research course. Over 94% (65) of the students were female and on average the students had participated in almost four service-learning experiences. The students in the freshman level course had taken an average of 1.5 courses with a service-learning component, the sophomore level course students had an average of 3.2, and the students in the junior and senior level courses had taken an average of 5.1 social work courses with service-learning components. All of the junior and senior BSW students had participated in four or more service-learning projects. An MSW student research assistant and the senior author coded the student responses to the open-ended questions using a grounded theory approach. Double coding was employed to increase the reliability of the coding process (Miles & Huberman, 1984; Patton, 1990). There was 92% agreement between the two coders. The senior author resolved the differences by reshaping and blending the themes until no new themes could be created. The final classification schemes were then compared and contrasted to ensure that the resulting themes represented different conceptualizations of the data.

Social Work Skills The BSW students were asked to describe the social work skills they were able to utilize in their service-learning projects. Three types of skills were identified – direct practice skills, collaboration skills and macro practice skills. The direct practice skills identified focused primarily on interviewing and communication skills as demonstrated by one student‘s response: ―I was able to communicate and specialize better through my participation in service learning.‖ Indeed, the use of interviewing was a theme that emerged in all five of the BSW courses‘ service-learning projects. One student emphatically wrote, ―Wow! I received so many interviewing skills!‖ Reflecting on a specific service project where students conducted oral histories with older adults, she said, ―Listening back on the transcription of the

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oral history [with the older adult], I heard what I would say differently and how to ask the question better.‖ The students also reported using collaboration skills in their service-learning assignments. A number of students made extensive use of networking in conjunction with their work in the community as heard in this students‘ report: ―I learned some networking skills that were beneficial to my career.‖ A student also recognized the need for networking as a social work skill: ―…I had to talk with different agencies when I needed certain ideas or help.‖ Another collaboration skill they reported was teamwork. A number of students commented that their service-learning projects gave them an opportunity to learn how to work as a member of a team. For example, one student stated that part of the experience for her was ―learning to work in a large group. Everyone compromising and hoping everyone takes responsibility for their own role and depending on that.‖ Students also identified the development of macro social work practice skills as important. In their policy analysis and community practice courses, some students expressed that ―…it gave me a better understanding of the macrosystem. I never thought of having an interest in the field besides micro.‖ Students in these two courses reported engaging in project planning, research and advocacy-oriented activities in their service-learning projects. As a result of these projects, one student concluded ―I…realize that as a social worker there are no limits to what we can do to improve the lives of consumers or society as a whole.‖

Obstacles The students were asked what obstacles they faced in doing their services learning projects. Three primary obstacles emerged as significant. The first was the logistical challenge of doing their service-learning projects. Time constraints were by far the biggest obstacle. The students felt that difficulties with scheduling and coordinating with others was a major challenge in getting their projects completed: ―We did our project as a class so it was hard to find time that was convenient for everyone‖ and ― I only faced one challenge during my service learning and that was time.‖ Many also felt that it was difficult to find time in their schedule to do the community projects. A second obstacle was the students‘ own skill level. While service learning was perceived as helping students develop social work skills, the students also viewed such skill acquisition as a challenge. Many made comments about their lack of specific skills and relative inexperience as social workers. One student desired the faculty member to ―plan each step for the students.‖ Many students felt that they could have been more effective in working with their clients if they were further along in their social work training. Related to this were comments about the challenges of working with difficult or uncooperative clients. One student posited, ―The community didn‘t like non-members….‖ Another student claimed, ―It was being the race I am—I think sometimes the kids tried to get over on me or maybe think I did not understand where they were coming from.‖ The third challenge that emerged was related to group dynamics and working on teams. This too was seen as a learning opportunity, but it remained a major challenge in completing the service-learning projects. The students felt that getting all the team members to agree on a task was a time-consuming and difficult process. The students did not indicate that they should not work on teams, but rather that the process was challenging: ―Group projects are always a challenge. I feel that most of what we are taught in the early years [is] around

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individual practice. Adjusting to groups is hard, and so many voices…can become chaos very quickly.‖

Professional Development The BSW students were asked to describe how service learning has helped prepare them to become professional social workers. Overall, the students felt that their service-learning experiences were very positive. One student declared, ―I think that this class has opened my eyes to a different part of social work.‖ They also commented that the opportunity for service learning should be expanded. ―I think it needs to start earlier or in a more frequent course because there was a lot of work involved for a class that meets once a week.‖ In terms of how service learning helps prepare them for professional social work, three themes emerged. The first was that it helped them develop social work skills. Many students commented that their service-learning experiences gave them an opportunity to apply the skills they were learning in class: ―I have learned to work with clients in ways I could not learn from any text book.‖ Another student commented, ―I think the teacher should require students to do the service-learning project based upon the course content.‖ Service learning gave the students multiple opportunities to develop their social work practice skills incrementally prior to their senior year field placement. For example, students reported increased clarity regarding the types of settings and client populations with whom they wanted to work. A student discovered that ―seeing what students go through has made me want to work to better situations for [people with] disabilities.‖ Overall, students felt that service learning helped prepare them for field placement: ―Having hands on experience helps to know that our skills and abilities are on track.‖ The second impact of service learning reported by the students was increased knowledge about client populations. Student felt their service-learning experiences gave them exposure to different client populations. Service learning gave many of the students an opportunity to work with client populations from different cultures, races and backgrounds than their own. ―It made me understand that even though we come from different backgrounds, we are not all that different from each other.‖ Similarly, the students reported that their service-learning experiences gave them a better understanding of the issues people face, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds. They commented that their service-learning experiences taught them to appreciate diversity and that it helped them become more empathetic and understanding of peoples‘ situations and life experiences. For example, a student reflected, ―it has allowed me to be more sensitive to all people‖ and ―…I understand that African Americans aren‘t all the same and are a diverse group of people.‖ The third theme that emerged was increased knowledge about the social work profession. The students reported that their service-learning experiences gave them a better understanding of the profession and the various roles of social workers. A student reported that service learning helped expand her view of the profession: ―it actually enhanced my thought of pursuing a career in social work.‖ Additionally, serving as a gate keeping mechanism, service learning helped the students figure out what they liked and did not like about social work. One student discovered that ―I don‘t like social work. I think I want to change my major.‖ For all of those who persisted in the major, such service-learning experiences allowed them to clarify the specific type of social work they would like to pursue in their field placements and in their career as a social worker. For most of the BSW students, their service-learning

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experiences strengthened their interest in social work. One student encapsulated such a notion when she said: ―Do not let the spirit [of social work] die. Keep the project alive.‖

Civic Engagement Initiatives At the graduate level, service learning takes on a slightly different appearance. MSW students have one required service-learning course that focuses on communities and organizations. Each section of the course focuses on a specific community project, and the students in the course complete the project as a group. Most of the service-learning activities at the graduate level, however, do not take place in required courses but rather through the Center‗s sponsored programs and activities. The following describes four of the Center‘s major civic engagement initiatives.

The Chester Children’s Art Fair The Chester Children‘s Art Fair, a partnership between the Center for Social Work Education and the Nia Center, a local after-school children‘s art program, has been an annual event since 2004. The idea originated from a Widener University social work graduate student who wished to connect the Chester community with the Center for Social Work Education in a meaningful way. The Art Fair is much more than a single day of celebration; it represents a reciprocal year-long partnership between these two programs dedicated to positive and lasting social change. Since its inception in 2004, the Chester Children‘s Art Fair has been instrumental in forging productive relations between Widener University and the Chester community; with over 100 child artists, their families and supporters attending annually. The event‘s success is a direct result of the cooperation between Nia Center staff and volunteers, Center for Social Work Education staff, and volunteers from the Masters of Social Work Student Organization. Additionally, volunteer representatives from area schools and organizations, including Swarthmore College, the Shipley School, The Lighthouse Academy and the Wallingford Community Arts Center, have contributed their time and effort to the event. The young artists, whose creations are exhibited, work year-round in preparation for the event. Each child has one or more art pieces displayed in the hallways of the Center‘s academic building. Consistent with the civic engagement tenet of reciprocity, there are benefits for everyone involved in the project. The Chester Children‘s Art Fair empowers residents from the Chester community by promoting a means of expression through the arts and helps build resiliency by enhancing the self-esteem of the children involved. The Nia Center benefits from the social capital of volunteer staff and students from various educational institutions, as well as the continual marketing exposure of their program provided by the young artists‘ works on display. The various students involved gain, at the very least, valuable volunteer and servicelearning experience. One MSW student volunteer had the following to say about the event: The halls of the Center for Social Work Education at Widener University are filled with the art of the children of Chester. The colorful art brings a beautiful atmosphere to the Center for an entire year. Then new children's artwork is brought in for the next year.

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The Center holds an event for the children. It was a delight to watch the children come with their supportive adult and show off their accomplishment. There was such pride in their faces as they described their artwork. Through dedicated art teachers, supportive community programs and collaboration with the Center, the children were honored for something they actively created.

For staff, faculty and students of Widener University who are not directly involved in the event, the displayed art functions as a daily reminder of the community around them. This connection is essential in keeping a healthy and mutually beneficial relationship between Widener and the community in which it operates.

Chester Pride Day Chester Pride Day was an annual event that started in 2003 and ended in 2008. Each year, around the second Saturday in April, the entire city of Chester was invited to celebrate community pride in an afternoon event filled with food, fun activities and live entertainment. Featured entertainment and activities included live jazz music, local dance companies, standup comics, choirs, bead making workshops, children‘s face painting, storytellers and live plays. Rows of local business vendors and representatives from local community service organizations lined the city‘s main street to advertise and to network with one another. Tables representing Widener‘s civic engagement efforts, such as Social Work Counseling Services, were displayed; staffed by Widener social work student and staff volunteers. The event brought together around 100 Widener social work students and staff with 300 to 400 Chester residents each year. The annual event originated from the efforts of Ms. Delores Freeman (founder of the Freeman Cultural Arts Complex in Chester). While working with Chester youth, Ms. Freeman discovered that most didn‘t seem to know anything at about the history of Chester or its historical sites. To change that, Ms. Freeman organized the ―Chester Pride Tour,‖ an educational tour of Chester‘s rich history. The purpose of the tour was not only to raise awareness of Chester‘s historical heritage, but to help illustrate to Chester youth that they had much about which to be proud. Notable stops in the tour included the original landing site of William Penn and a church where Martin Luther King Jr. had spent time during his university years. The first Chester Pride Day in 2003 marked the beginning of a fruitful collaboration between the Center and the city of Chester. Several social work faculty teaching sections of the required Social Work with Communities course redesigned the course to create a servicelearning experience for their students in support of the event. Social work students enrolled in their sections were given the task of working alongside Chester residents to plan, fund and implement Chester Pride Day and all of its activities. We would introduce our students to Chester by putting them in a Widener van or bus, and accompanied by Delores Freeman or one of her contemporaries, would take them on the Chester Pride Tour. Afterwards we‘d come back and process it, and the kinds of things we would hear would be… ‗we always thought Chester was nothing,‘ ‗we thought there wasn‘t anybody in Chester, but here we are going on this tour and seeing people on the streets, and seeing historical sites!‘ Students were always surprised that

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Students enrolled in the class were far more than just ―event planners.‖ Although they did operate as fundraisers, entertainment organizers and marketers, students also utilized their social work engagement skills to build trust with residents in the community. They had to demonstrate to Chester residents that they weren‘t there to take advantage of them, or to study them, but to actually engage with them and hear their perspectives. The end result was an event that not only showcased local Chester musicians, poets, artists, community organizations and small businesses, but also partnerships between Widener University and the city of Chester.

Take Back the Night The first American Take Back the Night march took place in San Francisco, California in 1978 (Brownmiller, 1999). Take Back the Night is an annual event at Widener University dedicated to increasing awareness about sexual violence on campus and within the surrounding communities. Widener social work students have always been instrumental in the promotion and running of the event. Recently, the Center‘s setting for service-learningoriented field internships, Social Work Counseling Services, has taken a leading role in organizing the event, as well as in recruiting local volunteer residents and service agencies. Undergraduate and graduate social work students and local community members work along side one another to set up informational workshops, to organize a Clothesline Project display, to bring in guest speakers, and to coordinate the event‘s culminating activity, the Speak Out and Candlelight Vigil. The Clothesline Project is an activity during which students write personal accounts and reactions to sexual violence on t-shirts and hang them up for display. These ―clothesline‖ displays are very moving and highly effective for creating awareness of the incidence of sexual violence. Examples of workshops provided on the day of the event include self defense classes, the influence of media on sexual violence, sexual violence among GLBT communities, and various resource workshops for victims of rape, domestic violence and those who know victims or wish to be allies in the fight against intimate partner violence. At the ―Speak Out,‖ victims of sexual violence are given the opportunity to share their stories of victimization and survival in a safe and supportive environment. The ―Candlelight Vigil‖ is where crowds of advocates, survivors of sexual assault, and supporters of the event march through the campus and community in a unified, symbolic demonstration of the need to end all forms of sexual violence. The 2010 Widener Take Back the Night event was the most successful to date. Backed by financial support from Widener‘s Center for Violence Prevention, and an army of volunteers from Social Work Counseling Services, the Center for Social Work Education, and Widener sororities and fraternities, participation exceeded 200 students and faculty with over 100 attendees at the Speak Out. The day‘s events began with the Clothesline Project. Completed tshirts were displayed, and blank t-shirts were made available for participants to write their own messages of survival and how sexual violence affected them in various ways. Unlike

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previous years, the 2010 Clothesline Project display spread across the entire Widener campus. The t-shirts, created by those impacted by sexual violence, were affixed to walls inside and outside every major classroom building. In addition to the Clothesline project, a two-hour self-defense workshop was provided free of charge. Prior to the Speak-Out, a number of guest speakers addressed a variety sexual violence issues. One of the student participants had the following to say about her participation: It was such a pleasure to be part of Take Back the Night this year on Widener campus. Violence awareness and violence prevention is vitally important for our community. The clothesline project involves each person picking a blank colored shirt and decorating it through words, pictures and/or designs. Each color of the shirts represents a different kind of violence that the individual has experienced themselves or vicariously through someone close to them. I was struck by how many students came and asked what they should do if all of the colors could represent them. The clothesline is a powerful representation of the violence experienced. Take Back the Night is about honoring the survivors of violence, helping them to positively move forward and creating awareness to prevent future violence. I hope to be apart of this program every year.

Social Work Counseling Services Social Work Counseling Services (SWCS), created in 2000, is a human service organization operated by the Center for Social Work Education and developed by the social work faculty to improve the quality of life for residents of the local Chester community and to train competent and caring social work leaders committed to serving disadvantaged populations and communities. SWCS is a student run organization that provides free social work and counseling services to community residents, as well as organizational development, research and evaluation, and staff training and capacity building services to community-based human service organizations. Over the last ten years, SWCS has developed a wide range of direct services for Chester‘s children, families, vulnerable adults, and elderly residents. Services include individual and family therapy; sexuality counseling; parenting support programs; after school and summer camp programs for elementary and middle school children; case management; counseling and support group services for vulnerable adults and seniors; and job readiness programs for outof-school youth and welfare recipients (Poulin, Silver & Kauffman, 2006). In addition to direct services, SWCS interns, under faculty supervision, provide capacity-building services for partner agencies. Through a collaborative process, SWCS and partner agencies identify and design strategies for expanding and strengthening the agency‘s functioning and service capacity, including program development and evaluation; needs assessments; grant application preparation; community outreach and strategic planning; community education; training and development; and networking initiatives. During the 2009-2010 academic year, SWCS utilized a total of 21 BSW, MSW, Human Sexuality, and Doctor of Psychology student interns. All students were required to be involved in direct client services and SWCS administration through service on committees addressing organizational policies and programs, public relations and marketing, and setting agendas for and leading agency staff meetings. These multiple assignments ensured that all

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students were exposed to both micro and macro social work experiences. Field instruction and supervision was provided by SWCS staff and Center faculty. During its first 10 years of operation, SWCS staff and interns have made significant contributions to the local community. Over 3,000 community residents have received SWCS services or participated in SWCS programs. A total of 145 graduate and undergraduate students have completed three-day-a-week internships at SWCS. Student interns have provided over 140,000 personal hours of social work and psychological services to the community. Conservatively estimating the cost of SWCS services at $20 per hour, SWCS students alone have contributed almost $3,000,000 worth of professional services to the community that would not have otherwise been available. These numbers do not take into consideration the considerable amount of time that faculty and staff have also contributed to the delivery of services to community residents and community organizations or the number of personal hours SWCS has provided during the past 10 summers. If these numbers are included, SWCS has easily provided over $5,000,000 worth of services to the Chester community during its 10 years of operation. The SWCS program has also become a site for BSW service-learning projects. To date, SWCS has provided service-learning opportunities for 130 undergraduate social work students. The BSW students volunteer each semester to work on various SWCS programs and initiatives. Master of social work students often mentor the BSW students and provide supervision on their respective projects. One BSW group designed an organizational assessment tool and conducted an assessment of the SWCS program; another group organized a weekly support group for the residents of a low-income housing project; while another was trained as ―Friendly Visitors‖ and provided weekly visits to low-income elderly residents. Other BSW students volunteered their time working with children in our computer literacy and family treatment programs.

CONCLUSIONS: CHALLENGES FACED/LESSONS LEARNED The Center for Social Work Education has been involved in service learning and civic engagement initiatives for a number of years. Although we have not systematically evaluated our overall approach, we do have information on what worked and what has not worked based upon our personal experiences and feedback from students and consumers. The following summarizes our thoughts on the challenges and benefits of our service-learning and civic engagement activities.

Service-Learning Courses Overall, the integrated model of service learning in the BSW program appears to be working well and benefits both the students and the community. A major challenge appears to be time management for the students. The specific problem is that some semesters students have more than one service-learning course which creates huge time management issues for them. Service learning often requires substantial blocks of time off campus in the community. Community time has to be arranged around the students‘ class schedules. Finding sufficient

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free time for multiple community projects with multiple team meetings and multiple community visits each week is very difficult. It is particularly difficult during the senior year when students are completing a two day-a-week field internship and a very large year-long service-learning agency needs assessment or program evaluation. A possible solution is to have the students conduct their research project at the agencies or community organizations where they are doing their internship. Thus, the senior research project would be carried out as part of the field internship requirements. Another challenge for the students is the increased workload of service-learning courses, especially the junior and senior level service-learning courses that have fairly large projects. The students find that the workload is much greater than that in a traditional non-servicelearning course. Adding on a substantial service-learning project to the course‘s other assignments without increasing the credit hours for the course is viewed as a challenge. One possible solution is to increase the number of credit hours for the service-learning courses with a major service-learning project. That is, a service-learning course with a major project would be worth four credit hours instead of three. Designating three service-learning courses as four-credit courses would replace one elective course in the BSW curriculum.

Civic Engagement Initiatives By far, the biggest challenge for the Center and SWCS is funding. SWCS is primarily grant and contract-funded. The university provides in-kind support through faculty release time, some direct support through faculty overloads and student stipends; and, in 2003, the university began funding office space rental and furnishings. The Chester Education Foundation, a non-profit community partner, provides in-kind logistical and administrative support. The bulk of the funding, however, is provided by grants secured by the SWCS program and by service contracts with state, county and municipal human service agencies. Initially, almost 100% of SWCS‘s funding was from foundation grants. Since such funding is inherently precarious, the strategy has been to reduce the percentage of funds obtained from grants and to increase the proportion of the budget derived from more stable service contracts. Currently about 70% of funding is from contracts and about 30% from foundation grants. The goal is to have 90% of the annual budget derived from service and consulting contracts. The vision is to have the service and consulting contracts with more established organizations subsidize development of innovative service programs and capacity-building projects with under-funded community-based human service organizations. SWCS was created to help fill social service gaps in a disadvantaged community and to provide capacity building to under-funded community human service organizations. We have been successful in developing a number of new programs and services that are offered free of charge to community residents. However, as the program becomes institutionalized and as the program structure becomes more complex, the required fiscal base increases. Grant funding allows for more freedom in program development and service provision. The grantee defines the need and proposes a solution. This type of funding allows SWCS to be very responsive to community needs and developing innovative programs to meet the identified needs. However, charitable foundations generally do not want grantees to remain dependent upon their funds for long-term support and require grantees to pursue strategies for fiscal sustainability. SWCS has done so by developing service and consulting contracts,

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which has, in turn, diminished our ability to respond to service gaps in the community and to provide capacity-building services to local human service organizations. More and more, the services offered by SWCS are determined by our funding contracts, and our resources are taken up fulfilling our contractual obligations. The need to survive as an organization and the ongoing challenge of fund development have fostered a funding strategy that has, in part, moved the organization away from its original mission. Given the precarious nature of funding for human services, obtaining sufficient resources will be an on-going challenge for SWCS. Another challenge facing the Center‘s civic engagement initiatives is collaboration. Implementing a collaborative program is often a challenge. Turf issues, coordination problems, and communication breakdowns are frequently the norm. The budget issues complicate collaborative efforts. Project decisions must be made in the spirit of collaboration regardless of who has obtained the funding or resource allocation. Decisions about who does what must be based upon the likelihood of success and not on which organization will have fiscal control. All partners in the collaborative effort must have a voice in the management of the program or project. The Center has tried to adopt an attitude of cooperation in all its collaborative civic engagement initiatives. We have made a commitment to our partnerships and have consistently made the best interests of the program a priority. The key element in our success in working with partners has definitely been fostering a collaborative spirit from project inception to completion. Our civic engagement collaborations have resulted in some unanticipated benefits for the Center and our partner organizations. Our community partners have assisted the Center is establishing closer linkages with other community human service organizations in the community. Our community partners have also helped the school by providing guest speakers for graduate and undergraduate social work classes and in expanding the school‘s cadre of adjunct faculty. The Center has benefited our community partners by providing faculty expertise for program development and assistance with other collaborative projects. A challenge associated with our civic engagement initiatives is continuity of services and programs. This is an especially challenging issue for SWCS which was created, in part, to fill community service gaps. One problem with creating a human service organization primarily staffed by students is that service recipients need services year round. Lack of continuity of service compromises the organization‘s credibility with other service providers and with clients. We very quickly realized that we would have to offer services during the summer. Consequently, we had to build into our budget summer employment for most, if not all, of our returning interns. Another service delivery issue related to having an organization staffed primarily by student interns is that of staff turnover. Each year SWCS accepts between 10 and 15 graduate student interns. Approximately half are first year students, and half are second year students. At the beginning of each new academic year, over 50% of the interns are new. This means that each fall, SWCS is effectively a new organization with a new complement of participants. The whole process of developing an organizational culture, team building, and learning the system has to begin once more, and a significant amount of time is taken away from service delivery to train and socialize new students. The socialization and team building processes are especially important since SWCS integrates students into the organization‘s governance. We expect our students to be leaders and to help create new programs and

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services to meet their clients‘ needs. Creating this type of work culture takes time and having to start over again each fall is an ongoing challenge. To address the service delivery challenges, SWCS has adopted a strategy of hiring a fulltime professional staff to supervise students and to provide services year round. Currently, SWCS has four full-time MSW supervisors. Each supervises a team of SWCS interns and provides a variety of social work services to community residents. Of course, hiring four fulltime supervisors increases our funding challenges. An on-going challenge for the annual Take Back the Night (TBtN) event has been expanding participation to the wider university community and to the Chester community. Each year outreach efforts are undertaken to involve a greater variety of undergraduate students in general, the university Greek organizations, and local community youth. Although we have had some success in reaching the general student population and community residents, the event planners continue to be composed primarily of social work students; and, the majority of event participants have been students and faculty from the School of Human Service Professions. As the goal of TBtN is to increase community and university awareness about sexual violence and violence in general through outreach to a broader spectrum of participants, the university‘s Center for Violence Prevention will be the sponsoring organization for TBtN 2011. Sexual violence is an on-going issue on campus and in the community. Our hope is that the Center for Social Work Education students and faculty in collaboration with the university‘s Center for Violence Prevention will help educate students and community members about this critical issue and hopefully bring about community change through civic engagement initiatives such as TBtN.

REFERENCES Astin, A.W., & Sax, L.J. (1998). How undergraduates are affected by service participation. Journal of College Student Development, 39(3), 251-263. Brownmiller, S. (1999). In our time: Memoir of a revolution. University California, CA: Dial Press. Chester Housing Authority (1997). Lamokin Village HOPE VI revitalization plan. Chester, PA: Author. Driscoll, A., Holland, B., Gelmon, S., & Kerrigan, S. (1996). An assessment model for service learning: Comprehensive case studies of impact on faculty, students, community and institutions. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 3, 66-71. Eyler, J. S. & Giles, D. E., Jr. (1999). Where's the learning in service learning? San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Harkavy, I. (2006). ―Forward.‖ In S.L. Percy, N.L. Zimpher, and M.J. Brukardt (eds.), Creating a new kind of university: Institutionalizing community-university engagement. Boston: Anker. Hunter, S., & Brisbin, A.R. Jr. (2000).The impact of service learning on democratic and civic values. Political Science and Politics, 33(3), 623-626. Jacoby, B. (1996). Service learning in today‘s higher education, in B. Jacoby (ed.), Service learning in higher education, (pp. 3-25). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Jacoby, B. (2003). Building partnerships for service learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

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Kauffman, S., & Goldberg-Glenn, R. (1998). Interim evaluation report for the Chester Housing Authority, Lamokin Village HOPE VI revitalization project, November, 1998. Widener University, School of Human Services Professions, Center for Social Work Education. Lacy, W. B. (1978). Interpersonal relationships as mediators of structural effects: College student socialization in a traditional and an experimental university environment. Sociology of Education, 51, 201-221. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Mulroy, E. A. (2004). University civic engagement with community-based organizations: Dispersed or coordinated models? Journal of Community Practice, 12(3/4), 35-52. Myers-Lipton, S. J. (1998). Effect of a comprehensive service-learning program on college students‘ civic rResponsibility. Teaching Sociology, 26, 243-258. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Pennsylvania Department of Education. (2009). Public school enrollment report 2009-10. Retrieved from http://www.portal.state.pa.us/portal/server.pt/ community/ enrollment/ 7407/public_school_enrollment_reports/620541 Poulin, J. (2010). Strengths-based generalist practice: A collaborative approach (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Poulin, J., Silver, P., & Kauffman, S. (2006). Serving the community and training social workers: Service outputs and student outcomes. Journal of Social Work Education, 42, 371-384. Rice, K. L. & Brown, J. R. (1998). Transforming educational curriculum and service learning. Journal of Experiential Education, 21(3), 140-146. Silver, P., Poulin, J. & Wilhite, S. (2006). From rogue department to poster child: A department‘s shaping of a university‘s agenda. In K. Kecskes, Engaging Departments: Moving Faculty Culture from Private to Public, Individual to Collective Focus for the Common Good, (45-62). Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Co. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2002). United States census 2000. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Widener University, (2009) Civic Mission, retrieved on July 7, 2009 from http://www.widener.edu/civicmission/default.asp

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

LEARNING SERVICE: TEACHING LITERATURE AS CIVIC ENGAGEMENT Daniel Robinson and Janine Utell Widener University, Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT A unique perspective is this chapter 6. Rather than describing the actual implementation of a program of service learning, authors Robinson and Utell suggest that the use of particular readings in literature can help to provide a needed foundation of understanding for service learning activities. Alluding to the educational philosophical battles of perrenialists versus social reconstructivists, the authors take a stand that the critical thinking skills learned through literature offer students, ―…the tools required to engage with social and civic life and responsibilities.‖

INTRODUCTION, LEARNING SERVICE: THE CASE OF BLEAK HOUSE Although most certainly committed to civic engagement in both his writing and his activism on behalf of the poor and marginalized, the 19th-century novelist Charles Dickens nonetheless found much to criticize in the philanthropic activities of many of his contemporaries. As we consider civic engagement as a mission for educators, we may find in Dickens, himself a passionate educator of sorts, a worthy guide. In Dickens‘ novel Bleak House (2003a), the benevolent but occasionally irritable character Mr. Jarndyce remarks that ―there were two classes of charitable people; one, the people who did a little and made a great deal of noise; the other, the people who did a great deal and made no noise at all‖ (p.124). A university that defines itself as committed to civic engagement must find a way to do a great deal and to make a great deal of noise about it in order for its mission to be effective: we want to do good, but we also want people to know that we want to do good. It has to work as a pedagogy, as an identity, and as a selling point. We recognize that our university has

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embarked on a course that may run perilously close to the dangers Dickens identifies. Our purpose here is to recommend that we take the risk but that we also consider how the reading and teaching of literature may contribute to our successful navigation. Perhaps because he wrote it when he himself was working so tirelessly on charitable causes, Dickens‘ Bleak House speaks most directly to the potential pitfalls he himself may have occasionally risked and most certainly observed. Among the philanthropic characters he satirizes for having flawed ethics, Mrs. Pardiggle embodies a subtle and problematic ideology of charity that Dickens calls ―rapacious benevolence.‖ Her charitable activities include invading the homes of the poor to inspect their cleanliness and rectitude, providing unsolicited instruction where these are lacking. In this, Mrs. Pardiggle is ―an inexorable moral Policeman‖ and, according to the novel‘s character-narrator, Esther Summerson, as she marches from hovel to hovel, ―she certainly did make, in this, as in everything else, a show that was not conciliatory, of doing charity by wholesale, and of dealing in it to a large extent‖ (Dickens, 2003a, pp.132–33). Dickens here criticizes those who perform service out of a potentially self-aggrandizing impulse, and certainly such people occasionally do come with the territory. Dickens also criticizes the ―too business-like and systematic‖ and therefore insensitive manner in which Mrs. Pardiggle behaves towards those for whom she supposedly cares. She seeks approbation and gratitude from the poor whom she serves but, because of her attitude, instead earns hostility and resentment. Observing her with her five sons performing service, Esther suggests that ―Mrs. Pardiggle would have got on infinitely better, if she had not had such a mechanical way of taking possession of people‖ (Dickens, 2003a, pp.132–33). Dickens obviously means that she performs service without fully understanding the nuances of compassion and respect; she proceeds out of regard only for her own satisfaction without empathy or the imagination required for such a stance. And she perpetuates this pattern of ―rapacious benevolence‖ by requiring that her sons accompany her on her charitable excursions and that they participate in activities that she considers to be worthy: as she explains, the boys are my companions everywhere; and by these means they acquire that knowledge of the poor, and that capacity of doing charitable business in general—in short, that taste for the sort of thing—which will render them in after life a service to their neighbours, and a satisfaction to themselves (Dickens, 2003a, p.126). The problem here is that, according to Esther, ―we had never seen such dissatisfied children. It was not merely that they were weazen and shrivelled—though they were certainly that too—but they looked absolutely ferocious with discontent‖ (Dickens, 2003a, p.125). Their mother forces them even to contribute their allowances to charity, and they resent her for it: ―The face of each child, as the amount of his contribution was mentioned, darkened in a peculiarly vindictive manner‖ (Dickens, 2003a, p.125). Through the caricature of Mrs. Pardiggle, Dickens expresses his concern that young people who are required to perform service will fail to appreciate the value of it unless they are able actually to understand it, to feel it. His fiction, therefore, concerns itself, as we shall see, with the instruction of humanitarian values through the cultivation of the imagination.

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THE ROLE OF TEACHING LITERATURE IN LEARNING SERVICE Teaching literature provides a necessary foundation both for civic engagement as a habit of thought and service learning as a pedagogical strategy. By studying authors with a particular ethical imperative, a specific view of individual regeneration, such as Dickens and Wordsworth, students can learn service before or while they do service. They can internalize the values and come to believe in the ideals of civic engagement separate from the active, external, social participation in service learning. Such writers and their work can model a process of developing empathy and putting it into practice. The teaching of literature can be a way of ensuring that learning precedes service, and can provide an important pedagogical strategy for fulfilling our imperative towards civic engagement. The reading and study of literature fosters the critical thinking, sensitivity, and imagination required to negotiate the multivalent identities of our students as they make their way through their college careers into the larger world. In fact, the study of literature particularly lends itself to the cultivating of this disposition, and is thus even more relevant now rather than less, especially at a university that has defined itself through its sense of civic mission. Commentators on the broader condition of higher education such as Menand (2010) note that the humanities find themselves in an ever-escalating battle with those who would demand greater relevance and accountability to utilitarian values. Scholars in the profession who consider the situation of English departments more specifically, such as Fish (1999), Graff (2004), or Bérubé (2006) argue a range of perspectives (respectively): that teachers of literature should concern themselves only with the teaching of literature and not with social reform; that English professors should be more responsible for providing students with models for academic discourse; that literature departments should more actively foster a sense of critical conflict. However, literary study, especially the reading of works grounded in humanitarian impulses, cultivates habits of mind and strategies of thinking that lay groundwork for and complement the practice of civic engagement. It would seem to us that the impulse to study literature and the impulse to engage empathically with the larger world cannot be decoupled. Furthermore, it would seem that the authors most relevant to our points here—and many other writers beyond the scope of this essay—make compelling claims for the necessity of literature for living an ethical and engaged life. They argue that we learn to do this through reading, through the aesthetic pleasure and intellectual and affective demands of the fictive and the poetic. In a very salient way, Nussbaum‘s (2010) most recent book Not for Profit argues that English departments are more relevant than ever because of the necessity of teaching individuals to connect with others, to imagine empathy, all to strengthen students‘ positions in a pluralistic democracy, a way of ―learning service.‖ Earlier work by Nussbaum (1995) on the role reading literature can play in making humanistic study a vital strategy for being in the world makes a compelling case for the teaching of the novel, especially the fiction of Charles Dickens. She writes: The novel constructs a paradigm of a style of ethical reasoning that is contextspecific without being relativistic, in which we get potentially universalizable concrete prescriptions by bringing a general idea of human flourishing to bear on a concrete situation, which we are invited to enter through the imagination. This is a valuable form

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Nussbaum cites the work of Dickens specifically as an exemplar of this ―public reasoning‖ through the imagination. As moral philosopher David Hume pointed out 250 years ago, the human perception of good and evil is largely based upon sentiment, feeling. Around the same time as Hume, Adam Smith proposed that the more responsive we are to our moral feelings, the more moral we will become in our interactions with others. Adam Smith‘s Theory of Moral Sentiments led to a rise in literature based on feeling and sympathy— literature with a decidedly humanitarian purpose—that intended to make readers more responsive to their feelings—a literature that clearly, as Kaplan (1998) has shown, is part of the intellectual background of Dickens‘ novels. And the key to sympathy (and to social action), according to Smith, is the individual‘s ability to imagine the plight of others. It is ultimately the imagination that makes us care about other people. Shelley (2002) argues in his 1821 A Defence of Poetry that ―the great instrument of moral good is the imagination‖ (p.517); if you can accept that, then you can accept his ultimate conclusion that ―poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world‖ (p.535). Shelley claims, and Dickens believed too, that the creative artist can do the most good by enabling us to imagine the best. Such arguments for the value of literary art to public life are as ancient as Aristotle.

EMPATHY AND THE IMAGINATION: THE POWER OF READING So, to take Dickens‘ most famous story, A Christmas Carol (2003b), as an example, it is not enough for the author to make readers care about characters within the comfortable generic confines of fictional narrative: readers have to be moved to action in the way that Scrooge is moved to prevent Tim‘s death; this occurs through a process that corresponds to what Kaplan (1998) describes as Dickens‘ own belief in social progress through ―individual regeneration‖ (p.477). The experience of reading the book amounts to a lot more than reminding readers that they should be nice to the poor at Christmas-time. The actual experience of reading the story is an imaginative one; it is a collaboration between the author/narrator and the reader who reads not only the plot but also the narrator. The deeper message of the story is that Scrooge is capable of such a powerful redemption because, as a boy, he loved to read books. And thus his reformation occurs almost immediately in his encounter with the first spirit, the Ghost of Christmas Past. Scrooge‘s reformation is not actually a process; it is a regeneration of what he once knew to be true but had lost sight of believing. His experience with the spirits reignites his long-dormant imagination and thus he is able to care about the Cratchits, to feel for them, and to do something to help them. In other words, with the help of the first spirit, Scrooge remembers learning service through literature. Teaching Dickens, then, is a way of teaching the individual regeneration required for ―learning service.‖ Learning service as a complement to service learning is a disposition necessary for any course or curriculum committed to civic engagement. Studying an author such as Dickens is studying civic engagement. Dickens found himself as a popular novelist, public figure, and human being having to do what universities committed to civic engagement are in the process of doing—trying to understand how what we do as individuals and as an academic community can serve humanity. For Dickens it was writing books. He believed that

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he had an amazing gift—a gift derived from the faculty of imagination that he held ―in trust‖ for the benefit of humanity. He believed, moreover, in the power of literature to make people good, to enrich their lives. And he believed literature could do it better than other kinds of discourse because of its great power to appeal to the imagination and to the emotions as well as to the intellect. He wrote in 1854, To interest and affect the general mind in behalf of anything that is clearly wrong— to stimulate and rouse the public soul to a compassionate or indignant feeling that it must not be … I believe to be one of Fiction‘s highest uses. And this is the use to which I try to turn it. (Dickens, 1993, p.405)

This is where Dickens‘ sense of his own public responsibility becomes his aesthetic of public responsibility. He advised one correspondent, in a letter of 1852, not to presume that he ever wrote ―without an object‖ or ―merely to amuse‖: I may try to insinuate [his object] into people‘s hearts sometimes, in preference to knocking them down and breaking their heads with it (which I have observed them apt to resent...) but I always have it. Without it, my pursuit—and the steadiness, patience, seclusion, regularity, hard work, and self-concentration it demands—would be utterly worthless to me. (Dickens, 1988, p.828)

Dickens‘ aesthetic of public responsibility must include a moral object; but, at the same time, Dickens abhorred didacticism in art, especially in fiction. He believed that an overt didactic purpose destroys the imaginative appeal of the work by over-determining the individual‘s response to it. He believed moreover that this imaginative appeal was more likely to bring about the moral improvement or wholesale regeneration—as the case may be—of the individual than would explicit instruction or guidance. He felt that his job as an artist was to raise the questions and to leave the answers up to the audience. And although Dickens had no faith in collective humanity—whether it be the legislators, the bureaucrats, the capitalists, the workers, or the electorate—he had infinite faith in individuals to improve society through the cultivation or regeneration of the imagination. In the first issue of his magazine Household Worlds, he writes that ―the sympathies and graces of imagination‖ have the power ―to bring the greater and the lesser in degree, together … and mutually dispose them to a better acquaintance and a kinder understanding‖ (Dickens, 1850, p.1). Dickens believed that his public mission was to promote, to preserve, and to ―cherish that light of Fancy which is inherent in the human breast‖—in other words the power of the imagination—in ―the bosoms of the young and old, of the well-to-do and of the poor‖ (Dickens, 1850, p.1). Thus writing imaginative literature is fundamental to Dickens‘ sense of public responsibility because he was concerned that the prevailing emphasis on technological and economic progress would overshadow concerns for improvements in the imaginative, moral, and intellectual lives of his fellows. Dickens‘ shortest novel, Hard Times (Dickens, 2003c), for example, grew out of his frustration with the influence that theories of social utility were having on reform legislation and on the educational system. As Hard Times demonstrates, Dickens believed British society was moving towards a complete denunciation of imaginative thought—what he so frequently calls ―fancy.‖ He was afraid that education would cease to include the development of less obviously pragmatic skills. His concerns,

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indeed, prefigure those concerns already noted regarding the relevance of the humanities— and this includes the failure of educators in the humanities to articulate what it is that they do. Civic engagement provides tremendous opportunities for disciplines in the humanities to reassert their value through what Nussbaum (1995) in Poetic Justice sees as vital in Dickens: the deploying of ―fancy‖ to cultivate an empathy that can serve social conscience. Through the humanities, and through literature, students develop the deeper imaginative mechanisms required to fully participate in civic engagement (―fancy,‖ if you will): an ability to deal with ambiguity, a disposition towards critical thinking, a sense of empathy brought about by imagining the other, an appreciation for their own multivalent position in their communities. More specifically, the imaginative work of reading literature heightens students‘ understanding of metaphor. As Lakoff and Johnson (1980) have pointed out, we comprehend the world through metaphor. The study of students‘ reflective writing emerging from service-learning experiences reveals their attempts to deploy metaphor in order to speak about their work and the people with whom they connected. In fact, one could argue that they require metaphor, and other imaginative strategies such as narrative, to talk about those connections because they have no language for dealing with the other, for managing profound racial and socio-economic difference. Yet the metaphors and stories they construct can be charged with power imbalance, a reality students may be unaware of unless they develop tools and strategies for reading and interrogating the way they construct their reality through narrative and language. So analyzing imaginative literature can show them how discourse creates their reality, and can also give them the equipment to interrogate those processes. Himley (2004), using a feminist and postcolonial perspective, looks at the idea of the ―stranger‖ in service learning. In her study of student writing emerging from service learning, she notes key tropes and narrative constructs that emerge: the disorganized, inhumane ―system‖; the ―plucky natives‖ who are ―closer to the heart of life‖; the recipients of service who are either ―angels or devils,‖ and the belief on the part of the students that only they can save the ―angelic‖ ones; and the notion that time spent serving is the most rewarding, genuine time the student has ever known (pp. 429-430). The purpose of service learning should be to enable students to interrogate these tropes in order to escape what Linda Flower (1997) calls ―the logic of compassion‖ (p. 96), about which more below, and what we might also call ―Mrs. Pardiggle Syndrome.‖ But without the study of literature, without the imaginative engagement with a counterfactual whose very existence depends on metaphor, students will lack the equipment to question the tropes of the other that may compromise the move towards true engagement and empathy. Thus students need to be able to make a very complicated dual move, and we believe literature can help them with this. They need to be able to enter into the reality of others, and they need to be able to recognize the difference of others, in such a way that does not compromise their personhood, i.e., turn them into convenient tropes or metaphors for the students‘ ongoing personal narratives of self-improvement and do-gooding. Understanding how narrative works can aid in this transformative reflection, and the ―individual regeneration‖ described by Kaplan (1998). Vermeule (2010) has argued that our understanding of literary character depends on our ability to decouple metaphor from reality: we are able to move back and forth between the real world and fictional worlds using metaphor as a conduit and dropping it when we need to. Just as working through literature can render students imaginatively aware of the consciousness and experience of other people,

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it can also make them cognizant of the destructive ways they make other people into metaphors, into characters in their narratives of self-improvement and good fortune. Paradoxically, then, the imaginative work literature can perform can actually undo the ethical problem of a student rendering the other into an aesthetic experience. In critical reading and analysis, through an engagement with the subjectivity of a difficult character who acts as other, we can come to understand the ways in which viewing that other as merely picturesque is deeply unethical. This is a necessary move for any student engaged in service learning to make. Students need ethical and imaginative equipment for dealing with the other, recognizing that human beings who are forced to the margins of our society are not simply aesthetic experiences or picturesque opportunities for good feeling.

THE HUMANITARIAN IMPULSE: READING THE ETHICS OF WORDSWORTH’S POETRY Another writer worth considering, and worth teaching, who engaged with these same aesthetic and ethical problems is William Wordsworth. Unlike the city-dwelling Dickens, Wordsworth lived in the country and grew up among farmers, shepherds, and vagrants in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. His rural neighbors are frequently the subjects of his poetry, although many of them were unable to read it. As a poet, Wordsworth wrote for a highly literate and generally comfortable readership. He felt it was his job to ensure that this readership understood that, as he writes in his poem ―The Old Cumberland Beggar,‖ ―we have all of us one human heart‖ (Wordsworth, 2002, p.146). He wrote to his friend and patron, the painter Sir George Beaumont, ―Every great Poet is a Teacher: I wish either to be considered as a Teacher, or as nothing‖ (Wordsworth, 1969-70, p.195). As a teacher, to use the terms of ancient pedagogy, he chooses the Socratic over the didactic, however. He eschews the overly moralistic and sentimental tropes of his day. A study of the popular literature of the 1790s reveals scores of philanthropic, humanitarian poems with simple moral messages such as the anonymous poem ―The Beggar‘s Petition,‖ which opens and closes with the following refrain: Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door; Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span: Oh, give relief, and Heav‘n will bless your store! (Wordsworth, 2002, ll.1–4)

While we might appreciate the sentiment expressed here, the poem would not elicit much in the way of classroom discussion or literary interpretation. And, indeed, it appeared first in a magazine and was intended to be consumed rather than explicated. And such treacly verse rarely finds its way into literature anthologies; despite its good intentions, it is simple, preachy, and thus ephemeral. Poems like ―The Beggar‘s Petition‖ abounded in periodicals of the time, showing the prevalence of humanitarian concerns, but likely made little lasting impression. Studying this kind of poem is not in and of itself useful for learning service, though it does help contextualize the literary value of better poems of the time that possess greater complexity and thus engage the intellect and imagination. Wordsworth understood that to

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engage the intellect and imagination was to make a greater impact on the heart. His humanitarian poems are far more interesting and complex, with readable implicit moral lessons that ultimately have a greater impact on the reader than simple fables do. One of the ways Wordsworth achieved this was by writing poems that challenge the reader‘s expectations for poetry—not only expectations for diction, form, and genre but for subject as well. His humanitarian poems resist idealizing or sentimentalizing the poor, as other poems do, and they are also deceptively simple, pleasing at first but requiring deeper reading. Many of his poems dare the complacent reader to turn away from the ordinary, commonplace subjects they describe. ―Lines Left upon a Seat in a Yew-Tree‖ does so explicitly in its opening lines: —Nay, Traveller! Rest. This lonely yew-tree stands Far from all human dwelling: what if here No sparkling rivulet spread the verdant herb; What if these barren boughs the bee not loves[?] (Wordsworth, 2002, ll.1–4)

Wordsworth is not writing to entertain his reader, whom the poet figures metaphorically as a traveler who might not stop at this plain spot and thus pass on to another more superficially inviting poem. The rhetorical questions make the point that this is not a particularly attractive spot to rest because it is not picturesque. Wordsworth‘s description of how the scene does not appear emphasizes the unimpressive quality of this particular spot. But he suggests that, should the traveler stop here, he or she will find other attractions: ―Yet, if the wind breathe soft, the curling waves, / That break against the shore, shall lull thy mind / By one soft impulse saved from vacancy‖ (Wordsworth, 2002, ll.5–7). The yew-tree affords a Wordsworthian experience where only ―one soft impulse,‖ one sensation, may make the traveler‘s mind receptive to the scene; by extension, the reader‘s mind is prepared for the narrative of the misanthrope in the next verse-paragraph and then the moral lesson in the poem‘s third and final section. This is how Wordsworth teaches: he rejects the idea that he should give his reader what the reader wants; he wants to give the reader what he thinks the reader needs, although he means to do so by eliciting a deeper pleasure. As the poem continues, Wordsworth describes the ―monument‖ left by the proud man who made a seat out of its trunk and by the poet who has written the lines left there; the poet must actively involve the traveler/reader in the life and sensations described in order for the moral to have any validity. The subsequent description of the ―monument‖ is finally a warning against solitude and isolation from one‘s fellows: the person described here feeds his soul ―with the food of pride‖ and sees in the beauty of nature only ―An emblem of his own unfruitful life‖ (2002, ll.20, 28). The poem concludes with a Dickensian hope that those ―whose heart[s] the holy forms / Of young imagination have kept pure‖ will not allow themselves to be corrupted by pride, leading to self-absorption and misanthropy (Wordsworth, 2002, ll.44–45). Wordsworth‘s great theme is always the importance of deep thought arising from experience and feeling: ―he, who feels contempt / For any living thing, hath faculties / Which he has never used‖ (Wordsworth, 2002, ll.48–50). Wordsworth teaches his readers that, when they think deeply about what they are reading, they will learn ―that true knowledge leads to love‖ (Wordsworth, 2002, l.55). As the poems challenge the reader to think, Wordsworth expects that the poems also will inspire the requisite feelings in his reader necessary to validate the ideas. Studying the way the poems

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work as poems thus teaches not only a moral lesson but engages readers in important questions of aesthetics, ethics, and epistemology that are at the heart of civic engagement. Students learn this through the act of interpretation; in so doing they also learn that interpretation is much more than an opinion. Wordsworth‘s humanitarian poems would fail if their messages were ultimately ambiguous or indeterminate, just as they would if their lessons were too obvious. Like Dickens, Wordsworth is interested in the imaginative activity of his readers in so far as it teaches them the ultimate lesson of compassion for one another. One of Wordsworth‘s more innovative poems is also one of his most profound statements of the aesthetics of philanthropy. The poem ―Simon Lee, the Old Huntsman with an Incident in which He Was Concerned,‖ also from 1798, is a fascinating combination of narrative poetry, or the ballad, and more reflective, subjective poetry, which we call lyric. Indeed, it appeared first in a volume he and Samuel Taylor Coleridge called Lyrical Ballads. Many of the poems in this book share a distinct concern for the poor and disenfranchised. This one concerns an elderly man who is unable to provide for himself and his wife because he is no longer able to work as a huntsman and is too infirm to cultivate his small plot of land. Not a pleasant subject for a tale. It begins as a ballad in the rustic strains of popular poetry such as Robert Burns‘ 1791 Tam o’ Shanter. And, as ―The Beggar‘s Petition‖ shows, the subject would have been familiar to readers of newspapers and magazines of the day, which frequently depicted the hardships of the poor. Wordsworth plays upon his readers‘ familiarity with such poetry, as Paul Sheats (1973) points out, ―to elicit a stock response‖ that the poet then proceeds to undermine in order to make a stronger point about the hardships of the poor and the way we ought to respond to them (p.189). Wordsworth presents a portrait of an elderly huntsman by juxtaposing almost comic descriptions of his decline—―And, though he has but one eye left, / His cheek is like a cherry‖ (Wordsworth, 2002, ll.15–16)—with contrasting descriptions of the former glories of his younger days. Readers or students of poetry will recognize that the augmented, or feminine, sing-song rhymes and the speaker‘s gossipy, familiar tone contribute to the disorienting, almost comic quality of the description. After four eight-line stanzas of disorienting silliness mixed with pathos, the reader understands that old age and infirmity have left his body twisted ―half awry‖ so that his elderly wife, Ruth, must do most of the work to earn what little they can from their ―scrap of land‖ (Wordsworth, 2002, ll.34, 61). Moreover, the diction Wordsworth employs to describe Simon‘s decline, such as in the line ―His ancles[sic] they are swoln and thick‖ (Wordsworth, 2002, l.35), hardly seem poetical to a student-reader today who, like Wordsworth‘s original readers, expects more flowery words. So, he or she might ask, what kind of poetry is this? In addition, if this is a ballad, we are several stanzas in and find ourselves without a narrative, only exposition. Towards the end of the poem, Wordsworth‘s speaker interrupts with a surprising address to his ―gentle reader‖ who has waited ―patiently‖ for ―Some tale [to] be related‖ (Wordsworth, 2002, l.69–72). Echoing the significant class marker ―gentle‖ a second time, Wordsworth criticizes the complacent middle- to upper-class readers who might only be interested in a figure such as Simon for their own sentimental pleasure: O reader! had you in your mind Such stores as silent thought can bring, O gentle reader! you would find A tale in every thing. (Wordsworth, 2002, ll.73–76)

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What students reading ―Simon Lee‖ begin to realize is that popular culture today continues to afford consumers sentimental pleasure in the depiction of the poor and disenfranchised: take the television series Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, for example, during which viewers experience the formulaic sentimental pleasures of watching a team of do-gooders build elaborate, beautiful homes for grateful poor people. Each episode ends with domestic bliss and comfort without ever explaining to the viewer how the family will ever be able to afford the property taxes on their new mansions. This is philanthropy performed as self-satisfying entertainment; and as Ty Pennington and associates drive off in their tour-bus, we envision them off to help another family; we never have to think about the plight of the poor ever again because ABC and its parent company, Disney, are there for them. Similarly, in ―Simon Lee,‖ Wordsworth uses the generic expectations for sentimental narrative humanitarian poetry to assert that readers ought to care about the poor without the requirement of a remarkable or entertaining narrative. The speaker then enters the poem to describe first-hand the ―incident‖ alluded to in the title: the younger man finds Simon struggling with an old tree stump and easily severs the root. Simon‘s tearful gratitude is overwhelming to the speaker and ought to remind us of the tears at the end of every episode of Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. Just as we expect the moral of the poem to be that the young should help the old, Wordsworth refuses to sentimentalize the situation or to suggest such a simple solution to the problems of the poor. Wordsworth‘s ―Simon Lee‖ finds gratitude on the part of the poor to be deeply troubling because it is based on the unequal distribution of wealth and power and is thus degrading. But the poem is also formally innovative as a ―lyrical ballad‖ because it seems to be a ballad that tells only a very slight story, privileging instead the speaker‘s moment of lyrical insight at the end. It is up to the reader finally to create the tale and to discern the lesson.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: LITERATURE AND CIVIC ENGAGEMENT For students learning service, the lesson is more complicated and even more profound because the poem forces them to consider the ethics of philanthropic or charitable activities. Wordsworth would not approve of students performing service activities merely to fulfill a requirement, nor would he approve of educators requiring that they do so. In this way, we risk becoming Mrs. Pardiggle from Bleak House practicing ―rapacious benevolence.‖ Learning service ought to include consideration of such complex and potentially problematic issues. Reading literature as civic engagement thus prepares instructors and students for grappling with them when theory is put into practice. Reading and studying works of literature can, as Flower (1997) notes in her work, break down the logic of compassion that permeates ―well-meaning voluntarism‖ (p.96). According to Flower, voluntarism perpetuates social structures and attitudes that are actually destructive to communities. Students, from their place of privilege, may believe they are ―doing good‖ when they perform service. However, in coming to service from this perspective without the equipment that literary study may provide, students replicate the kinds of tropes described by Himley above (and critiqued more subtly by both Dickens and Wordsworth, as we have seen). Those receiving service are viewed as deficient, while students—and their teachers and

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administrators—are viewed both as experts at solving problems and as kind-hearted benefactors. Compassion, for Flower, is the problem of individual consciousness: ―This paradigm maintains a strong sense of otherness and distance, of giver and receiver. It makes no demand for mutuality in analyzing or responding to problems; it maintains the social status quo‖ (Flower, 1997, p. 97). The service-learning experience should be a moment where students consider what logic, what ethic, they bring to service, and where they interrogate their past position and future direction as both civically engaged individuals and members of a multiplicity of communities. The imaginative work involved in reading literature speaks to the imperative towards civic engagement not just in terms of theory, however. The pedagogical praxis involved in the teaching of literature can itself complement the work of service learning; the performance of a close reading of a text such as ―Simon Lee‖ as offered above is one such instance of civicallyminded praxis. Discussion and dialogical close reading that form the core of the classroom experience in teaching and learning literature lay the theoretical, intellectual, and affective foundations for what students do outside the classroom in their service-learning experiences. In talking about the relationship between narrative and ethics in the novels of George Eliot, or the function aestheticism can have for social reform in the essays of Oscar Wilde, or the work of the poetic imagination in humanitarianism with Wordsworth and Dickens, students can make connections larger than the literary historical; they can connect with the work they do beyond the walls of the individual classroom, the syllabus of the individual course. Discussion-based pedagogy is at the heart of praxis in our department and it does the work of democracy. The purposes of class discussion outlined by Brookfield and Presskill (2005) have direct implications for intellectual and affective development fostered by both the teaching of literature and civic engagement; we can see from their list of outcomes that the two have a shared purpose, and literary study offers a vital complement to both servicelearning praxis and our institutional mission: 1) developing critical thinking skills; 2) enhancing the capacity for self-reflection and questioning; 3) cultivating an appreciation for diversity of viewpoint; and 4) bringing about a relationship between thought and action (Brookfield & Presskill, 2005, p. 6). More broadly, the research on the effects of civic engagement on student learning demonstrates that the outcomes desired in both service learning and the teaching of literature are complementary: an increase in capacity for critical thinking; improvement in writing and speaking skills; greater ability to make connections between knowledge and the outside world; development of ―the caring self‖; growth in affect, self-awareness seen as a crucial part of the construction of knowledge; learning no longer classroom-bound, tied to place: ―synergistic,‖ ―counternormative‖ (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Howard, 1998; Weigert, 1998; Rhoads, 2000). While the development of critical thinking and writing and speaking skills would seem to be self-evident, it might be worth pausing on the elements of student learning related to the emerging of transformative knowledge. Literary study gives students what Burke (1938) has called ―equipment for living‖ (p. 1), tools for navigating the world beyond the pages of the text. It allows for the development of empathy as students enter into characters and counterfactuals in order to create new knowledge. And, perhaps most provocatively, it offers an alternative space beyond the boundaries of the classroom, a fictive space for playing with ideas and hypotheticals. As students are given the opportunity to play in fictive space, sharing their ideas in the polyphonous setting of the discussion-based classroom, they develop the tools needed to go out into the many spaces of their communities,

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hearing the many voices of those around them, moving beyond the ―logic of compassion‖ and imagining their way into a deeper empathy and connection.

CONCLUSIONS Literature, like all art, is ultimately about what it means to be human—and that is what we study when we study art—and what it means to be human is defined by an individual‘s relationship to others. This is the great subject of literature—how may we take the solitary act of reading and find in it a connection to others? Even the very notion of connection or of engagement is metaphorical—that is, it is an act of the imagination. When we teach courses involving service learning, we are trying to teach students to care about other people—to love one another, which is manifestly an act of the imagination. If we want our students to perform acts of service in certain pedagogical settings, we have to find ways of complementing and reinforcing those practices in other pedagogical settings. The goal of a service-learning course is not merely the completion of a philanthropic act or project but rather a transformative experience that will have a lasting effect on each student. A university committed to civic engagement, however, is manifestly choosing an alternate model, one that must emphasize the imaginative and moral development of its students over and above specific professional training. The student of literature is able to read and interpret artistic depictions of a fundamentally unreal reality and find, if any is to be found, a transcendent truth. Presenting students with opportunities to navigate multiple realities through literature gives them the tools required to engage with social and civic life and responsibilities.

REFERENCES Bérubé, M. (2006). Rhetorical occasions: Essays on humans and the humanities. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. Brookfield, S., & Presskill, S. (2005). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Burke, K. (1938). Literature as equipment for living. Direction, 1, 10-13. Dickens, C. (2003a). Bleak house. London: Penguin. Dickens, C. (2003b). A Christmas carol. London: Penguin. Dickens, C. (2003c). Hard times. London: Penguin. Dickens, C. (1988). The letters of Charles Dickens, vol. 6. G. Storey, K. Tillotson, & N. Burgis (Eds.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dickens, C. (1993). The letters of Charles Dickens, vol. 7. G. Storey, K. Tillotson, & A. Easson (Eds.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dickens, C. (1850). A preliminary word. Household Words, 1, March 30, 1–2. Eyler, J., & Giles, D. E. (1999). Where’s the learning in service learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Fish, S. (1999). Professional correctness: Literary studies and political change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Flower, L. (1997). Partners in inquiry: A logic for community outreach. In L. Adler-Kassner, R. Crooks, & A. Watters (Eds.), Writing the community: Concepts and models for service learning in composition (pp. 95-117). Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education. Graff, G. (2004). Clueless in academe: How schooling obscures the life of the mind. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Himley, M. (2004). Facing (up to) ‗the stranger‘ in community service learning. CCC, 55, 416-438. Howard, J. (1998). Academic service learning: A counternormative pedagogy. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 73, 21-30. Kaplan, F. (1998). Dickens: A biography. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Lakoff, G., & Johnson M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Menand, L. (2010). The marketplace of ideas: Reform and resistance in the American university. New York: Norton. Nussbaum, M. (2010). Not for profit: Why democracy needs the humanities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Nussbaum, M. (1995). Poetic justice. Boston: Beacon Press. Rhoads, R. (2000). Democratic citizenship and service learning: Advancing the caring self. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 82, 37-44. Sheats, P.D. (1973). The making of Wordsworth’s poetry 1785–1798. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Shelley, P.B. (2002). Shelley’s poetry and prose. New York: Norton. Vermeule, B. (2010). Why do we care about literary characters? Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Weigert, K.M. (1998). Academic service learning: Its meaning and relevance. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 73, 3-10. Wordsworth, W. (1969-70). The letters of William and Dorothy Wordsworth: The middle years. (2nd ed.). E. de Selincourt, M. Moorman, & A. G. Hill. (Eds.). Oxford: Clarendon. Wordsworth, W. (2002). Lyrical ballads and related writings. W. Richey and D. Robinson (Eds.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

THE POLITICAL COMPLEXITIES OF ESTABLISHING A UNIVERSITY-SPONSORED CHARTER SCHOOL AS AN INTERDISCIPLINARY SERVICE-LEARNING OPPORTUNITY Michael W. Ledoux, Stephen C. Wilhite and Paula Silver Widener University; Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT When attempts at supporting the local school district seemed hopeless, the University decided that forming a small charter school would have the most impact on the community, given the size of the institutions and resources available. This chapter outlines some of the unforeseen complexities of that initiative and the political and logistical hurdles associated with its inception.

INTRODUCTION Many models of civic engagement projects can be found at large, state-supported or private, endowment-driven universities. As described in Chapter 1, Widener University is an independent, tuition-driven, metropolitan, comprehensive teaching institution, with a strong emphasis on professional education. In establishing and implementing a strategic vision and mission focused on civic engagement in 2004, the university‘s president, Dr. James T. Harris, looked to the university‘s School of Human Service Professions (SHSP) to assume a leadership role. SHSP is composed of four units: the Center for Education (undergraduate, masters and doctoral), the Center for Social Work Education (undergraduate, masters and doctoral), the Institute Graduate Clinical Psychology, and the Institute for Physical Therapy Education (doctoral). SHSP‘s Center for Education has consistently sought opportunities for partnering with the local school district to support classroom instruction and professional development of teachers. In the early 1990‘s, the Center for Education offered education

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methods courses on site at three elementary schools and conducted recurring planning meetings with two of the schools in the district. Later, just before Pres. Harris‘ arrival, Center for Education faculty mounted a multi-year grant-supported project that focused on enriching the math curriculum in one of the district‘s elementary schools and supporting classroom teachers in enhancing their skills in delivering that curriculum. The Center for Social Work Education also has a long history of community engagement with the city of Chester and in 2000 established the Social Work Consultation Services (SWCS, now known as the Social Work Counseling Services) to help serve the needs of the severely disadvantaged local community. SWCS is a university-sponsored field placement agency whose undergraduate and graduate social work interns provide a variety of programs and services to residents of Chester under the supervision of SWCS-employed professional staff (Silver, Poulin, & Wilhite, 2006; Starnes, 2010). With funding provided primarily by small foundation grants and contracts from local governmental and non-governmental agencies, SWCS existed as a low-profile, departmental effort until Pres. Harris‘ arrival at Widener in 2002. By the time the university‘s strategic plan was launched in 2005, SWCS had become a widely cited exemplar of how civic engagement in the service of furthering students‘ acquisition of professional competencies can benefit both the university and the community.

THE UNIVERSITY’S NEW MISSION In implementing the university‘s new strategic plan, one of Pres. Harris‘ earliest restructuring moves was to create the Office of Community Engagement, headed by a special assistant to the president who reports directly to him. This office is charged with pursuing new opportunities for partnerships with community entities and for coordinating all of the university‘s community outreach. In establishing this office, the President made it clear that the civic engagement initiative would be receiving his direct attention. Through community contacts developed by the special assistant, important community leaders were identified to serve on the President‘s Community Advisory Board. The President has met with this Board regularly to explore a variety of community issues and how the university can respond in ways that enrich the educational experience of Widener students. The creation of this office was an important symbolic move that demonstrated the president‘s commitment to advancing the university‘s new mission as articulated in the strategic plan: As a leading metropolitan university, we achieve our mission at Widener by creating a learning environment where curricula are connected to societal issues through civic engagement. We lead by providing a unique combination of liberal arts and professional education in a challenging, scholarly, and culturally diverse academic community. We engage our students through dynamic teaching, active scholarship, personal attention, and experiential learning. We inspire our students to be citizens of character who demonstrate professional and civic leadership. We contribute to the vitality and well-being of the communities we serve (Widener University, 2004, p. 2).

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Along with the mission came specific strategic goals which include: addressing the region‘s most pressing concerns; raising the profile of Widener among metropolitan leaders; and, encouraging innovation in teaching, scholarship, and program development (Widener University, 2004). These new mandates led to a series of new university level (top down) programs for outreach into the community. Among these was a formal educational program on developing leadership skills offered to residents of the Sun Hill Community, a local neighborhood adjacent to the university where many students find housing. Developed by the Office of Community Engagement and the university‘s Center for Leadership and Organizational Development, the program was designed to help the neighborhood residents learn skills to more effectively address issues such as crime and community revitalization. A Chester Presidents‘ Council was established, a group of six college/university presidents representing institutions in the Chester region (Cheney, DELCO CC, Neumann, PSU – DELCO, Swarthmore, & Widener) organized by Pres. Harris to collaborate on education outreach initiatives for the Chester Upland School District. The Crozer-Widener Neighborhood Redevelopment Committee was formed as a partnership with Crozer-Keystone Health System to encourage educational, housing, and business opportunities in the Chester corridor between the two campuses. This initiative built on the earlier launching of University Technology Park. This was a Widener-Crozer joint-venture technology business park focused on providing state-of-the-art office facilities and technology support to attract high-tech companies to Chester. In 2004, the Office of Community Engagement began to offer the Academic Service-Learning Faculty Development Program, described in the preceding chapter. This provided faculty with resources and experiences to enable them to do one of the following: convert traditional course to an academic service-learning course; modify and enrich a course that is already being offered with an academic service-learning component; or develop a new course employing an academic service-learning methodology. The schools and colleges of the university, as part of the strategic plan, were each asked to review programs already underway in the community and, within the context of the strategic plan, seek new opportunities for engagement. The School of Human Service Professions had already offered many programs but had never actually grouped them together to evaluate their number and scope. The new plan asked for reporting of community outreach activities on a regular basis.

SHSP’S RESPONSE TO THE NEW MISSION As the largest unit of SHSP, the Center for Education had long worked with the local schools in reading tutoring using a form of the America Reads program. Most programs were done on a school-by-school basis with cooperation from principals who had been Widener students or were somehow connected with faculty members. One of the major obstacles with the school community was the changing district leadership. Within the span of five years, the district had four different superintendents. In 2005, the district‘s decade-long history of state control provided little evidence of sustained progress toward improved educational outcomes, as each shift in governor or political party control at the state level brought new attempts at reform. As the university and the Center for Education attempted to make greater inroads into

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the school community and offer assistance as needed, the school-by-school approach had to be de-emphasized as the state came to promote district-wide initiatives. In one of the first of these initiatives, the Center for Education was asked to come into the district with a grant from the state government to reestablish a curriculum in the district after the services of the educational management organization, Edison Schools, were terminated. The departure of Edison left the district with no consistent curriculum or materials for instruction. Throughout the process, the superintendent pledged support for and adherence to the curricular goals and committed the district to partnering with Widener on providing the professional development for teachers that would be required for implementing the new curriculum. However, lack of follow-through from the district office and a change of superintendent left the project in a half-completed mode. The Center for Education made year-long attempts to contact the district, arrange meetings, and work with administrators and teachers to finalize the project. In the end, the new superintendent used the grant money from the state to support new priorities and the curriculum project was abandoned. At the same time, the Center for Education worked with the Chester Education Foundation, a local non-profit organization, to establish Chester 21st Century Learning Centers. These centers were designed to establish curricular connections between school and after-school programs, deepen program offerings in the areas of math and reading, and expand program services. The centers helped to provide for professional development and reading support. The district‘s continued struggles with consistency and communication made many of the programs of these centers untenable. In the reading diagnosis and remediation program, Widener proposed to use doctoral students in a reading specialists program to diagnose students in the local schools with probable reading difficulties and then offer a remediation plan and actual after school remediation. The plan asked for a twelve students at a time, to provide effective diagnosis and consistent planning and instruction. Instead, each session, new students were sent, replacing the former. Classroom teachers refused to meet with the reading specialists to discuss students or plans, and students who were diagnosed were never sent for the prescribed remediation. Plans for expanding professional development, the use of Widener experts to assist with classroom support, and even the placement of student teachers and field experiences within schools were all thwarted because of lack of communication or district changes. These frequent changes in the CUSD administration, its unresponsiveness to offers of assistance, its penchant for dramatically altering course, its financial instability, and the uncertainties of state control motivated faculty and administrators in SHSP to look for ways to attempt meaningful educational reform in the district without being hamstrung by a bureaucracy infamous for its lethargy and lack of follow through.

NEED FOR A SENSE OF CONTROL AND MOMENTUM – THE CHARTER SCHOOL IS BORN With the continuing evidence of instability and unpredictability in the school district, Pres. Harris called a meeting of the Dean of SHSP and the Director of the Center for Education in the spring of 2005 to explore the possibility of a charter school. Many faculty members in the Center for Education, having spent their lives in public education, were not

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immediate fans of this proposal, and some had even done research on the negative impact of charter schools. The questions of resources, commitment to the district, relationships with other public schools upon whom the Center for Education depended, and various other ideological issues did not make this a readily accepted proposition. In order to overcome this opposition and to build support for the project in other units of SHSP, a founding coalition was established to investigate various university partnership options and to write a charter application. Selecting a team composed of members who had a vision consistent with that of the university‘s administration was not easy at first. There was a need to find education faculty who, despite reservations about charter schools, would be willing to serve as consultants. With impetus for the charter school coming from the highest levels of the administration, the leaders of SHSP concluded that it was important for the charter application not to be seen as solely an SHSP project. Then, as faculty from other units of SHSP and from the university‘s College of Arts and Sciences and the School of Nursing were identified as members of the coalition, education faculty who were not tapped to be part of the founding coalition took offence that non-education faculty were involved. This was an early indication of how complex managing the charter application process even within the university was going to be. In fact, most of the members of the founding coalition were opponents of charter schools in general, but because of the dismal prospects for improvements in the local public school district, a charter school was accepted as the only means of ensuring meaningful change. Different models were examined for the charter school. The primary exemplar of a university-sponsored elementary school project that was considered was the Penn Alexander School, a Philadelphia School District neighborhood school immediately adjacent to the Penn campus that represents a special form of partnership between the district and the university (Sydnor, 2008). The school is housed in a state-of-the-art facility whose design and construction was funded by Penn. Penn‘s Graduate School of Education plays a major collaborative role in all aspects of the school‘s functioning, including outreach to parents. A major component of this partnership that distinguishes it from Penn‘s other school partnerships is the extent to which the school has been excused from many district policies and procedures, e.g., staff hiring. Although Widener had no such exemption and was attempting to run a charter school, not a community school, and had far fewer resources than the University of Pennsylvania, many parts of the model, particularly the use of university resources to enrich programming and outreach to parents, were attractive. Another model investigated was that of the University of Chicago (UC). In this effort, UC‘s Urban Education Institute (The University of Chicago Urban Education Institute, 2010) has been assisted by Mayor Daley who has pushed aggressively for the development of charter schools in the city and who supported the district‘s giving the university the permission to open all five schools under the same charter (Lake & Rainey, 2005). The university has also been supported in its efforts by significant financial underwriting of its charter initiatives, including a $5 million grant from John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, and UC plans to raise a $110 million endowment to support its urban schools‘ initiative (Viadero, 2005, September 14). The University of Texas Elementary School (Institute for Public School Initiatives, 2010) was also investigated. As a research-based demonstration charter school, the school‘s goal is to provide an educational alternative for East Austin families, to serve as a training and development site for UT's students, and to be a model of an exemplary educational program for diverse learners.

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Throughout the process, the founding coalition maintained a commitment to developing a curriculum that enhanced the holistic development of the child. Given the multiple social and emotional vulnerabilities children from low socioeconomic communities suffer, there is wide agreement in the literature that school environments must provide a host of supports and nurturance both for students and for their families. In other words, the schools charged with educating children residing in impoverished communities must provide school communities that actively protect children from the adversity to which they are exposed in their neighborhood communities (Axelroth, 2009; Borman & Rachuba, 2001; Noddings, 1988). School physical plants and environments must represent a safe haven from the threats children experience in their surrounding communities. Outreach programs for parents are critically important in engaging them in their children‘s learning and in helping them gain the skills to support learning in the home (Ghurston, 2005; McNeal, 1999; Epstein, 2001; Wallace & Walberg, 1991). Appropriate ancillary, professional support, within the school to meet the challenges of special needs children and children exhibiting the many symptoms associated with the stressors of poverty, is needed to alleviate and minimize disruptions in classroom instruction. Most importantly, a holistic approach to curriculum is needed to make up for the lack of access to extracurricular enrichment activities usually available to their more affluent counterparts (Borman & Overman, 2004; Borman & Rachuba, 2001; Battistich, Solomon, Kim, Watson & Schaps, 1995; Catterall, 1998; Garmezy 1991; Hedges, Laine & Greenwald, 1994). Given the university‘s limited resources, the members of the coalition agreed early on that they would have to take an incremental approach to the implementation of the school (adding one grade per year) and that they were not able to build a PK-12 model. Instead, they limited the initial proposal to a K-5 school with a maximum capacity of 300 students. This resulted in the obvious question of where the students would go after fifth grade. The project moved forward with SHSP leaders visiting other model charter school operators in the region as an initial step in building possible partnerships that would lead to other charter school options becoming available by the time the fifth graders completed the Widener charter school.

THE EXTERNAL POLITICAL CONTEXT – THE SOMETIMES STRANGE BEDFELLOWS OF SCHOOL REFORM Once Widener announced that it would put resources behind the development and implementation of a charter school, it entered the complex political terrain of K-12 educational reform. When it was finalized, the charter application had to be presented at a public hearing before the Board of Control that had assumed administrative oversight of the Chester Upland School District (CUSD) as a result of state legislation focused on failing school districts. With the membership of the board determined by the Republican-controlled county leadership, the majority of the board favored development of charter schools for CUSD, seemingly convinced that the CUSD was beyond remediation and the only hope for the social and economic development of the city of Chester was the development of educational alternatives to the traditional public school settings. Despite the fact that the district had been under the direction of the Control Board since 1995, little improvement had

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been seen and financial management was still an issue. Adding to the complexity of this political context, the newly-appointed CUSD superintendent was allied with the new Democratic governor. Although the new governor was not necessarily opposed to not-forprofit charter schools, his administration chose to oppose the Republican power structure in the county over the issue of charter schools in the district, in deference to Democratic constituents in the county who opposed charters and to signal that his administration was looking to change the composition of the Control Board. This politically charged context for the administration of the school district reflected to some degree political divisions in the Chester community. On the one side was a very vocal group opposing charters for the district, arguing that the reallocation of state and district funds to charter schools would contribute to further decline of the public school system for Chester Upland. Less vocal and less wellorganized, but equally concerned, were parents and caregivers desperate for viable educational alternatives for the city‘s children. To consider the Widener charter application, the Board of Control called a special meeting, with very little notice, for a weekday afternoon, presumably so that fewer opponents would be present during the charter approval process. Widener‘s president, Dr. Harris, joined SHSP administrators in publicly presenting the application to the Board. Despite hostile questioning from the district superintendent and vocal opposition from some community activists, the Board voted its approval with little indication from the questions posed that members had read the painstakingly assembled application (Roman, 2006, February 26). Prior to the hearing, Dr. Harris and the SHSP dean, Stephen Wilhite, had spent much time and effort in speaking to politicians and local power brokers about the project. In forming what were seen within the university as alliances with politically conservative factions, the university‘s leadership had to justify anew to important campus constituencies the decision to undertake this course of action. Once the charter application was approved, there remained the problem of finding a facility to house the school. The initial site considered was a local parochial school, close to the Widener campus, that was on the verge of closing. When this possible location for the charter school was revealed during the approval process, the principal and parents of children at the school denounced Widener‘s intentions and mounted a campaign to save the school (Cornfield, 2005, November 17; Cornfield, 2005, November 19; Mengers, 2005, December 18) When the Archdiocese of Philadelphia subsequently announced a plan to keep the school open (Logue, 2006, March 4), university officials scrambled to find another location for the charter school. Next, a building that housed a faltering charter school was considered. However, that option was quickly abandoned as Widener did not want to appear to be hastening the demise of the school occupying the building and could not risk offending local political leaders with ties to that school. Dealing with local real estate speculators and investors was a learning experience. Despite Chester‘s long economic decline and the number of vacant properties in the city, the university‘s efforts to identify an appropriate building were hampered by the perception of realtors and owners that the university possesses deep pockets. Once it was known that the university had an interest in a building, the price quickly inflated. As it became obvious that a permanent home for the school would not be found by the deadline specified in the charter approval, a temporary site was found at a local community hospital where another charter school previously had classrooms. Although it was quickly determined that the space could be made adequate for the school‘s first year of operation, the site was far from ideal. Many

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stakeholders in the project (e.g., parents, Widener faculty members, the school‘s principal) had concerns about the juxtaposition of the charter school with a social service agency that was serving substance abusers, clients of mental health services, and geriatric patients. With those concerns addressed through elaborate staffing and logistical arrangements designed to keep WPCS children separated from other users of the community hospital facility, the school‘s opening was threatened less than a month prior to the first day of school. A notice was served that the school did not have the correct zoning permit, even though no permit had been required for the previous charter school. This action was a direct result of a complaint from a hospital employee, and it gave opponents of the project one last opportunity to stop it. Once again, the university had to resort to local political power brokers to have a special zoning board meeting convened just one week prior to the school‘s opening. Although the zoning permit was approved, the episode was a powerful reminder of the difficulties inherent in navigating the political landscape of a distressed school district, even when the project is modest in scope and clearly focused on making positive change.

SHSP EMBRACES THE WIDENER PARTNERSHIP CHARTER SCHOOL Despite the external obstacles, the project progressed, and university support for the project, especially in SHSP, grew. Faculty and administrators came to see numerous ways in which Widener students and faculty could contribute to the school and simultaneously reap educational and professional development benefits. Especially appealing was the school‘s focus on the holistic development of the child and partnering with families in the education of their children. With the enthusiasm came some professional jealousy. Social work was criticized for ―assuming ownership‖ of the project, in large part because of the major role that unit played in nurturing community support and input during the development and approval of the charter school proposal. Education faculty began to assert their ―natural leadership‖ in the development of curriculum, learning objectives, and school policies and procedures. Clinical psychology faculty and administrators fretted that their school psychologists were not being centrally involved in plans for assessing children admitted to the school and for implementing services to support students‘ academic success. Part of the competition for involvement in planning and implementation was based on the prominence given to the project by Pres. Harris. As the charter school became a symbolically important symbol of the university‘s commitment to the Chester community, every unit of SHSP wanted to be prominently involved in the school‘s implementation. This desire to serve the school in turn heightened competition for resources needed to support involvement in the school, including competition for involvement in grant submissions.

Meeting the Continuing Challenges Despite the growing university support for the charter school, the actual launching of the school brought its own host of challenges. For example, the hierarchical nature of the school‘s

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emerging organization was often at odds with the expectations of university faculty that they would be collegially involved in making decisions on major issues such as curriculum. Ultimately, the school implementation team, made up of SHSP administrators, had to let go of the initial vision of shared decision making to allow the principal and her teachers to move forward, while working out new collaborative relationships between the school and SHSP. In addition, the university infrastructure was taxed to assist the charter school with its start-up. This meant that many of the basic services at the university, like office painting and maintenance, had to be delayed because of the charter school‘s priority. Difficulties with the transportation of students arose. Issues with the district emerged, such as the minimum required age for kindergartners to be eligible for reimbursement from the district and the mechanisms for reporting daily attendance. The location of the school in the hospital setting presented challenges for internal security systems, and the implementation of universityprovided interdisciplinary teams presented scheduling challenges to both the school and SHSP. Resource and funding needs became apparent. The percentage of students that would receive extra funding was lower than anticipated. In addition to an initial layout for capital improvement, the university was taking on other costs. For some in-kind services which could be offered (e.g., neuropsychological assessments), there was no effective means of being reimbursed through traditional sources. In keeping with the school‘s hospital setting, the concept of triage was repeatedly invoked in those early months of the school‘s operation. Perhaps the most significant challenge of all during the school‘s first year was the attempt of the school district‘s reconstituted governing board, now dubbed the Empowerment Board, to impose a charter school enrollment cap for the district (Hardy, 2007, March 30). Although this cap was aimed at stemming the growth of the large for-profit charter school in the district, its effect would have included preventing the incremental implementation of WPCS and its early growth of 50 students up to its ultimate target enrollment of 300. Raucous public hearings in which parents and supporters of charter schools in the district engaged in heated exchanges with members of the Empowerment Board and with opponents of charter schools failed to prevent the board‘s adoption of the cap (Hardy, 2007, April 19; Rose, 2007, April 19; Rose, 2007, April 27). As a result, Widener had to join with the for-profit charter school in a lawsuit to challenge the enrollment cap. Ultimately, the case went to the state‘s supreme court (Brisson, 2008, July 7), and the case only ended in August of 2008 when the district‘s Empowerment Board withdrew its appeal of lower court decisions that the enrollment cap was illegal.

Evolution of the Widener Partnership Charter School Despite the challenges of that first year, an additional class of kindergartners was added in Fall 2007, enrollment increased to 150 students, and the school moved to a larger permanent facility, initially occupying renovated second floor of a technology park office building on the edge of the Widener campus. This new home for the charter school became available when the university‘s Board of Trustees approved the university‘s purchase of the building from a community partner with whom the university had jointly built the facility as a small business incubator. In the Fall of 2008, with the addition of another new cohort of kindergartners, the school grew to encompass grades K-3, enrollment grew to 200 students, and the school expanded to occupy additional renovated space in the new permanent facility.

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By the Fall of 2010, the school will reach its total target enrollment of 300 students in grades K-5 and will fully occupy the completely renovated building in which it is now housed. In the Spring of 2009, WPCS participated for the first time in the Pennsylvania State System of Assessment (PSSA) when the school‘s third graders took standardized tests in reading and math to determine whether the school has made adequate yearly progress (AYP) as defined by the No Child Left Behind act. With 76% of WPCS students performing at the proficient or advanced levels in reading and 70% of them performing at the proficient or advanced levels in math, WPCS did achieve AYP, as the cutoffs for that benchmark at the third-grade level were 63% in reading and 56% in math. Furthermore, WPCS third graders clearly outperformed third graders in the rest of the Chester Upland School District, where the corresponding percentages of proficient or advanced students were 46% for reading and 54% for math. These very positive indicators of the school‘s success in promoting the academic achievement of the children of Chester are seen as initial validation of the school‘s focus on partnering with parents. Through the involvement of SHSP faculty members and graduate students from Social Work, Clinical Psychology, Education, and Physical Therapy in Interdisciplinary Resource Teams, the University provides the charter school with a myriad of resources to help parents achieve effective involvement in their children‘s schoolwork and meaningful engagement with their children‘s school. University-provided resources enable the school to fulfill its commitment to provide its students with a holistic education through promoting their social, emotional, and physical development. This collaborative approach provides the charter school‘s administrators and teachers with the ability to utilize University resources to offer the services necessary to meet the needs of Chester children and their families. The school‘s holistic approach offers the following salient features: 

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Music, art, drama, foreign language, technology, and writing are fundamental components of an enriched curriculum to develop students‘ skills in reading, math, and emotional competence and to promote holistic student development. Widener Education faculty members and undergraduate and graduate students work in partnership with the school‘s principal and teachers to plan and implement the curriculum. With an unusually low student to teacher ratio of 17:1, students receive individualized instruction that is augmented by consistent in-class assistance from Widener Education faculty members and students. Through the Interdisciplinary Resource Teams, major emphasis on intervention and prevention targets the behavioral, emotional, and familial factors that can undermine effective instruction and learning. Interventions include ongoing counseling services to students with particular needs and assisting families with establishing the skills and self-confidence necessary to guide students‘ academic progress. The school engages parents and caregivers as partners in its holistic approach through the Parent Caregiver Council. In addition to providing a forum for family participation in the school‘s operation, the Parent Caregiver Council provides training for parents in math, literacy, and technology skills to increase their effectiveness as partners in their children‘s education and their role as mentors.

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In essence, the charter school has become the focal point for SHSP‘s emphasis on interdisciplinary collaboration (School of Human Service Professions, 2006). By including the school‘s principal/CEO in monthly meetings of SHSP‘s Executive Committee, the dean has provided a forum within which services and supports from SHSP faculty and students can be coordinated so as to address clear needs of students, families, and teachers at the school without the university-provided resources becoming a burden on the school‘s administration, This collaboration has resulted in multiple service-learning opportunities for both undergraduate and graduate students The richness of these placement opportunities for SHSP students and the potential for faculty members‘ service at the school to become a part of their scholarship agenda has contributed importantly to the charter school‘s being embraced as one of SHSP‘s most significant engagements with the Chester community. Indeed, there is growing evidence that the charter school‘s existence positively impacts SHSP‘s recruitment of students and faculty because of its prominence as a symbol of the university‘s outreach and commitment to Chester. Furthermore, the SHSP Executive Committee is currently formulating ways in which the University can systematically assess the impact that placement of Widener students at the charter school is positively impacting their learning outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS: LESSONS LEARNED As WPCS nears the end of its first five-year charter, there are some obvious lessons for other small, tuition-driven universities that may be considering the mounting of a charter school to contribute to meeting the K-12 educational needs of an under-served community. 

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Presidential commitment to the project is essential. Without Pres. Harris‘ unwavering commitment to the school, WPCS would not be a reality today. Without his encouragement and support, the charter application would never have been drafted, and without his lobbying the application might never have been approved. He took the primary leadership role in finding and funding the purchase of the facility that now houses the school, and he unequivocally committed the university to fighting in court the attempted charter school enrollment cap that would have prevented the implementation of the school. Only his championing of the project as an integral part of the university‘s mission in serving the community ensured that administrative offices at the university, such as human resources, maintenance, and controller, would be willing and able to absorb major support functions for the school. University faculty buy-in to the project is important. As delivering K-12 education is not part of the mission of universities, even those committed to serving their communities, it is important that university faculty who do have knowledge and skills important to the charter school‘s success are supportive of the effort. The Widener Partnership Charter School has become a symbol of the university‘s commitment to serving the community in part because the charter school has been become an integral part of the university‘s School of Human Service Professions. A growing number of SHSP faculty are directly involved at the charter school in service activities that also have the potential to contribute directly to their

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professional development as university teachers and scholars. The faculty‘s involvement in turn facilitates the involvement of university students at the charter school. To the extent that internships and service-learning experiences at WPCS become highly visible and desirable learning opportunities for Widener University students, the work of the Dean of SHSP in convincing donors, university trustees, and other university constituencies of the charter school‘s centrality to the university‘s educational mission is made easier. University leaders of a charter school initiative must be prepared for a complex political experience. University leaders, especially those below the presidential and senior most levels in private institutions, are often relatively insulated from political forces operating outside the institution. It is important, therefore, that they enter into any major initiative in K-12 educational reform prepared for the political battles that will inevitably come. This preparation should include an awareness of not only the intricate and ever-changing body of school law but also the affective toll that seemingly unprincipled public attacks on them will take. In withstanding these sometimes withering criticisms from community activists, university leaders need the support of their internal political constituents, including the university‘s president, and the families of the children being served by the project. To have this type of support from families, the university leaders need to have established a sense of partnership with those families. For example, Widener‘s decision to fight the enrollment cap that would have stopped the development of WPCS was made easier by the public display of support for the school that parents provided at the raucous public hearings on the cap. In turn, Pres. Harris‘ meeting face-to-face with parents to assure them of the university‘s commitment to fighting the cap helped convince parents that Widener is a dependable partner. Finding supplemental financial resources to support the project is essential. To provide the enriched educational programming and the outreach to families that are the hallmarks of WPCS, the university has supported the charter school in pursuing a number of grants from private and governmental sources. Even with significant grant support, in some years the university has had to provide supplemental funding to the school, in part because the incremental model of adding one grade per year has limited the school‘s district-provided per pupil reimbursement without the school‘s being able to postpone the implementation of the full range of educational programming. Even when the school reaches its full enrollment, grant support will continue to be needed to support a number of programs focused on partnering with families and promoting the social and emotional learning of students in the school.

Despite the complexities of such an undertaking, the leaders of Widener‘s School of Human Service Professions strongly urge other university to take up the challenge. Universities are uniquely positioned to partner with their communities to establish small-scale models of K-12 educational reform that can be replicated across the country. In turn, these models can attract other non-profit entities to sponsor and develop high quality charter schools, as has been the case in Chicago (Lake & Rainey, 2005). In the process, these universities can provide their students with immensely meaningful opportunities for service learning and civic engagement.

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REFERENCES Axelroth, R. (2009). The community schools approach: Raising graduation and college going rates – Community high school case studies. Washington, DC: Coalition for Community Schools, Institute for Educational Leadership. Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Kim, D., Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1995). Schools as communities, poverty levels of student populations, and students‘ attitudes, motives, and performance: A multilevel analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 627658. Borman, G. D., & Overman, L. T. (2004). Academic resilience in mathematics among poor and minority students. Elementary School Journal, 104. 175-195. Borman, G., & Rachuba, L.(2001). Academic success among poor and minority students: An analysis of competing models of school effect. Baltimore: Center for Research on Education of Students Placed at Risk. Brisson, A. (2008, July 7). State Supreme Court agrees to weigh charter caps. The Delaware County Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/2008/ 07/07/today's%20stories/19836121.prt Catterall, J. S. (1998). Risk and resilience in student transitions to high school. American Journal of Education. 106, 302-333. Cornfield, J. (2005, November 17). City‘s last Catholic school has fallen on hard times. The Delaware County Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/ 2005/11/17/today's%20stories/15590068.prt Cornfield, J. (2005, November 19). St. Katharine parents map plans. The Delaware County Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/2005/11/19/today's %20stories/15605447.txt Epstein, J. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Garmezy, N.. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416-430. Ghurston, D., (2005). Leveling the home advantage: Assessing the effectiveness of parental involvement in elementary school. Sociology of Education; 78, 233-249. Hardy, D. (2007, March 30). School board postpones charter vote. Philadelphia Inquirer, p. B1. Hardy, D. (2007, April 19). Chester Upland charter plan assailed. Philadelphia Inquirer, p. B8. Hedges, L., Laine, R., & Greenwald, R. (1994). Does money matter? A meta-analysis of studies of the effects of differential school inputs and student outcomes. Educational Researcher, 23, 5-14. Institute for Public School Initiatives. (2010). UT Elementary School (UTES). Retrieved from http://www.utsystem.edu/ipsi/elemcharter.html. Lake R. J., & Rainey, L. (2005). Chasing the blues away: Charter schools scale up in Chicago. Washington, DC: Progressive Policy Institute. Logue, T. (2006, March 4). Miracle in Chester: St. Katharine Drexel School saved. The Delaware County Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/ 2006/03/04/today's%20stories/16239134.prt

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Mengers, P. (2005, December 18). Katharine Drexel community riding on the wings of angels. The Delaware County Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.delcotimes.com/ articles/2005/12/18/community%20news/15775477.prt McNeal, R. (1999). Parental involvement as social capital: Differential effectiveness on science achievement, truancy, and dropping out. Social Forces, 78, 117-144. Noddings, N. (1988). An ethic of caring and its implications for instructional arrangements. American Journal of Education, 96, 215-231. Roman, J. (2006, February 26). Pileggi, Kirkland at odds over charter schools. The Delaware County Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/2006/02/26/ community%20news/16200561.prt Rose, A. (2007, April 19). C.U. charter cap plan polarizing district. The Delaware County Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/2007/04/19/ allarounddelco/your%20town%20news/18230948.prt Rose, A. (2007, April 27). Chester Upland Board votes to put cap on charter schools. The Delaware County Daily Times. Retrieved from http://www.delcotimes.com/articles/ 2007/04/27/today's%20stories/18268933.prt School of Human Service Professions. (2006). Strategic plan. Chester, PA: Widener University. Silver, P. T., Poulin, J. E., & Wilhite, S. C. (2006). From rogue program to poster child: A department‘s shaping of a university‘s agenda. In K. Kecskes (Ed.), Engaging departments: Moving faculty culture from private to public, individual to collective focus for the common good (pp 45-62). Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Starnes, S. (2010). Caring for Chester neighbors. Widener Magazine, 20(1), 10-11. Sydnor, S. (2008). Designing an exemplar: University of Pennsylvania and the Penn Alexander School. Retrieved from http://www.publicschoolinsights.org/designingexemplar-university-pennsylvania-and-penn-alexander-school Viadero, D. (2005, September 14). University of Chicago steps up work on city schools. Education Week, 25(3), pp 3-12. Wallace, T., & Walberg, H. (1991). Parental partnerships for learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 15, 131-145. Widener University (2004). Strategic plan. Chester, PA: Author.

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 8

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMMUNITY CLINIC: HOW A SIGNATURE PROJECT CAN MOBILIZE COMMITMENT TO SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY Kerstin M. Palombaro, Robin L. Dole and Jill Black Lattanzi Widener University; Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The Institute for Physical Therapy Education at Widener University has made a concerted effort to grow its community engagement initiatives over the last five years. This chapter will describe the evolution of the initiatives including the creation and launch of The Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic, a student-led clinic at Widener University‘s Institute for Physical Therapy Education. The Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic provides physical therapy services to the uninsured and underinsured of Chester, PA. Students are supervised at the Clinic by volunteer licensed physical therapists and are advised by physical therapy faculty. Alumni connections to the Clinic are created through alumni acting as supervising therapists, alumni fundraising campaigns, and graduating class gifts. The chapter will describe how single-day community health events and multi-semester community health projects contributed to the collaborative community partnerships and student-buy-in so essential to the success of the Clinic. Sustainability of the Clinic and the overall Institute for Physical Therapy community engagement initiatives is ensured through the use of volunteers; the involvement of multiple classes of students as board members; the plans to connect all community engagement opportunities to the Clinic; and the creation of future community programming at the Clinic. Institutes of higher education are embracing the ideal of bettering the communities in which they reside. Attention is being given to the development of reciprocal, mutually beneficial and sustainable community relationships. The impact is felt not only in the community, but also within the classroom. Students are challenged to embrace a spirit of engaged citizenship, while simultaneously developing expertise in their respective areas of study. Universities are challenged to conscientiously consider the perceived needs of the community and attend to the development of culturally sensitive and appropriate programming and initiatives with attention to measuring outcomes, effectiveness and

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Kerstin M. Palombaro, Robin L. Dole and Jill Black Lattanzi community satisfaction (Crump & Sugarman, 2008; Pechak & Cleaver, 2009; Reynolds, 2005, 2009; Village, 2006) . Widener University is one such institution. Under the leadership of a new president, the university embraced in 2004 a mission to create ―a learning environment where curricula are connected to societal issues through civic engagement‖ (Widener University, 2004, p. 1.). Responding to this call, many schools and departments have sought to offer programs and learning opportunities that would serve both students and residents of the disadvantaged community in which Widener is located. The Institute for Physical Therapy Education (IPTE) is a three-year graduate program leading to the degree Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) and annually admits approximately 40 new students. The IPTE mission mirrors the University mission with a call to develop physical therapists who are engaged citizens (Widener University, 2007). Professionally, the American Physical Therapy Association‘s Core Values document calls for physical therapists to exhibit altruism and social responsibility (American Physical Therapy Association, 2003). Hence, the mandate has been present on multiple levels to have physical therapy students make a positive impact on their local communities; however, historically the Widener physical therapy program has had only a few community engagement opportunities that have likely had minimal impact on the community or the students. As part of its strategic planning process, the Widener physical therapy program endeavored to make changes to create stronger and more sustainable initiatives that would be mutually beneficial to both students and the local community. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the physical therapy program‘s attempt to develop a community engagement program by encouraging student, faculty, and alumni buy-in, fostering effective community partnerships, and growing sustainable community engagement initiatives that would have high positive impacts on all constituencies involved. The culminating project to date has been the creation and launch of The Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic, a student-run pro-bono clinic serving the physical therapy needs of the uninsured and underinsured residents of Chester and the surrounding community. The chapter will describe this signature project as well as the emergent conceptual framework that arose from the evolution of community engagement initiatives and the fostering of a culture of community engagement. The chapter will end with an assessment considering essential elements for sustainability, key to any community engagement initiative program.

PART I: THE SIGNATURE PROJECT: A STUDENT-RUN CLINIC Overview of the Signature Project The Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic is a student-run clinic that provides compassionate and cost-effective physical therapy care to the uninsured and underinsured residents of Chester. For a nominal fee-for-service, physical therapy students, under the supervision of a licensed physical therapist, provide skilled physical therapy services for Chester community members who do not have access to local physical therapy clinics due to their uninsured status or because they have been discharged from local physical therapy clinics due to having exhausted their insurance benefits for physical therapy. The clinic opened its doors on September 15, 2009. It is presently open four evenings a week for two hours each evening and operates completely under student leadership. General physical

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therapy services are offered three evenings and the fourth evening is dedicated to providing physical therapy services to a pediatric clientele and their families.

Needs Assessment The idea to establish a pro bono clinic on the university campus in Chester first arose after physical therapy students returned from serving in a pro bono clinic in West Philadelphia. A number of students had taken the opportunity to work in the Mercy Physical Therapy Clinic for the Uninsured, a pro bono service of the Mercy Fitzgerald Hospital System in nearby Philadelphia (Johnson, Maritz, & Lefever, 2006). They greatly appreciated the opportunity to practice their skills and to meet a community need. They returned questioning why the Widener physical therapy program was not operating its own clinic in the midst the university‘s very impoverished community. In January of 2008, the physical therapy program charged two faculty members to investigate the feasibility of opening a pro bono clinic in Balin Hall, a building that was previously used as a doctor‘s office and had been donated to the university. Balin Hall was approximately 5 blocks from campus, and had 750 square feet of open space for a possible physical therapy clinic. The faculty toured the existing space in Balin Hall and began to create a wish list for clinic renovations as well as equipment needs. The faculty also conducted an initial needs assessment with a local hospital system and local physical therapists for an estimate of the percentage of uninsured and underinsured in Chester who might require physical therapy, as well as the types of diagnoses that might be seen within this community. They found that all local clinics would have clients that they could and would refer to the clinic. They also found that children with disabilities and middleaged adults who had sustained a stroke might be two populations of clients with particular physical therapy needs extending beyond most insurance allowances. Additionally, these faculty members began pursuing grant funding to launch the clinic. With the needs assessment results in mind, the IPTE made a commitment to move forward with the project. Meeting Physical Space and Equipment Needs A fund was established to accept donations for the project and a number of faculty members and alumni made inaugural financial donations. The Class of 2008 donated enough money to purchase a plinth (a physical therapy treatment table). The Physical Therapy Student Association of 2008 matched the donation enabling the purchase of a second plinth. A physical therapy and rehabilitation supply company offered the high quality plinths at a reduced rate which resulted in a relationship through which a number of items were bought at significantly discounted prices and many other items donated. With both monetary and inkind donations, the facility acquired enough needed furniture and equipment for operations to commence, but the physical space itself was in great need of renovation if it was to be accessible and functional for physical therapy practice. A grant for capital improvements from Widener University allowed for the opening of doorways and removal of walls to make the building‘s interior accessible to wheelchairs. Projects supported by the grant which greatly improved accessibility from the outside included updating and widening of the entrance door, installation of a ramp and railing, parking lot paving, and handicapped accessible parking spaces. Inside the facility, the clinic area needed a new floor. The Class of 2009 and Physical Therapy Student Association of 2009 both contributed money that allowed for the purchase of laminate flooring materials. A

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father of a student donated his skill and expertise to install the floor. These changes dramatically transformed the space, creating an inviting and functional environment for the meeting of physical therapy needs. The faculty felt strongly that they wanted a space that did not resemble a sterile medical clinic, but rather created a warm and welcoming feeling for clients who would be coming in to receive care. The donations and work of many brought this vision to fruition.

A Student-Run Clinic Model The initial clinic model envisioned was one in which faculty would be responsible for clinic operations as well as supervision of students in the clinic. A dramatic shift in plans occurred in March of 2009 when the two faculty members, along with two students, attended a student-run conference about student-run medical clinics. The attendees were exposed to various models of student-run clinics around the country, most chiefly operated by medical students. The attendees left the conference with a new vision of clinic management with student leadership at the helm. They crafted an organizational chart with a Student Board across two classes of students at the heart of leadership (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Clinic Organizational Chart.

The Student Board is overseen by the Faculty Board as well as the supervising licensed physical therapists. The Faculty Board consists of representatives from the physical therapy program faculty with an interest and experience in community engagement. They guide and steer the Student Board in overall clinic operations, strategic planning, and community outreach. The licensed physical therapists provide onsite supervision of clinical care during clinical operating hours. To date, the licensed volunteer physical therapists supervisors have all been alumni of the program. Additionally, an Advisory Board consisting of a number of physical therapy program alumni, university representatives, community partners, local medical community members, and Student Board clinic coordinators, will provide guidance and direction to the clinic as it plans for its future.

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Eight positions comprise the Student Board. Two students, one from the third year class and one from the second year class, fill each of the positions. The overlap of the two appointees allows for continuity through the year as second- and third-year students rotate off campus for their clinical internship experiences at different times; this allows for one class of Student Board members to take a lead role in clinic management while the other class is on their internship (see Figure 2). First-year students are given the opportunity to apply for Student Board positions in the second semester of their first year. Coordination and communication are essential for the transitioning of clinic staff during internship rotations, and the sharing of positions facilitates the smooth, ongoing operation of the clinic.

Figure 2. Schedule of Student Board Operating Clinic.

Students apply for positions on the Student Board in the second semester of their first year. The positions are entirely voluntary, and no payment or course credit are given. Students are told to expect to average working eight to ten hours in a week. Student Board membership is presented as a privilege and a responsibility; and, to date, filling the positions with interested and well-qualified applicants has not been a challenge. In the first semester, most Student Board members contributed at least 50 hours of service in connection with the clinic.

Collaborative Relationships The clinic sought to establish collaborative relationships with the existing entities of the local medical and university communities and pursued ways in which they might support one another. Figure 3 demonstrates the collaborative relationships between these entities. Within

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the university, for example, a neuropsychological assessment center and social work counseling service already serve the needs of community members. The clinic approached these related entities about cross referral of clients in need. The local medical community consists of a number of physical therapy clinics, many employing alumni of the physical therapy program. The clinic in no way wanted to compete with existing physical therapy clinics but rather serve as a resource for referral of clients who exhausted their physical therapy benefits. Likewise, primary care physician clinics could refer clients in need of physical therapy but without a physical therapy care insurance benefit.

Figure 3. Collaborative Relationships.

Reflection upon Growth & Considerations for Sustainability The establishment of the Student Board and the Faculty Board and the practice of using volunteer alumni physical therapists have contributed to the growth and sustainability of the clinic. The establishment of student leadership lightened the burden of time and responsibility on the faculty. Faculty Board members are not involved in the everyday planning and operation of the clinic. They do not attend the weekly Student Board meetings. Their responsibilities involve providing support and guidance to the Student Board as needed. Faculty members not serving on the Faculty Board are not mandated to provide any service hours, but the clinic affords all physical therapy program faculty an opportunity for involvement if they wish. Faculty can choose to supervise clinical care; hold class in the clinic; or provide consultation on a case in their area of expertise. This structure has helped to secure faculty buy-in for the clinic while protecting their time and responsibilities. Sustainability is also enhanced by the fact that the clinic is not solely led by one faculty member who might move on at some point, resulting in a loss of momentum. Likewise, it is not led by one particular class of committed students. The structure dictates that several faculty members are involved as well as a hierarchy of classes. Additionally, the licensed supervision of care is provided by an ever increasing pool of alumni volunteer therapists. The

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size of the pool insures that appropriate supervision will be available regardless of supervisor turnover. The clinic design is built for sustainability regardless of personnel change on the part of faculty or students or alumni. The clinic model of student leadership has greatly contributed to student buy-in, an essential element of sustainability (Gray, Ondaatje, & Zakaras, 1999; Smith, Cohen, & Raybuck, 2001). The students have embraced their roles and responsibilities and devote hours of service both in the planning and implementation of the clinic operations. The structure allows them to assume ownership of the project, and they carry out their functions with great quality and pride. As shown in Box 1, student reflections reveal the commitment, ownership, and value that they place on the clinic and their experiences as a Student Board member. Box 1. Student Board Members‘ Reflective Statements “This has been a great leadership experience that will look great to future employees as well as give me experience in working with other physical therapists and supervisors.” “The benefits and learning experiences that I have had with this clinic have been extensive and extremely rewarding…Not many students have the opportunity to say that they have been part of the inaugural board of a physical therapy clinic, but I get to have that honor.” “By far the greatest benefit is touching the lives of patients who cannot otherwise afford care. They are so grateful and you can tell we are actually having an impact on their lives.” “One of the greatest benefits I have received from serving on this board is a feeling of self worth. I love the feeling that what I am doing can really benefit someone in any way.” “I have never been in a formal leadership position before and I actually never thought I would have one. However, after this experience, it is hard imagining not being in one.” “Being a member of the Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic Student Board has truly impacted my growth and not just as a physical therapy student but as a person and has greatly enhanced my graduate school experience. I believe as Board members, we all have the opportunity to be positive leaders for other students and our patients.” Another key element for sustainability has been the roles available to alumni. Placing alumni physical therapists in supervisory roles serves two purposes. First, it allows for clinic sustainability that is not dependent upon the presence of one faculty person. Second, it provides alumni a connection to the program after graduation. Current students involved with the clinic may be more likely to return to volunteer after graduation, thus expanding our list of supervising physical therapists. The Faculty Board envisions a supervisor mentorship program whereby more experienced alumni supervising clinicians might mentor new

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graduates in the elements of student supervision with attention to curricular links and professional development (Figure 4). The clinic provides several means by which alumni might stay engaged with the program. In addition to volunteering as alumni supervisors, they might choose to give monetary or in-kind donations to the clinic. They might also refer patients to the clinic from the settings in which they practice after graduation.

Figure 4. Community Engagement Initiatives Schematic.

Lastly, the clinic model is cost effective. Student leadership and alumni supervisors are volunteering their time. The space is owned, maintained, and operated by the university at no charge to the clinic. These conditions allow the clinic to operate on a small budget and thus further ensure its sustainability. The establishment of the Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic serves to further enhance relationships with local community members and partners and could not have been founded without the building blocks of those relationships. The physical therapy program had several fledging volunteer and service-learning projects that evolved into a more comprehensive community engagement program which helped to support and sustain the launch of the clinic. The following section will describe the evolution of a culture of community engagement as well the specific physical therapy community engagement initiatives that contributed to the evolution.

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PART II: THE EVOLUTION OF A COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT INITIATIVE Development of a Culture of Community Engagement Historically, students from the program participate in both one-day events scheduled throughout the year as well as ongoing programs in the community. Some of these initiatives are formal service-learning courses with a link to coursework and course objectives, while others are traditional volunteer opportunities (Reynolds, 2009). All possessed elements of community engagement with attention to community needs. However, they lacked a commitment to the development of reciprocal and sustainable community relationships (Driscoll, 2008; Reynolds, 2009; Seifer, 1998, 2000; Village, 2006), and they existed in isolation from one another. The foundation for a culture of community engagement was created when two physical therapy faculty members were hired by the Widener program and charged with the responsibility of growing the community engagement initiatives. For these faculty members, the expectation was that their ―service‖ responsibilities would be protected and dedicated to the program‘s fledgling community engagement initiatives. The community engagement faculty began to develop a list of all community-based programs occurring within the department and soon realized that the initiatives could be linked and related. The faculty began to articulate means by which all activities could be supportive of one another and serve to build meaningful relationships and collaborations with local community partners. The designated community engagement faculty members came to constitute the Faculty Board of the Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic. The community engagement faculty facilitated a student culture of community engagement when they began tallying student service hours and recognizing this service through community engagement certificates and when they created and hired students to fill community engagement work-study positions. The community engagement work-study students were responsible for communicating community engagement activities across classes, via a newly created community engagement bulletin board, and for assisting the community engagement faculty in the planning and administration of programs and events. Community engagement work-study students also sought out and made initial contacts with potential community partners within the Chester community. Giving students responsibility in the community engagement initiatives proved to be valuable in enhancing student commitment to and involvement in growing a culture of community engagement.

An Annual Initiative Serving to Foster Community Partner Relationships An annual community engagement project known as the ―Martin Luther King (MLK) Day of Service Mobility Clinics‖ is one example of an isolated project that has grown to enhance student participation and to foster community partner relationships. The Mobility Clinics take place at various locations in the Chester community as part of the university‘s observance of the MLK Day of Service. Services advertised include blood pressure screenings and cleaning/screening of assistive devices including walkers, wheelchairs, walkers, crutches, and scooters. Teams consisting of a licensed physical therapy faculty member, third-year physical therapy students, and first-year physical therapy students go to

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their assigned community site equipped with a kit of cleaning supplies, replacement crutch and walker tips, basic tools for equipment repair, blood pressure cuffs, and stethoscopes. The mandated event provides first-year students an opportunity to practice recently learned skills in a more realistic setting and third-year students an opportunity to develop skills as clinical supervisors and educators as they supervise the first-year students. In conjunction with the Mobility Clinic event, students are required to write a journal reflection. As illustrated in Box 2, a retrospective analysis of this assignment associated with the event revealed several themes. (See Box 2). This project is the first exposure many of our first-year students have to the Chester community; it highlights the real healthcare needs of Chester residents in the places where they come to worship, interact with health care professionals and have basic needs such as food and housing met. The first-year students gain confidence and an appreciation for community service as they work alongside the third-year students in their teams. The event allows the third- year students to mentor the first-year students in a community outreach that stretches them academically and socially. Box 2. Student Reflections on MLK Day of Service Student Year First-Year

Student Reflections ―I was both nervous and unexcited about participating. I grew up in a very small town…and have never been exposed to a low-income housing complex. I wasn‘t sure what to expect…I was nervous about taking vitals on an older individual…I was afraid of pumping the blood pressure cuff too much and having it hurt the individual…By the end I was more relaxed and felt good about going into the community and doing our best to help an underserved population.‖ ―I was nervous in many ways…I was also afraid that I would not remember the material learned in our Interventions I class…I had introduced myself to this woman and I suddenly didn‘t feel as nervous as I had previously thought. I believe that in observing others in action have helped me feel more comfortable in this situation…this was an experience…which helped develop my self confidence and allowed me to apply new knowledge to individuals I am meeting for the first time.‖

Third-Year

―I learned that it does not take anything more than character to make a difference in someone else‘s life. Simply taking the time to listen to someone can be as therapeutic as fixing their wheelchair, crutch, or cane.‖ ―Working with people in low-income housing is a different experience for me. I am not used to dealing with individuals who are unable to afford the things that they need…it is quite an eye opener when going into Chester. This project always makes me want to go out and help the community more and in different ways.‖ ―I would like to do more community service during the year. I do not think that one day is enough to make an impact on anyone‘s community.‖

The development of relationships with community partners is a key element of the MLK Mobility Clinic event. A community engagement faculty member makes contacts with the

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community partners prior to each annual event. Over the years, relationships were cultivated with various community partners so that they now anticipate and collaborate in the organization of the event, and provide feedback for improvement at the conclusion of the event. The faculty member, with help from a community engagement work-study student, delivers marketing information in a variety of forms so that the community partners may advertise in the manner most effective for their sites. Community partners have also referred new community partners for inclusion in the program. This has been beneficial as student numbers and resources available for the day have grown. The number of community partners has grown from four to 12 in the last eight years. The MLK Event serves as a means to explore relationships with community partners by providing an opportunity to determine if a partnership might be formed to meet community needs in addition to mobility issues. Several MLK community partners now also work with us in some of our other service-learning experiences and function as serve as referral sources for the newly launched Clinic.

A Four-Semester Service-Learning Project: Prolonged Engagement The Community Health and Wellness Projects (CHWPs) represent a higher level of commitment with both students and community partners. The CHWPs have been a part of the program since its inception in 1993, though the projects and their centrality to the program‘s curriculum and community engagement initiatives have evolved significantly over time. Because the CHWPs are comprehensive two-year projects during the second and third years of graduate physical therapy program, students must be prepared to make a sustained effort for successful program initiation. These projects also require increased time commitments from our community partners who have regular contact with the students throughout the four semesters and who must schedule program-related activities into their facility‘s programming. The project has essential elements of service learning in that it is linked to the curriculum and is student-learning focused (Reynolds, 2009; Seifer, 1998; Village, 2006), but it is also an example of true community engagement in that there is an emphasis on community needs and measuring outcomes within the community (Driscoll, 2008). As described in Table 1, the entire CHWP spans four semesters; an orientation is held the semester preceding the project‘s start. The orientation occurs in the fall semester of the second year, students are introduced to the structure of the CHWPs and the potential community partners for the upcoming school year. Students rank order their preferences of community partners and then student groups are formed to target each community partner. The initial launch of the CHWPs into the Chester community yielded mixed results. For some community partners, the project created a burden of increased time demands for a relatively small health impact in return. What emerged from the first year was a core group of three sites interested in long-term sustainable relationships that were time intensive and which required focused commitment for both the physical therapy program and the community partner. Building upon the success of these three projects, the community engagement faculty and the community engagement work-study students contacted partners whose needs might best be served by a CHWP and forged new relationships for the upcoming project cycle. The second cycle yielded three more sites with needs that would best be served over the course of several years. Creating these sustainable CHWP projects provided the students with a sense of being a vital link in the chain of the project, with each successive year building upon the work of the previous years. By breaking the health needs down into several smaller projects that

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were more manageable and yielded a product that was meaningful for the partner, students took ownership for their work and became more proactive in their contacts with their community partners. Table 1. Community Health and Wellness Project

Semester Fall Semester of Second Year

Content

   

Orientation to the structure of the CHWPs



Students conduct a secondary needs assessment through a review of the literature.



Students create a mission, goals, and objectives for this project once the health needs of the community are known

Summer Semester of Second Year



Students plan an intervention to target the community partner‘s health need.

Fall Semester of Third Year

  

Students implement their intervention implementation

Spring Semester of Second Year

Spring Semester of Third Year

Potential community partners are discussed Student Groups are formed Students conduct a primary needs assessment with community partner

Students plan their program evaluation Students evaluate their program‘s effectiveness.

An Ongoing after-School Activity Program: A Product of Prolonged Engagement One of the key CHWPs that led to increased credibility within the community and increased student commitment to both the CHWPs and the overall civic engagement mission of the physical therapy program was The Freedom Baptist Church After-School Physical Activity Program. Each week for the past three years, two to three students from the physical therapy program have led physical activity sessions for the students at the after-school program. This is a student-designed and -led program that grew out of a CHWP. The original CHWP was a four-week session. At the end of the session, the third-year students requested that the program continue. One member of the CHWP volunteered to become the student coordinator. He solicited student involvement from the other classes and created a schedule. He then collaborated with the community engagement faculty who supervised the overall program. This has now evolved into an entirely student-run program in which community engagement work-study students manage all aspects of the program with support from a faculty advisor. This experience provides both the opportunity for ongoing service learning as well as for peer mentorship. Second- and third-year physical therapy students act as peer mentors for first-year physical therapy students to encourage their growth as advocates for community health and wellness. The work-study students are currently in the process of collecting physical fitness and lifestyle-choice outcomes data to determine the impact of the newly implemented curriculum. Thus, the Freedom Baptist Church After-School Physical Activity Program is an example of a project that evolved into a sustainable program that is no

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longer connected to the CHWPs, in large part because the program has evolved to better serve the needs of our community partner.

Future Community Engagement Initiatives Faculty and students are currently working cooperatively with university and community to further develop meaningful and sustainable community engagement programming. Ideas include an ongoing community health education program that would be based at the clinic and the development of a repository for durable medical equipment such as walkers and crutches, and canes, and wheelchairs, that could also be housed at the clinic and help with meeting the mobility needs of community members. The plan is to use an upcoming community health and wellness project to investigate the feasibility of both proposed programs and to plan and implement them in a meaningful, appropriate, and sustainable manner. Other plans include the development of a club in support of Chester mothers and caregivers of children. This was a recent community health and wellness project that shows promise as a sustainable program. The physical therapy students involved in the CHWP expressed a desire to work with students from other disciplines within our school to provide comprehensive support for the mothers and caregivers in the club. The students expressed that many of the programming needs could be met by other disciplines, thus providing support to a community partner and an opportunity for inter-professional collaboration. The proposed model includes collaboration between the physical therapy program and the other graduate programs housed within the School of Human Service Professions, including social work, clinical psychology and education. Additionally, the physical therapy program is pursuing community partnerships with global physical therapy community contacts in several developing countries. The development of mutually beneficial relationships and opportunities abroad would further afford students the opportunity to consider using their professional skills to meet community needs globally, as well as locally. In order to provide a clearer vision of the IPTE‘s community engagement programming, the community engagement faculty developed a conceptual framework (see Figure 4) that both represented the current community engagement activities and provided a foundation for the growth and development of current and future activities. The conceptual framework rooted all programming in the mission of Widener University, the mission of the Institute for Physical Therapy Education, and the American Physical Therapy Association‘s Core Values; all three foundational blocks emphasize the development of professional, socially responsible, engaged citizens. Grounding the program in these foundational statements, which are linked to the program‘s strategic plan and the profession‘s accreditation standards, has been beneficial in relation to plans for funding, support and outcomes research. The community engagement faculty members then identified four major stakeholders in the community engagement endeavors: Institute for Physical Therapy Education students in both the graduate and undergraduate pre-PT program; university faculty both within the IPTE and in other schools and programs that could provide interdisciplinary services within these initiatives; the medical community within the geographic region of Chester; and community organizations and community partners who represent Chester residents. Consideration of all stakeholders was determined to be of utmost importance in the creation and growth of community

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engagement endeavors. The conceptual framework depicts the various community engagement initiatives grounded in the foundation and supported by the stakeholders. Programs range from one-time events, multi-semester projects, ongoing programs, and proposed global initiatives. The Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic serves as the signature project and both current and future community-engagement initiatives will extend from it. Ultimately, the physical therapy program desires to grow and sustain a community engagement program that is comprehensive, interconnected, meaningful, and sustainable.

PART III: KEY ELEMENTS FOR SUSTAINABILITY: THE SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT TOOL Just as hindsight provided a mechanism for establishing a framework for defining and coordinating all of the various community engagement activities of the program, such time for reflection provides opportunity for assessment of the process thus far. To be accountable to institution and program missions, aligned with our strategic planning, and respectful of the efforts put forth by community partners, faculty, students and alumni, the community engagement faculty sought to find methods of self-assessment which would aid in evaluating the sustainability of the program and model. The Community-Campus Partnerships for Health has created a Self-Assessment Tool for Service-Learning Sustainability, which was utilized to the evaluate our community engagement efforts. This tool allows for the assessment of service learning at the level of the department, school, university or organization (Community-Campus Partnership for Health, 2001). The overarching concept relates to five dimensions that are considered critical to creating sustainability in service learning. The first dimension relates specifically to definition and application of service learning. Following the establishment of a new mission and vision for the university, the strategic planning processes of the university and the program have provided significant opportunities for faculty to review relevant literature on service learning and to identify the concepts that would be important to incorporate into our service learning and community engagement activities. Dimensions two through four involve generating and sustaining support for service learning from key constituents, namely the faculty, students, and community partners. Several examples of how the program has endeavored to create this crucial ―buy-in‖ from key stakeholders have been presented in this chapter. The final dimension focuses on the support and leadership provided by university administration. Since the physical therapy program is housed in a School for Human Service Professions, community engagement was already fostered by school administration. When the drive for service learning and engagement became the cornerstone of the university‘s new mission with significant support from higher administration, the programs within the school were well positioned to be leaders in the incorporation of service learning. Within each of these five dimensions of Self-Assessment Tool for Service-Learning Sustainability, a three-stage continuum of institutionalization and sustainability is offered for self-analysis: critical mass building, quality building, and sustained institutionalization. For each dimension, the evaluator is to consider which stage accurately reflects the institutions‘ or departments‘ definition of service learning, application of service learning, strategic planning for advancing and supporting service learning, and alignment of the service-learning

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programs with one‘s mission and the goals and objectives of the overall strategic plan. Throughout the development of the program‘s community engagement initiatives, the university has evolved through the process of building support for the creation of servicelearning opportunities (stage 1), expanding opportunities and initiating outcome measures to assess the impact of service learning (stage 2), to the point where the university and the program are now cultivating a culture of service learning (stage 3). There are consistent definitions of service learning which connect curricular goals and community needs; there is a focus on service learning through the missions and strategic plans of the university and the program; there is a cultivation of community partnerships that fosters ongoing mutually beneficial relationships; there is ongoing and significant involvement of key stakeholders; and mechanisms are in place to facilitate involvement in service learning. Any future goals that we set will reflect increased institution and program support of service learning. These goals would include increased financial support with dedicated personnel for service learning. In addition, a more coordinated and systematic evaluation process for assessing the impact of service learning and community engagement on faculty, students, the institution, and most importantly the community partners, will be implemented.

PART IV: CONCLUSIONS-DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE GROWTH A goal of the program‘s strategic plan involves the Chester Community Physical Therapy Clinic becoming a university Center for Community Health and Wellness. The physical therapy program through its efforts over time has created several community engagement initiatives. The program envisions these initiatives evolving and becoming the core offerings of the IPTE‘s Center for Community Health and Wellness. The creation of this center will allow for improved communication about new opportunities that are created; a space where physical therapy community engagement work-study students can work as they coordinate the various opportunities; a service to facilitate the placement of physical therapy student volunteers in organizations or projects that may be short-staffed; and a contact point for community partners to request additional health education programming for their constituents. One community engagement faculty is also on the university‘s Civic Engagement Committee, which is led by the Assistant to the President for Community Engagement and Diversity Initiatives. This will allow for communication with both the Office of the President as well as civic-engagement faculty from other departments about current initiatives through the Center for Community Health and Wellness. Creation of a Center for Community Health and Wellness is in line with the findings of the Rand Corporation that institutions with service centers that provide administrative support for one or more service programs in a single location are more successful (Gray et al., 1999). The creation of this Center would be a way of ensuring sustainability of the physical therapy program‘s community engagement initiatives and gaining a larger presence within our local community.

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REFERENCES American Physical Therapy Association. (2003). Professionalism in physical therapy: Core values. Retrieved February 7, 2010, from http://www.apta.org/AM/Template.cfm? Section=Home &TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=41460 Community-Campus Partnerships for Health. (2001). Self-Assessment Tool for ServiceLearning Sustainability. Retrieved October 9, 2009, from www.ccph.info Crump, J. A., & Sugarman, J. (2008). Ethical considerations for short-term experiences by trainees in global health. JAMA : The Journal of the American Medical Association, 300, 1456-1458. doi:10.1001/jama.300.12.1456 Driscoll, A. (2008). Carnegie's community-engagement classification: Intentions and insights. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 40, 38-41. Gray, M., Ondaatje, E., & Zakaras, L. (1999). Combining service and learning in higher education: Summary report. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Johnson, M. P., Maritz, C. A., & Lefever, G. (2006). The mercy circle of care: An interdisciplinary, multi-institutional collaboration to promote community health and professional education. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 20, 73-79. Pechak, C. M., & Cleaver, S. (2009). A call for a critical examination of ethics in global health initiatives in physical therapy education. HPA Resource, 9(2), 9-10. Reynolds, P. J. (2005). How service-learning experiences benefit physical therapist student‘s professional development: A grounded theory study. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 19, 41-51. Reynolds, P. J. (2009). Community engagement: What‘s the difference between service learning, community service, and community-based research? Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 23, 3-9. Seifer, S. D. (1998). Service learning: Community-campus partnerships for health professions education. Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 73, 273-277. Seifer, S. D. (2000). Engaging colleges and universities as partners in healthy communities initiatives. Public Health Reports, 115, 234-237. Smith, M., Cohen, A., & Raybuck, J. (2001). Building sustainable service learning: The case of community-based watershed management Universities Council on Water Resources, 119, 15-11. Village, D. (2006). Qualities of effective service learning in physical therapist education. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 20, 8-17. Widener University. (2004). Strategic plan. Chester, PA: Author. Widener University. (2007). Institute for Physical Therapy Education 2007-2009 bulletin. Chester, PA: Author.

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 9

VIOLENCE PREVENTION INITIATIVES WITH COMMUNITIES AND ORGANIZATIONS: THE CENTER FOR VIOLENCE PREVENTION Jeannette Wyatt Widener University; Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT This chapter describes the development of the Widener Center for Violence Prevention, a university based initiative that evolved from a collaborative of over 30 community partners. Academic, healthcare, social service, faith-based, educational and criminal justice personnel have worked collaboratively over a five year period to network with each other, educate the larger community, and develop and implement various initiatives to decrease violence in the surrounding county. This work culminated in the development of the Center, which also serves as a conduit for program development, problem solving between systems, identification of resources, and education for the various service systems working to prevent violence.

INTRODUCTION Violence is a challenging problem throughout the United States. Although there are several evidenced based programs and numerous resources dedicated to violence prevention, there are also challenges in these prevention efforts. This chapter will describe the development of the Widener Center for Violence Prevention, which serves Delaware County, Pennsylvania. It will also outline how the Center addresses the challenges faced by violence prevention initiatives, and the involvement of Masters-level social work students in collaborative projects with local communities and organizations.

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DEFINING THE PROBLEM Violence, encompassing youth violence in schools, bullying, cyber bullying, domestic violence, community violence, dating violence, elder abuse, child abuse, gun violence, and violence against women, is a major problem in Delaware County. The county, located in southeastern Pennsylvania, has the highest violent crime rate in the commonwealth (707.8 per 100,000 population), and in 2007, had the highest number of violent crimes in the region (2,834), second only to the City of Philadelphia (Pennsylvania State Police, 2007). A survey of over 250 youth in Delaware County revealed that 93% have witnessed violence directly and 44% had used physical violence themselves (Wyatt, unpublished). Community efforts aimed at violence prevention face a number of obstacles, in general, and in Delaware County, in particular. These obstacles include:      

Inadequate funding for programs and organizations that work to stop violence; Lack of awareness of available community resources resulting in underutilization of services; Lack of communication and collaboration among community organizations and programs committed to preventing violence; Inconsistency in the implementation of best practices, such as community policing or bullying prevention; Psychosocial vulnerabilities that lead to violence including lack of community unity, intolerance, territoriality, drug use and overlapping experiences of violence. Inadequate data documenting the experiences of people who have witnessed violence, been victimized, or have perpetrated violence, thereby decreasing our understanding of the issue.

These difficulties challenge even those with the best intentions and resources in violence prevention. Programs end up operating in a vacuum without the benefits of a unified vision, mutual support or shared resources. While initiatives need to be individualized to address the context of their unique communities to a certain extent, this ultimately runs the risk of diminishing program efficacy, innovation, collaboration and the exchange of knowledge among practitioners and increasing the stress on staff. Working in partnership with others can help temper these challenges. ―Through the collaborative efforts, each partner is gaining knowledge, skills, access to resources and networks, and the power to function more effectively to achieve its goals‖ (Bond & Hauf, 2007, p. 574).

COMMUNITY STRENGTHS While the problems in violence prevention practices need to be addressed, the commitment in Delaware County to the prevention of violence has been impressive. County offices, including the District Attorney, the Office of Behavioral Health and Children and Youth Services have recognized the problem of violence and put several worthwhile programs in place aimed at increasing awareness and decreasing violence. Numerous grassroots social service and faith-based organizations have developed programming to help

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their communities deal with the effects of violence and provide education and supports to prevent it. Such efforts include domestic abuse prevention and treatment; afterschool programming; and initiatives addressing drug abuse, psychosocial vulnerabilities, and spiritual and community disunity. Best practice models have been utilized in these efforts including the Incredible Years Program implemented by Widener University‘s Social Work Counseling Services and blue print models of education for children about safe relationships taught by the Domestic Abuse Project. Criminal justice agencies and schools have also developed initiatives in prevention and have tried to work together to decrease violence in their communities. Community policing and bullying prevention programs have been active in various parts of the county. Taking advantage of the dedication and resources available through these agencies, particularly by helping them work collaboratively, provides hope to improve the efficacy of these programs. Shifting the focus of programming to prevention efforts can be challenging for service systems that have had to respond to violence incidences, historically through prosecution in the criminal justice system. While these reactive measures continue to be necessary, it is also necessary to pursue prevention efforts that address causative factors of violence (Prothrow-Stith, D. 2004).

BEST PRACTICES—COLLABORATION Collaboration increases the success of violence reduction practices (Williams, 2006). In fact, collaboration among community resources is viewed not only as a resource, but a best practice model itself. Bond and Hauf (2007) conducted a review of best practices and identified themes associated with effective prevention strategies. These include the use of sound theory and research; the use of a comprehensive, multisystemic, and multilevel perspectives; building upon strengths; sensitivity to the specific population and context; using monitoring and evaluation; and focusing on sustainability. They argue that community collaboration is necessary for each of these elements and therefore, a best practice itself. Although there is social, economic and racial diversity across Delaware County requiring contextualized approaches to programming, the majority of violence problems can be linked to thematic issues, including truancy, drug and alcohol abuse, exposure to violence via child abuse and domestic violence, community deterioration, and poverty (Brookman & Maguire, 2004). Communities and programs that learn from each other and work together to develop programming to address these thematic issues, have a greater chance of success because of combined resources and the opportunity to work with others towards a unified vision of violence prevention. ―Community-based collaborations enable partners to pool and hence broaden their respective knowledge base, creating a stronger foundation for their prevention initiative‖ (Bond & Hauf, 2007, p. 569). An example of best practices is the Spergel model of gang prevention (Spergel, et al., 1994), which calls for a ―comprehensive, coordinated, targeted response by a network of local agencies and organizations, including police, parole/probation officers, the court and correctional systems, schools, service agencies, community-based youth agencies, employment agencies, employers, grassroots community organizations, local leaders and the community as a whole‖ (Cahill, et al., 2008, p. 11). The model builds upon the idea that

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prevention efforts need to address a variety of overlapping problems by engaging all of relevant service systems. It is also imperative to involve local organizations in violence prevention efforts. They are typically knowledgeable about community resources, have established relations with community members and other organizations and are committed to continued work in their community. ―These small local organizations are often very efficient, raise their own funds, have existing personal relationships with those in need, and understand the culture and language of the local community to a degree that may be difficult for outsiders to emulate. All of that translates into lower cost, faster impact, and longer lasting presence‖ (Mukasey, Sedgwick & Flores, 2007, p. iii). Given the overlap in types of violence and the psychosocial vulnerabilities that lead to violence, individual initiatives cannot alone address violence or even carry out their own mission successfully. Through their review of three federally funded programs, (Communities in Schools, Children at Risk, and SafeFutures), Morley and Rossman (1997) found that collaborations and partnerships need to be developed to integrate services. As discussed earlier, Bond and Hauf (2007), assert that collaboration also increases the focus on strengths and protective factors from which to build solutions and increases the likelihood of sustainability. Through the multiple perspectives collaboration provides, strengths and resources for sustainability are more readily identified. Multiple stakeholders also provide more options and broad based commitment for the implementation of prevention strategies. In addition, with limited resources available for program development, the pooling of such resources ensures better management and sustainability of programs since there are more stakeholders involved. Gajda (2006) reviewed evaluation research on Safe Schools/Healthy Students initiatives and found that collaboration is a key factor in its success. The Safe Schools/Healthy Students Initiative, whose hallmark is collaboration between schools, mental health and criminal justice professionals, has demonstrated a 15 percent decrease in the number of students involved in violence (SAMSHA, 2009).

The Widener Center for Violence Prevention The Widener Center for Violence Prevention began in fall 2009 as a continuation of the Delaware County Violence Prevention Collaborative. The Collaborative began as a project between Widener University and a major health system in the county in an effort to address concerns in the community. Several areas of need were identified, including violence prevention. Originally a task force, the Collaborative quickly expanded its membership as numerous initiatives and programs already in place throughout the County were identified. The task force was renamed the Violence Prevention Collaborative to more accurately reflect the ongoing commitment of members to the issue of violence prevention in Delaware County. The Collaborative was made up of staff from Widener University and the local health system, as well as representatives from more than 40 agencies including police departments from throughout the county, the Delaware County District Attorney‘s office, the U.S. Attorney‘s Southeastern Pennsylvania Regional Office, the County Office of Behavioral Health, County Juvenile and District courts, the Domestic Abuse Project, Children and Youth Services, schools, social service agencies, faith based organizations and community initiatives.

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On September 1, 2009 the newly formed Widener Center for Violence Prevention opened. The Center has an office in Chester, PA, although its functions are primarily webbased. There continue to be monthly meetings of the Collaborative that inform and disseminate the practices of the Center. The mission of the Widener Center for Violence Prevention is to decrease violence in Delaware County through public awareness, education, and advocacy by collaborating and networking with professionals and the community. The Center‘s principal goal is to improve the effectiveness of violence prevention efforts by facilitating collaboration and providing supportive resources. This mission is supported by the literature discussed earlier. Supportive services offered include: An online database, asset mapping of violence prevention resources, consultation in program development and grant writing, and training. The Center is supported by Widener University‘s Center for Social Work Education, U.S. Department of Justice Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and the Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development. Specific goals of the Center include:   

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   

Ongoing networking, coordination and collaboration between programs/agencies dealing with violence. Working with agencies to integrate and coordinate and sustain community antiviolence programming. Researching best practice/blueprint programming to address violence in schools and communities, and providing education regarding these practices to local programs, along with consultation for implementation as needed. This includes training via seminars, speakers, and other outreach efforts. Developing educational workshops to provide professionals with the resources and skills necessary to address violence in a multitude of settings. This includes Collaborative members, social service, criminal justice, education staff and others and will focus on education about best practices, networking, resource development, collaboration and program evaluation. Ongoing development and maintenance of the resource database of all violence programs/initiatives in the county including marketing and outreach so it is available to those who need it. Assessing the need for violence prevention services to identify gaps in services and directs for organizations for developing new anti-violence initiatives. Developing specific projects in collaboration with community agencies. Pursuing funding opportunities for the sustainability of the Center and for collaborative projects. Ongoing evaluation of the Center for Violence Prevention.

Accomplishments to date: 

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Ongoing networking and information dissemination regarding violence, including the problems and the initiatives and programs to address it. This has included educational seminars about specific programs and best practices. Collaborative activities among members that have led to increased service utilization.

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Development of a data collection matrix and online database of resources throughout the county that address violence. Hosting a conference for helping professionals regarding the treatment of domestic violence victims. Assessment of data collection and data sharing strategies by Delaware County criminal justice agencies regarding the occurrence of violence. Development and dissemination of a survey of youth regarding their concerns about violence. Development of a psychosocial screening tool for juvenile offenders. Discussion of best practices for educating of youth about violence (e.g. dating violence). Funding obtained for the development of a Center for Violence Prevention from the Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development and the Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Improved functioning in the criminal justice system that includes increased understanding by criminal justice officials of county social service programs, improved access and collaboration between agencies and the criminal justice system, feedback regarding the functioning of youth courts and education regarding the psychosocial needs of youth and others in the prevention of violence.

The Center has also initiated and implemented specific projects that address needs and/or challenges in prevention efforts. These projects focus on research, resource development, evaluation and amendment of current programming and education. Current projects of the Center for Violence Prevention include: Juvenile Screening Project: Provides services to assist police in screening and assessing juveniles for psychosocial needs, prevention and diversion services. The Center‘s staff is working closely with the Chester Police Department and Delaware County Juvenile Court to develop a comprehensive approach to prevention and diversion. The project will be assessed for countywide implementation in the future. Youth Anti-Violence Summit: Provides support to expand the Chester Youth Collaborative summit countywide and facilitates input from youth regarding their concerns about violence. Dating Violence Curriculum: Provides support to the Domestic Abuse Project of Delaware County to develop a curriculum for middle school students on dating violence and disseminate it throughout the County. Take Back the Night: Supports Social Work Counseling Services in their event aimed at increasing awareness about sexual violence on university campuses and local communities. Social Work Practice with Communities: Collaborates with the Widener University Center for Social Work Education to offer a master‘s level class that will engage students in violence prevention projects while learning about working with communities. Resource Database and Asset Mapping: An online resource database of violence prevention services throughout the county is in development and these resources will be mapped via Geographic Information Systems (GIS) mapping technology along with crime

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statistics to provide an assessment of available resources and identify gaps as suggested by best practice recommendations. Research Regarding Best Practices: The Center is conducting research on best practices in violence prevention and maintaining a resource file online. Training: The Center regularly holds training sessions in various areas of violence prevention. Recent trainings include review of best practices in gang prevention and an overview of the juvenile justices system and education about future trends.

Addressing Challenges There have been several challenges in the development of the Widener Center for Violence Prevention and in carrying out its mission. First and foremost is the issue of violence itself, which is a huge challenge because of the diverse manifestations, the varied practices in violence prevention and the focus of many agencies on reactive programming that deals with the consequences of violence rather than prevention. To address these issues, the Center has focused on the work of the members of the Collaborative, which has been foundational in prevention efforts. Examples include outreach education by the Domestic Abuse Project, youth mentorship and training through the Chester Youth Collaborative, sponsored activities by local police departments, bullying prevention programs implemented by schools, to name a few. Innovative programming has been developed, such as the Juvenile Screening Project described above, which is piloting efforts focusing on prevention and diversion so that outcome measures can be presented to authorities who may then move resources from reactive programs to prevention efforts. In addition, best practices are continually being examined and discussed via the website and monthly meetings, and training for professionals is being conducted on a biannual basis. Membership has also been a continual challenge. The capacity of overworked and overwhelmed staff to engage in work outside of their agencies is limited. In addition, there are so many issues associated with violence prevention that it is often a challenge to determine who to include in collaborative efforts. An electronic listserv ensures that members are kept informed even when they are unable to attend meetings in person. Much of the work on the projects is occurring in smaller workgroups that have greater flexibility with meeting times and locations. Members themselves are continually brainstorming about who needs to be involved and often, others will be involved for short, project-focused work. Individual members, particularly the Director of the Center, engage potential members in discussion of the collaborative and how it may impact their area of work. The Center makes use of large training events to expose a broad base of practitioners in a variety of fields to opportunities for involvement. The Center has developed a mission and set of goals but does have to continually revisit its focus. An initial strategic planning retreat of the Collaborative was held to brainstorm with members about direction. Monthly meetings regularly revisit these issues and another retreat will be scheduled next year to fully assess the direction of Center initiatives. Similarly, prioritization of issues occurs in collaboration with partner agencies. The Center strives to attend to issues that have broad impact on programs in violence prevention, as well as those initiatives that offer the greatest promise of violence prevention. Because of this, youth violence has often been at the forefront of the Center‘s work.

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Resources will continually be a challenge, including staff and funding. Currently, the Center is funded through the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and the Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development. One of the goals of the Center is to assess and pursue funding opportunities for the Center and to assist other programs in obtaining funding via grant writing and program development. Another focus of the Center is collaborating with agencies about how they can utilize current resources to address prevention efforts. Since the types of agencies involved in violence prevention are so varied, territoriality and conflicting focus can easily become problems in efforts to collaborate. Monthly collaborative meetings and work within subgroups on specific projects help to break down these barriers, but continued work in this area needs to be done. This is particularly true of differences between criminal justice and social service agencies. For instance, suppression methods are most commonly implemented by law enforcement agencies, where social service agencies tend to focus on social intervention and community organization (Cahill, et al., 2008). The Center, although respecting the varied approaches of collaborative members, seeks to help them work together by either combining approaches or sharing techniques and adopting flexible methods. Trainings are conducted at least twice a year to bring all types of personnel working on violence prevention together and these sessions include networking opportunities. In addition the Center is developing training specifically for criminal justice agencies, in collaboration with police chiefs, to more consistently involve them in collaborative efforts. Future training events of the Center will focus on skill development to help members work in a collaborative manner with each other and a targeted training for criminal justice and social services agencies to learn about each other and develop partnerships.

Student Involvement The Widener Center for Violence Prevention has involved students in several ways. The first is that the Center is staffed with graduate assistants, one from the Masters in Social Work program and one from the University‘s Center for Social Work Education‘s doctoral program. These students have been integrally involved in the development of the Center and its website and have participated in collaborative meetings, workgroup projects and have carried out research about best practices and county resources. These students have learned a great deal about the community, local agencies and organizations and about violence prevention practices specifically. Their work with the collaborative has enhanced their learning experiences by helping bridge the gap between micro and macro practice issues, grounding research and program development in real world practices and calling upon them to utilize resource development, coalition-building and organizational management skills. Students regularly share their experiences working in the collaborative with their classmates as part of class discussions. The second way of involving students in the Center for Violence Prevention has been through a service-learning masters-level social work course in Practice with Communities and Organizations. This course is a required foundation course for social work students and focuses on the development of macro practice skills, i.e. skills for working with large social systems, such as communities. The goals of the course include identifying the context for

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macro practice and community social problems and assets, organizing and building relationships with communities and planning for community change. Students are taught about activities associated with this field of practice, including organizing and mobilizing communities, coalitions and task forces, planning and implementing needs assessments, and developing programs and policy strategies. The course has evolved over the past several years to be project oriented. All sections of the course cover the same academic material, but each section develops a unique project with the community to help students integrate the material. One section of this Masters course was specifically developed to work with the Center for Violence Prevention. Students in the class were divided among the following projects: 1. Asset Mapping: Students were taught the basic techniques of mapping assets in the community and conducting data collection and mapping procedures via internet and phone work. 2. Dating Violence Curriculum: Students worked closely with a community partner specializing in outreach education about domestic and dating violence. They assisted in developing a curriculum for middle school students on dating violence prevention, including supportive tools and materials. 3. Youth Anti-Violence Summit: Students worked with a local youth collaborative agency in planning and implementing their annual anti-violence summit. Although the agency had conducted the event for several years, students in this class helped to expand the summit countywide with marketing strategies, focus groups, and outreach and collaboration with agencies and schools. 4. Take Back the Night: Students worked with a local social service agency developed by the Center for Social Work Education and a community partner to implement an event to raise awareness about violence against women, particularly on college campuses. Students helped plan the event and its activities, which included speakers, educational workshops, a clothesline project to heighten awareness about different types of violence, and a candlelight march. Students have worked closely with faculty, Center staff and community partners in implementing these projects. An evaluation of the course by class participants is underway and will gather feedback on specific course objectives; however, anecdotal reports from students thus far indicate that they have enjoyed working on real-life projects, and this work has helped them understand the course material and integrate it into practice. In addition to social work, other academic disciplines have been involved in the Center‘s initiatives. Environmental Science students are engaged in a project to map resources for violence prevention for the Center. They have been trained in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) method of asset mapping. With this technology, they are using the resource database developed by the Center and mapping it geographically. They will then superimpose crime statistics on the asset map to help identify vulnerable areas that might be targets of prevention efforts. The implementation of best practice models will be explored by Center staff and collaborative members in order to address these identified vulnerable areas. Students majoring in Communications are also being consulted to develop a training video for the Center. This video will document the tragedy of a former gang member who was disabled by violence and will be used in collaboration with school districts and first offenders programs in juvenile court to help increase awareness and prevent violence.

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Criminal Justice students have partnered with collaborative members in the community through internships and senior research projects. Faculty from the Criminal Justice Department have joined the Center‘s collaborative meetings and provide information about research and best practices in that discipline and disseminate information to their students about issues in the community that have been identified by the Center.

CONCLUSIONS The Widener Center for Violence Prevention was developed to fulfill the need in the local community for coordination and collaboration between various services in violence prevention. The Center has received widespread support throughout the county and collaborative partners have been energized by the opportunities available through the efforts of the Center. While challenges remain, the Center is actively addressing those challenges through collaboration and proactive education. Students have been integrally involved in this community initiative, which has supported their experiential learning about organizational management, community organizing, outreach, coalition building and evaluation strategies. They have also learned a great deal about the problem of violence and the complexities of prevention practices. In the future, the Center will continue to involve students in a similar capacity. This partnership benefits the students and enhances the work of the Center with a focus on best practices, research and the consistent application of practice theory and evaluation methods.

REFERENCES Bond, L., & Hauf, A. (2007). Community-based collaboration: An overarching best practice in prevention. The Counseling Psychologist, 3, 567-575. Brookman, F. & Maguire, M. (2004) Reducing homicide: A review of the possibilities. Crime, Law & Social Change, 42, 325-403 Cahill, M., Coggeshall, M, Hayeslip, D., Wolff, A., Lagerson, E., Scott, M., Davies, E., Roland, K., & Decker, S. (2008). Community collaboratives addressing youth gangs: Interim findings from the Gang Reduction Program. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute Justice Policy Center. Gajda, R. (2006). Safe schools through strategic alliances: How assessment of collaboration enhances school violence prevention and response. Journal of School Violence, 5, 63-80. Morley, E. & Rossman, S. (1997). Helping at-risk youth: Lessons from community-based initiatives. Washington, D.C., The Urban Institute. Mukasey, M, Sedgwick, J. & Flores, J. (2007). Best practices to address community gang problems: OJJDP’s Comprehensive Gang Model. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. Pennsylvania State Police. (2007). Crime in Pennsylvania: Annual uniform crime report. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania State Police Department. (Retrieved April 25, 2009 from http://ucr.psp.state.pa.us/UCR/Reporting/Annual/AnnualFrames.asp?year=2007).

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SAMSHA (2009), New report shows that the Safe Schools/Healthy Students Initiative can reduce violence and promote safer schools. SAMSHA Bulletin, 11/3/2009. (Retrieved July 12, 2010 from http://www.samhsa.gov/newsroom/advisories/0911033535.aspx). Spergel, I., Chance, R., Ehrensaft,K., Regulus, T., Kane,C., Laseter, R., Alexander, A., & Oh, S. (1994). Gang suppression and intervention: Community models. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Williams, K. (2006). Collaboration between elementary schools and community agencies to reduce violence: Can it work? Current Issues in Education, 9(1). (Retrieved April, 25, 2009 from http://cie.ed.asu.edu/volume9/number1).

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 10

SERVICE LEARNING IN CHINA Melanie Swain, John Poulin, Travis Sky Ingersoll, Heather Witt and Xu Shan Widener University; Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT Service learning in another country can bring great benefits, especially through longer term relationships. This chapter describes a long-term collaboration between Widener‘s social work faculty and a social work program at a Chinese university. The collaboration has led to the introduction of the concept of service-learning pedagogy to Chinese educators, as well as international service learning opportunities for social work graduate students.

INTRODUCTION There is a growing consensus regarding the role that universities and colleges should play in the communities within which they are located. Increasingly, institutions of higher education are being called upon to contribute to the social and economic health of their surrounding neighborhoods. Whether they are programs enacted at the university administration level, or service-learning initiatives woven into existing educational curriculum, educational institutions throughout the United States are hearing the call and taking action (Harkavy, 2006; Mulroy, 2004; Silver, Poulin & Wilhite, 2006). The trend in higher education to prepare students for lives of active citizenship is well under way (Checkoway, 2001; Harkavy, 2006; Terkla, O‘Leary, Wilson & Diaz, 2007). Many point to the publication of Bowling Alone (Putnam, 2000) and its emphasis on civil society and social capital, as the catalyst for civic engagement in higher education (Adler & Kwon, 2002; Hooghe & Stolle, 2003; Lidstrom, 2006; Paxton, 2002; Stolle & Howard, 2008). It is widely understood that civic engagement and social capital are important societal resources that have far-reaching implications, not only for democracy, but for societal class-conflicts and economic health as well (Stolle & Howard, 2008). University-based civic engagement, in

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particular, has also been recognized as a positive force in creating a more civil society. Universities have the resources and human capital needed to help mitigate negative environmental factors in ways that are beyond the capacities of many nonprofit organizations (Mulroy, 2004). How institutions of higher education choose to become civically engaged is as diverse as the backgrounds and personalities of the people of whom they are composed. The call for civic engagement is being put into action by a wide array of academic entities including social work departments (Silver, Poulin & Wilhite, 2006), business schools (Berry & Workman, 2007; Kenworthy-U‘ren & Peterson, 2005; McIntyre, Webb & Hite, 2005), general education departments (Jacoby, 1996; Spiezio, Baker & Boland, 2005), political science and history departments (Davis, Ellis & Ingen, 2009; Huerta & Jozwiak, 2008) and libraries (Kranich, 2005/2006). This chapter illustrates an example of service learning in social work. It describes two service-learning projects that were part of a graduate social work course that focused on social work practice and education in China.

SOCIAL WORK IN CHINA The earliest development of social work in China stems back to the beginning of the 20th century. It appears that Youyu Zhu was the first person to study Chinese social work methods, and his dissertation, completed in 1911, examined charity work in China (Fan, 2004). In the 1920s, social work centers began emerging to help improve living conditions in rural communities and provide basic education to community residents (Fan, 2004). When the ―New‖ China was established in 1949, it inherited tremendous social problems from the ―old‖ society. Poverty was rampant, unemployment widespread and social ills everywhere. Among the various political and social measures, social welfare was considered important in maintaining order and stability, and in keeping social unrest under control. However, because of the Leftist ideology, all of the government departments relating to sociology, social work and social welfare were closed (Hutchings & Taylor, 2007; Xia & Guo, 2002; Zhang, 2001). Although the Ministry of Civil Affairs and some other divisions continued taking the responsibility for work activities similar to social work, professional research and education in social work ceased. Interest in social work and social work services re-emerged in the 1980s as a result of the Chinese government‘s recognition of the staggering increase in the elderly population. Chinese demographers have predicted that by 2050, 22.4% of the Chinese population will be aged 65 or older (Zhang, 2000). The growth in the elderly population is compounded by changes in family care giving and the government‘s adoption of a market economy (Leung, 2006). China‘s ―One Child‖ policy has had the unintended consequence of fewer potential care-givers for elderly parents. Children have been the traditional care-givers for their elderly parents and the national policy enacted has resulted in fewer providers to take on these responsibilities. The care of the elderly by their children is further complicated by the fact that in the new market economy young adults are more geographically mobile (Guan, 2000). The end result of these forces is a growing elderly population with fewer children to care for them (Leung, 2006).

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In 1991the Ministry of Civil Affairs, a department of the Chinese government that administers social welfare programs (Hutchings & Taylor, 2007; Xia & Guo, 2002), established the China Association for Social Work Education (Xiong & Wang, 2007). It was not until 2004 that the Chinese Ministry of Labor and Social Security announced the Ninth Professional Standard, and social work was officially approved as a profession. The Ministry of Civil Affairs made further efforts in 2006 to regulate the social work profession through the Provisional Regulations on the Assessment of the Vocational Standards of Social Workers and the Measures for the Implementation of the Examination Regarding Professional Qualifications of Social Workers (Bingliang, 2008). The legislation calls for a thorough understanding of the specific policies and procedures of local Chinese governments as they relate to the social work profession. It also requires that social workers have the skills necessary to ―establish relations with targeted recipients of professional services, and to foresee and assess problems faced by the clients,‖ utilize case management practices, create treatment plans and the capacity ―to solve the problems faced by the clients by applying professional methods and skills in accordance with the service plan‖ (Bingliang, 2008, pp.8081). In 2008 the Chinese Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security and the Ministry of Civil Affairs announced the adoption of a national social work professional qualification examination (Bingliang, 2008; Yuen-Tsang & Wang, 2008). Because of the scarcity of social work in China for so long, employment opportunities are limited and typically filled with professionals trained in other disciplines (Bingliang, 2008; Tsang, Sin, Jia, & Yan, 2008). Although great strides are being made by the professional community in putting into place official requirements for social workers, standards within schools of social work are still being unified (Leung, 2007; Tsang, Sin, Jia, & Yan, 2008; Xia & Guo, 2002). As social work re-emerged in China in recognition of the country‘s growing societal problems resulting from a combination of social and economic factors (Leung, 2006; YuenTsang & Wang, 2008), there was a lack of Chinese specific social work theories and practices in social work education. Because of the 30-year gap in scholarship and practice, Western models were integrated into practice and educational programs without evidenced-based support of their applicability to Eastern cultural traditions (Gray, 2008; Hutchings & Taylor, 2007; Law & Gu, 2008; Sim & Ng, 2008; Yan, Ge, Cheng, & Tsang, 2009). However, the various official efforts to legitimize the field of social work in China have directly influenced social work education and have begun the slow process of establishing a separate identity for the Chinese social work profession within the international realm of social work (Hutchings & Taylor, 2007; Tsang, Sin, Jia, & Yan, 2008; Yan & Tsui, 2007). Nevertheless, Western theories and curriculum models remain at present the basis for social work education in China. The curriculum content and structure in Chinese schools of social work are based primarily on social work education in Great Britain and the United States (Law & Gu, 2008; Yan & Tsui, 2007). The exception to this norm is in field education standards (Tong, 2007; Xiong & Wang, 2007), where the use of supervised field placements are at the very beginning stages of development (Tsang & Yan, 2001). Schools of social work in China provide very little social work practice experience for their social work students. In the United States, approximately 50% of a student‘s educational program is devoted to field instruction – the application of social work practice skills in formal public and non-profit organizations. In China, supervised field instruction, where students‘ learn the practice of social work, is practically non-existent (Swain & Xu, 2010; Tong, 2007).

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THE SERVICE-LEARNING COURSE During the spring 2009 semester, Widener University‘s Center for Social Work Education offered a service-learning course on social work practice in China. Four MSW students enrolled in the course which culminated in a three-week trip to Chongqing, China in May. The purpose of the course was to examine and investigate the delivery of social work practice in China and to examine the appropriateness of Western social work practice models for use with Chinese social work students. The course was organized around two servicelearning projects that were carried out in China – teaching a social work practice course to undergraduate social work students and conducting a community research study on elderly community residents‘ beliefs about using social work services. The learning objectives for the course were: Increase the students‘ understanding of: 1. The practice of social work in China; 2. Cultural issues influencing social work practice in China; 3. The cultural appropriateness of Western models of social work practice for Chinese social work education; 4. Chinese culture; Strengthen the students‘: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Ability to design and implement professional trainings/workshops; Collaboration skills; Critical thinking skills; Research skills; Professional presentation skills; and Ability to prepare scholarly journal articles.

SERVICE-LEARNING PROJECTS Social Work Practice Class in China The goals of the social work practice class for the undergraduate social work majors at Chongqing Technical and Business University (CTBU) in China were twofold. The first goal was to assist the Chinese students in learning specific practice skills they could utilize when working with individuals in the community. The second goal was to help the Widener graduate students begin to comprehend the cultural context in the delivery of social work services in China. This allowed a parallel process in which both the graduate level social work students and the undergraduate social work students filled the roles of teacher and student. The class consisted of six 2-hour sessions delivered to 40 CTBU junior social work majors. The primary focus of each class session was on providing the students content on

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social work practice, discussing the content in small groups, and then structuring activities that gave them an opportunity to apply the content in some form of simulated social work practice situation.

Educational Philosophy Encompassing a humanistic philosophy and client-centered approach (Goldstein, 2001; Souflée, 1993), the International Federation of Social Workers and International Association of Schools of Social Work definition of social work states: The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human relationships, and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance wellbeing. Utilizing theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work (Sewpaul & Jones, 2004, p. 2).

Though there is discussion as to the extent to which the emerging Chinese framework of social work professionals is consistent with this definition, this has become a working definition as more country specific, evidence-based research is pursued (Hutchings & Taylor, 2007; Leung, 2007; Yan & Tsui, 2007). In The Regulations on the Occupationalization of Social Workers, Shanghai incorporated the line ―helping people to help themselves‖ (Leung, 2007, p. 395), in its quest to standardize the profession and address the growing social welfare needs of that modern city. This phrase readily aligns with the collaborative approach of strengths-based social work practice wherein the clients are the experts and the role of the social worker is to assist them in realizing their potential (Poulin, 2010). The goals and objectives for the social work practice course at CTBU tried to follow the policies and structure of the social work profession within China while staying true to the international philosophy and conceptualization of the field.

Theoretical Underpinnings The curriculum for the CTBU social work practice class, much like the service learning approach of the graduate social work course, followed an experiential learning approach which emerged from the philosophical education model of John Dewey in the early twentieth century (Goldstein, 2001; Kenworthy-U‘ren & Peterson, 2005). Experiential learning theory falls within the ―humanistic and democratic model of education that prepares learners to respect, respond to, and find meaning in the impelling life experiences of their clients – the situational, cultural, spiritual, aesthetic, linguistic, and moral as well as the psychological and social‖ (Goldstein, 2001, p. 7). Consistent with the core beliefs of the social work profession and the emphasis on the strengths-based collaborative helping relationship, the focus is on the client, whether it is an individual or a community. This approach to education is student-centered, stressing active learning through which participants are highly engaged in the process (Goldstein, 2001; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006). Adult learning theory argues that participants are more likely to retain the information when actively involved with an experience that is applicable to their work or life situations (Goldstein, 2001; Knowles, 1990; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006). Service learning follows this line of thinking in its experiential approach to creating a richer learning environment in which students become actively involved, whether at a macro or micro level.

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Developing activities in which the undergraduate social work students at CTBU had to process how the basic social work techniques could apply to their own work in the community opened the door for a discussion of cultural differences and similarities in practice. Approaching learning from this experiential stance enforces the importance of establishing a collaborative helping relationship and emphasizes the importance of empowering both the students and the clients (Poulin, 2010). Though experiential learning theory allows for more personal insight as to how attitudes and beliefs affect learning, cognitive learning theory offers a larger contextual framework for identifying the various factors that impact learning (Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2000). Cognitive learning theory suggests that learning is a product of the individual‘s prior knowledge, current environment or social situation, desire to rationalize personal experiences, opportunity to practice, and processing of specific, relevant examples (Eggen & Kauchak, 2005). The theory follows an inductive model that in the case of social work assumes that students will reflect on their prior experiences and learn skills from the more general concepts of social work through active processing of both classroom and field experiences (Eggen & Kauchak, 2005). The course facilitators (the four Widener graduate social work students) prepared a variety of lessons plans including cognitively based, short lectures, PowerPoint presentations, and other visual aids that covered specific information required to develop skills such as elaboration and empathy (Eggen & Kauchak, 2005; Poulin, 2010). These methods addressed the language barrier by presenting the content in both auditory and visual formats. To encourage active processing of the information and the consideration of cultural idiosyncrasies in social work, the instructional approach encouraged students to demonstrate how the techniques could be applied within their own experiences. Sociocultural theory also falls within the experiential learning approach and supports cognitive learning theory by reinforcing the view that learning occurs through social interaction and that the environment strongly affects how individuals view the world (Eggen & Kauchak, 2005). It provides a useful theoretical context for the parallel process of learning by the undergraduate Chinese social work students and the Widener graduate student facilitators. For example, the facilitators shared their own case examples and personal experiences with the aim of encouraging sharing by the undergraduate students. Modeling is an extremely important pedagogical tool when working with the developing professional in order to set a collaborative tone in the classroom and address translation concerns (Eggen & Kauchak, 2005).

Methods Employed A variety of methodologies were utilized to have the students active, moving around, and processing the material, taking into account different learning styles and the concept of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 2000). Activities included small group discussion, role play, lecture, large group discussion, games, icebreakers, viewing video clips, analyzing case studies, and participating in a case conference. In order to address the language barrier the information was emailed to the students ahead of time, PowerPoint slides were used to provide visual cues, and translators were available at each class for the students who did not speak English fluently. Considerable time was spent explaining each activity and allowing for translations to ensure that all participants understood the material being presented. Each lesson began with a quick review of the last session, an introduction of the topic to be

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covered, a brief description of the objectives, and the rationale of how the lesson related to the overall goals of the course.

Challenges There were several challenges in developing and implementing the social work practice class curriculum with the social work majors at CTBU. Though the students were positive, attentive, and active participants, more time had to be allotted for translation than originally planned. Even with several student interpreters and constant communication about the course material, there were several cultural differences that were difficult to navigate. Despite the fact that the facilitators had studied cultural diversity, had spent time exploring their own values and beliefs, and were committed to remaining open to the unique and unknown features of the Chinese culture, they still found being immersed within the student culture at CTBU to be surprisingly challenging. For example, the facilitators spent a great deal of time explaining and emphasizing why a helping relationship is so important in social work practice, only to find out at the end of the experience that what the students really wanted was a more concrete ―how to do it‖ manual. A major challenge in developing the social work practice class was having very little information on the CTBU undergraduate social work curriculum. The inability to fully understand the level of skill and knowledge of the students prior to meeting them required extra planning and constant flexibility to adjust the lessons throughout the three week period at CTBU. The course was originally broken down into six main lessons; however, it had to be modified multiple times in order to meet the needs of the budding social work professionals. Due to the traditional Chinese view of professionals and elders, including teachers, and the different cultural norms in learning styles, the Chinese students did not necessarily voice their specific concerns until the end and only after numerous invitations to do so and when given an anonymous evaluation option. The respect the Chinese students afforded their guest facilitators made it challenging for them to express their concerns or wants. Because social work is still in the early stages of development in China with only initial steps having been taken in identifying uniquely Chinese evidence based models, the teaching of therapeutic models and techniques from Western culture remains problematic (Hutchings & Taylor, 2007). Cultural sensitivity to the differences regarding engagement and alliance building with clients had to be learned as the class went on. For example, while it is common for a social worker in the USA to ask a direction question about a family member with mental health concerns, it would be seen as rude and disrespectful to do so with a Chinese client and family. The undergraduate students were very helpful in explaining how the indirect manner displayed a more respectful approach with some of the older adults with whom they were working. Many of the students did not have field placements or practice opportunities, and this caused some discomfort in the role plays because they had never interacted with clients. Given that graduate students from the United States and other Western social work professionals undertaking social instruction in China will almost invariably view experiential education as an essential component of social work education, being familiar with the current lack of field placements for Chinese social work students is important to their structuring the learning experience appropriately for the Chinese students.

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Evaluation In order to evaluate how well the goals and objectives of the course were met, the participants were given an anonymous summative evaluation. The instrument consisted of a number of Likert scales in which the students rated their interest in the course materials and their comfort with the facilitators. There was also an open-ended question that asked the students to offer feedback about the teaching methodologies, including icebreaker activities, lectures, role plays, small group activities, video clips, and the case conference. The students reported that they appreciated the positive feedback from the instructors and felt that the icebreakers helped with the comfort level of the groups. One student said that he had been very nervous at the first class but after the icebreaker felt much better; another replied that he felt that it was a good way to build trust between the facilitators and the students. The group activities were preferred to the lectures, but some of the students did find value in the direct instruction because it offered deeper explanations and summaries. Other students reported that they already knew some of the information from other classes and wanted to practice more. There was some concern with relating the skills to real cases. Students thought that the role plays were very useful and interesting because they do not have many opportunities to practice skills, and this gave them more concrete information about clinical social work. One student said ―I made so many mistakes in role plays, but I think I grew up from this part.‖ Several others wrote that their skills improved as a result of the practice and receiving feedback from their peers and the facilitators about their strengths and weaknesses. Some of the students would have liked to have time to prepare their role plays before class, but in general they enjoyed reflecting on the process. The small group activities were very popular with the students because they all got a chance to talk and ask questions. These activities helped create what was described as an active, safe, and convenient environment to practice skills and learn from other people. One student said teachers were very supportive because he was always encouraged and praised in his group. Some of the students noted a desire to work with different people each time so that they could get more ideas. Employing smaller groups and encouraging speaking in English were two recommendations for improvement. The video clips were seen as a potentially useful way to see a therapist functioning in a real life situation and to analyze the skills being employed. A few students wanted to watch more clips, while others felt that the people in the video talked too fast and were difficult to understand. The case conference at the last class was appreciated because it provided another opportunity to learn from peers, and it was a real case from their community. Overall, the feedback from the undergraduates was extremely positive. A common theme through almost all of the evaluations was the interest in learning from each other. As one student observed, ―more ideas from more people make the case easier.‖

Community Elderly Research Project The second service-learning project involved conducting a community survey of 150 elderly persons in the Nanhu community in Chongqing and a survey of 150 elderly Chester, PA residents. A research assistant was hired to conduct the Chester interviews while the graduate students and instructor were in China. The purpose of the surveys was to gather information on how older people feel about engaging with social workers and other human

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service professionals in the US and in China. As the field of social work becomes more commonplace in China, understanding the help-seeking attitudes of Chinese people and how they compare to their American counter-parts becomes increasingly valuable (Komiya, Good, & Sherrod, 2000; Ngai, 1996; Xia & Guo, 2002). Working alongside the Widener students, a group of CTBU social work majors were given the opportunity to practice their engagement and interviewing skills with residents from the Nanhu elderly community. The Widener team also gained valuable educational and practice experience interacting with the Chinese students and elderly community residents. The community survey project provided members from Widener, CTBU and Nanhu residents a reciprocal exchange of service, education, practice and interpersonal connections. The community survey also provided data from which to further examine the cultural appropriateness of western models of social work practice with elderly Chinese persons.

Nanhu Community The Nanhu community is a geographically defined community in the Nan‘an District of Chongqing, China. The community has approximately 15,000 residents of whom about 1,700 are elderly (Ying Zhou, Community Manager, personnel communication, May 14, 2009). The Nanhu community is not a wealthy community. Although economic data on the community are not available, it appears most of the residents are of modest means even by Chinese standards. Ten CTBU social work students volunteered to participate in the community survey of the 150 elderly persons who attend the Nanhu community center. The four graduate students, the course instructor and the 10 CTBU students visited the Nanhu community eight times during a three-week period. During the visits to the community, the Widener graduate students made the initial request for an interview to the elderly persons attending the center, and the CTBU students conducted the actual interviews with those who agreed to participate. The Widener graduate students presented the participants with a small gift at the conclusion of all of the interviews. The gifts provided were photographs of Widener students and staff posing with study participants. During the visits to the community center, there were also a lot of opportunities for the Widener students to observe Chinese life at the center, participate in popular local games such as ping pong and mah-jong with community members, and interact with the volunteer CTBU student interviewers in a non-classroom setting. Community Survey The data suggest significant differences between the American and Chinese elderly‘s beliefs in the use of helping services. Consistent with findings from previous research (Chong, 2000; Lai, 2009), the Chinese elderly in this study were less likely to have positive attitudes about using professional helping services than their American counterparts. The correlation and regression analyses also suggest very different factors affecting American and Chinese elderly‘s beliefs about helping services and professionals including social workers, psychologists, and counselors. Fear of intimacy with helping professionals, age and community attachment are the strongest predictors of the Chinese elderly‘s attitudes about the use helping services. None of these variables are significant predictors of the American elderly‘s beliefs about using helping services. Social support is the strongest predictor of the helping services variable among the American respondents. Among the Chinese respondents, social support does not have significant net associations with attitudes about using helping

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services. Community support is significant for the Chinese elderly while the more individual social support is significant for the American elderly. These findings are consistent with previous research on cultural differences between the two groups (Atkinson, 2007). Our data also show significant differences between American and Chinese older persons‘ beliefs about the use of professional helping services. Consistent with previous research, the Chinese respondents in this study have less favorable attitudes about seeking professional help for personal and family issues than do their American counterparts. These group differences have important implications for researchers, clinicians, and educators for a variety of reasons. Given the growing population of Chinese in the United States, it is important that those working with this population have a better understanding of the overall attitudes and behaviors in regard to helping professionals. The findings also have implications for mental health professionals in China, as the field of Social Work is expanding and will inevitably involve significant work with the growing population of older adults. Knowing that older Chinese respondents generally have less favorable attitudes prepares clinicians in the beginning stages of working with a member of this population. This could influence the pace of the therapeutic intervention, possibly necessitating more time be spent building the therapeutic alliance with the client. Additionally, the findings from this study indicate that educational outreach programs targeting Chinese clients should attempt to address the values and beliefs elderly may have about receiving professional help. Emphasizing the benefits of obtaining that help from professionals as opposed to family or community members may represent a less threatening approach.

Community Observations Spending a considerable amount of time in the Nanhu community observing and interacting with the community residents and with our student volunteers was a valuable learning experience for each member of the Widener team. The following is a summary of our observations of the Nanhu community related to social work practice in China. One of the first things that struck us about the Nanhu community was the numbers of elderly people who were engaged in various activities in outside public areas. The community center participants seemed to really enjoy group activities, with large numbers engaging with each other without the presence of staff or professional leaders. We were also struck by how content and satisfied the Chinese elderly were. They seemed to be a very happy group of people in spite of their relative modest financial means. The cultural value of respect for elders appears to be very much a part of the CTBU student volunteers‘ belief system. Many of the elders who were interviewed for the community survey wanted to tell stories related to the survey questions. The CTBU student interviewers would listen very patiently and attentively until the elder had finished his/her story before moving on to the next close-ended item on the questionnaire. It was also interesting to observe how the student interviewers began their dialogue. Rather than just beginning the survey, most seemed to engage in informal conversation and indirect relationship building. We were struck by how enthusiastic the elders were in welcoming us and how proud they were to be asked to complete a survey by a team of Americans. They appeared to be very interested in interacting with us. The openness and warmth of the Chinese elders in the Nanhu community gave us valuable insights into the Chinese people and culture and how the practice of social work needs to be shaped by an appreciation of that culture.

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Reflections The following summarizes the students‘ and the faculty member‘s reflections on their experiences in the course and in carrying out the service-learning projects in China. Sikkema and Niyekawa (1987) point out that within cross-cultural learning, ―it is imperative that we find the means of establishing effective communication among people of different cultures and that opportunities be made available to students to gain more comprehensive and realistic cultural understanding of themselves and others‖ (p. 8).

Heather To say that the course and the three-week experience in Chongqing was a powerful learning experience would be an understatement. It is overwhelming to even attempt to sum up my impressions of Chongqing in any succinct and tidy form, especially given range of experiences I was privileged enough to have. Going to Chongqing and experiencing the research and community work firsthand, in an entirely different culture, fostered a unique kind of learning. All learning, whether it takes place within a classroom or in a service-learning situation—and whether that service learning takes place in Chongqing, China, or Chester, PA, or the community center on the corner— seeks to change the perspective of the learner, or at least change the possible perspectives from which the learner can choose in his or her social work practice or daily life. In more traditional learning situations, such as the classroom, the hope is that this change of perspective happens from the inside-out. That is, the social practices and ways of thinking begin as more abstract concepts which, the hope is, change the ways that students see their world outside the classroom. In service-learning situations, especially the one I was part of in Chongqing, changes in perspective can come from the outside-in, meaning that the new environments, experiences, and ways of being that my colleagues and I encountered, forced us to seek out (or create) new schema to explain them. These new schemas stay with us and become available perspectives to use later in different situations. The learning occurs in the moment, with the client, with the student. For me, these experiences certainly impacted my worldview. The learning was quite fast and a bit overwhelming at times. Being able to take time to process the experience through journaling and reflection after the trip helped me to make sense of all of the knowledge I gained in such an intense and short period of time. The immersion in the culture impacted the learning experience more than any other aspect of the experience. I truly felt that I was going to another planet in going to China. Before embarking on this trip, there was not a culture I would have identified as more different from my own, and people‘s reactions to the news of my trip only solidified that feeling. Comments from some who knew people who had gone to Chongqing were negative, derogatory, and stereotypical. But others, when asked about their experiences, revealed their enthusiasm for the people and the culture of Chongqing. I was frustrated by people‘s xenophobic mentality and was unsure what to expect. The biggest surprise to me was that the culture, while unique and incredibly different than my own, still had more similarities than anything else! Never once did I feel the need to find refuge from my surroundings. Never once did I wish I could be back home. I attribute this mostly to very specific aspects of my trip. First, as it was only three weeks long, the allure and awe of the experience never really

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had time to wear off. More importantly, the people of CTBU were amazing. I never went without, there was almost always someone with me to help with the language barrier, and I was treated as though I was a very special guest. Is one truly immersed in the culture when one is constantly being taken care of in such a fantastic way? This I do not know. But I do know that I came away truly feeling like my experience of Chongqing showed that we all have much more in common than many would believe. The people I encountered were warm, had a great love of friends, family, and people, pride in their country and culture, and a desire to help others. I came away feeling like many Americans have a lot to learn from their Chinese peers. Working in the Nanhu community had a similar impact on me, as the individuals we met there seemed overall to be extremely happy and active individuals. It made me wish that my parents had a similar community center that they could attend so they could enjoy different activities with friends, further their education through the community classes, take advantage of the medical center on site, and so on. I could not help but wonder how something similar could be accomplished in the US without it costing a significant amount of money. And it certainly begs the question, would older persons in the US actually participate in such a community center if it were available to them, or are we, as a culture, simply too individualistic? The most meaningful part of the trip was, by far, interacting with the people that I had the pleasure of meeting and working with while at CTBU. The completely overwhelming graciousness of everyone I encountered was like nothing I had experienced before. Never had I felt so welcomed, and never have I experienced so much warmth from total strangers who later became my friends. I certainly believe that Americans have a lot to learn from the Chinese about what it means to be a gracious host. Additionally, the work ethic of the volunteers was unparalleled. If any sort of misstep occurred, there were instantly several volunteers ready and willing to do whatever was necessary to help out. The student volunteers who assisted us with the interviews at Nanhu were patient and enthusiastic. The students in the course that we taught were so far advanced that I am still shocked by the amazing work they were doing in class having never actually worked with a client! Their eagerness and understanding of the material was so impressive, and I know I was very spoiled working with such passionate social work students.

Melanie Having had the opportunity to not only be the cross-cultural teacher, but student too, I agree that by being immersed within the culture of China and CTBU I learned quite a bit about my American culture and myself. I became the ―other‖ and began to realize the comforts and freedom I took for granted by living in America, the most obvious being the ability to communicate. Having several food allergies, I was highly dependent on the kindhearted bilingual professors and students to explain why I could not eat anything with soy sauce or gluten; and, from the looks of puzzlement of restaurant staff and chefs, I imagine that it was a trying experience. Experiencing the frustration of not being understood, especially in reference to my unique dietary restrictions, has increased my compassion for persons who may have trouble conveying or translating their needs. It also made me quite aware of the difficulty in translating, even if one is a native speaker. I never fully appreciated the fact that

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most people speak the same language as I do where I live. My wanting to be culturally sensitive was put to the test, and I quickly learned that ―laowai‘ means foreigner, and not necessarily in a positive light. Until I was the one who was being stared at or randomly touched, I could not fully appreciate being the ―other.‖ Things like drinking water out of the faucet or having privacy have always been a given until I visited a country of 1.3 billion. The collective feel, one example being the family style meals, was comforting compared to the sometimes overwhelming push to succeed individually that is felt quite often in American culture. It is incredible to discover the differences yet similarities between the two nations, and no amount of reading or research could have had the same impact as the experience of living there for a month. Though the living conditions were a bit more challenging than what I was accustomed to in the States, I have never met more hospitable and friendly people. Trying to prepare for a month long visit to Chongqing China was itself a challenge for someone who had never been to a non-English speaking country. Added to that were the demands of a service-learning class that involved developing a curriculum to teach Chinese undergraduate students about generalist social work practice and doing a quantitative research study on perceptions regarding older Chinese people of the role of helping professionals. I was extremely excited and terrified at the same time. The first goal of the service-learning course was to conduct a plan of how to proceed with the various components of the project, the research study of the elderly, and the social work practice class. A huge literature review on social work in China was conducted, including social support networks, use of community resources, openness to intimacy, attitudes about helping professionals, depression, self-esteem, and whatever else we discovered that related to work with older adults. Having had some teaching experience and familiarity with lesson plan development, I took the lead on the curriculum for the class and began reading about the history of social work in China. I was very excited to incorporate experiential learning methodologies into the course, especially since everything I read stressed the prevalence of lecture style teaching within the traditional Chinese education system. It was challenging trying to come up with culturally appropriate activities. Although it was helpful that one of our facilitators was from Beijing, it was unrealistic to assume that she would know what the undergraduate students at CTBU would understand. Utilizing her cultural knowledge, my group, together with our faculty advisor, brainstormed different ideas and then tried to play them out to see if they could be applied to a variety of situations. The research supported that social work education in China has followed Western theoretical models (Law & Gu, 2008; Yan, Ge, Cheng, & Tsang, 2009). However, we did not have access to what specific theories were being taught and how applicable they were to the CTBU social work undergraduate students and their social work practice in Chongqing. We decided to follow a collaborative, strengths-based generalist practice approach in order to cover the basic skills of establishing a helping relationship (Poulin, 2010). The curriculum was structured around teaching the skills of engaging the client in order to assess the individual‘s needs and offering some specific techniques for intervention. Opportunity for feedback from the students was included to gain a better understanding of how they might work within their specific populations and culture. About a half an hour into the first class, I will admit that I found myself pausing and thinking ―Wow, I‘m teaching in China!‖ It was an incredible affirmation of the semester-long process of preparing for that very moment and the epitome of service learning. I wonder if the students knew that I was just as excited, if not more, as they were. It did not matter that we had almost forty students compared to the 10 to 15 we thought we would have. Word had

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reached us that the class might be considerably larger than originally anticipated, and so our flexibility skills were immediately put to the test in thinking about how to alter our lessons. I believe the Chinese students were taken aback by our experiential approach with the first icebreaker, in which we asked them to share with us either what they wanted to learn from the class, a hobby of theirs, or something that made them happy. I wanted to learn as much as possible from the students about what social work was for them. Even though I had spent numerous hours planning the curriculum and writing the lesson plans, I knew that it might all go out the window depending on what the students wanted to learn. We had plenty of opportunities after class and working in the community to learn more about the cultural differences and similarities in both social work and higher education. Though our role as graduate students was different than that of the other Widener undergraduate students on the trip, in that we taught the class and conducted a research project, we were still part of the cultural exchange program at CTBU. The hospitality the university and social work department showed Widener was amazing. Never have I met friendlier people. The CTBU students went above and beyond the call of duty to not only make sure we were comfortable but to show us a good time, including several trips to KTV, the Chinese version of karaoke, and multiple dining and shopping excursions. One of my favorite trips was to a traditional Chinese spa where I sat in a bath with little exfoliating fish. Visiting the Nanhu community had a huge impact on me. I was surprised that the services they offered – including the community center, a day program for individuals with disabilities, a rehabilitation program for prisoner re-entry, college classes, medical center, and a social welfare food market for those individuals who needed assistance with buying groceries – were considered so inventive for Chongqing and China. These are social services that I have seen many Americans take for granted, including myself, and yet the manager of the Nanhu community managed to bring all of these together to assist over 15,000 residents. In America, we may have these individual services within a city or county but not as easily accessible. For his role in offering these integrated services, the community manager has received national recognition. The newly developing social policy and welfare programs in China are quite progressive in their approach to helping the rapidly growing aging population. My hope is that, with continued government backing, the social work students graduating from CTBU and other Chinese universities will have opportunities to employ their skills that are so needed. A degree in social work in the US pretty much guarantees employment. However, because of the historical context of social work in China, other disciplines are fulfilling the roles we associate with social workers, leaving the profession quite vulnerable. Spending three weeks in China was a life changing experience in ways I had never dreamed. I knew that I would learn about another country, including how social work and education are viewed within that culture. I did not, however, realize the impact the experience would have on me. Having lived a relatively sheltered life with little international travel, I did not know what to expect with regard to daily living, and let me tell you that a trip to the grocery store in Chongqing was quite the adventure. However, actually experiencing the way others live, not just participating vicariously through pictures or stories, made a strong impression on me, addressing an ignorance I did not know I had. Fortunately, with the support of the Widener faculty and the generosity of CTBU, I walked away from the experience eager to find and break down some more walls.

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Travis Leading up to our trip to Chongqing in May of 2009, I was filled with nervous excitement. Having lived in Dalian, China from 2003 to 2004, teaching English and conducting research, I was familiar with the culture and accustomed to presenting in front of large groups of students. Due to past experiences, I anticipated that our group of graduate social work students would likely face some language-barrier issues, but I was optimistic regarding our ability to work through them. My sense of optimism was enhanced by the fact that we had a Chinese social work graduate student on our team to help translate; a truly appreciated luxury! As we prepared our curriculum for the class, we had to constantly think about the crosscultural applicability of what we planned to present. Some of the questions that came to our minds included: Were we using language that could be misinterpreted or misleading? Would the clinical social work techniques work with Chinese populations? How would we infuse experiential learning activities throughout our curriculum? Would our students even understand what we were saying? Although I had a fair amount of teaching experience in China, I never had to tackle a complex topic like ―clinical social work skills.‖ The uncertainty of what challenges and obstacles we would face throughout our six-session course prompted us to over-prepare; just in case we needed to resort to a ―Plan B‖ or even a ―Plan C‖! As we reviewed our teaching plans and materials on the flight to China, we all joked with nervous excitement that we should probably expect things to not exactly go according to plans. This attitude of ―being prepared for anything‖ ended up serving us well throughout the implementation of our social work skills class. I had no idea what to expect upon our arrival at the Nanhu community in Chongqing. In the past, I had worked as a manager of a residence for elderly individuals in Albany, NY. That experience taught me a lot about how to work with older adults. However, during the entire year that I lived in Dalian, China, I had very little contact with elderly Chinese. That worried me. I knew that we were going to conduct research about elderly residents‘ sense of community and social support. What I didn‘t know was whether or not we, as complete strangers, would be welcomed by the members of the community. Not only were we strangers, but we were foreigners as well. Knowing from experience that many older Chinese do not speak English, I also worried about the language barrier between us. Although CTBU students were already prepared to assist us, what my actual role in the research project would be once we arrived, was uncertain. I had no idea how we were actually going to gather enough data to make our results significantly significant. To be honest, I was a little bit scared. After a long trip with little sleep and the lingering effects of jet lag, we arrived in Chongqing to an enthusiastic group of CTBU students and staff waiting to welcome us. Soon after settling in our dorms at CTBU, we were each assigned a Chinese student volunteer to help us get acquainted with the university and the surrounding area. It was a muchappreciated warm welcome, which set a positive tone for our entire stay. In the days leading up to our first ―Clinical Social Work Skills‖ class, our group continuously rehearsed, revised and formulated back-up plans in case everything we planned to do didn‘t work out the way we hoped. In retrospect, we put unneeded stress on ourselves,

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and were completely over-prepared. However, it has always been my opinion that it‘s better to be over-prepared than not. Our classroom was located on the 6th floor of a large classroom building. As we walked up to the entrance of the building, a professor from Widener University regaled us with accounts of being in this very building when the Sichuan earthquake hit in 2007. The windows in our class faced the side of the mountain upon which the campus was perched. The desks in the class were arranged in the typical lecture format, with tightly packed rows of desks separated by a central walkway. Our students had been sitting in the classroom for some time before our arrival. As we entered the room it was abuzz with anticipation and nervous energy. We had actually arrived early in order to set up our PowerPoint presentation, work out any technical issues, and examine our space limitations. To be honest, having a full class of eager students watching our every move made the process a bit nerve-racking. As fate would have it, we encountered a number of technical problems getting set up, but once we got everything running, things went rather smoothly. After a brief ―ice-breaker‖ activity and a PowerPoint presentation about class ground-rules and a basic class-format outline, we played a video demonstrating basic counseling skills. Although we had a hardworking translator on our team, by the end of our first class we realized that we had overestimated the English comprehension skills of our students. That night, after we returned to our dorms, we gathered to revise our curriculum. At the end of our second class, we surveyed our students and asked them what was working for them, and what was not. We also asked them to let us know what they needed most from us throughout the course. The overwhelming theme of their responses was the need to practice the theoretical skills they had read about. They enjoyed the role-play video, but had a hard time understanding the dialogue. They also requested more activities involving group work and movement. That night, after class, we once again met and reformulated our plan. We decided to incorporate more interactive activities and role-plays into each of our remaining classes. After each PowerPoint presentation highlighting specific social work skills and counseling methodologies, we had our students practice what they just learned. We wrote and translated case scenarios into Chinese, and separated our students into groups of four to five to engage in counselor/client role-plays. One student was assigned to be the counselor, another student the client, and the remaining group members were instructed to take notes. We instructed the note-takers to highlight instances where the counselor utilized the skills and tools we had covered in class lecture, as well as to write constructive criticisms about the process. Throughout the role-plays, the dialogue would be occasionally paused in order to give feedback and offer advice. At the end of the role-plays, the students shared what it was like playing the role of the counselor and of the client. ‖Note-takers‖ then provided their feedback, which culminated in a final group discussion to process the event. Using multiple role-plays during each class session allowed our students to take turns playing the roles of counselor, client and note-taker. What I witnessed during our remaining classes were students actively engaged in the process, and eager to put the skills they were learning into action. During the role-play exercises, each one of the group members took their role seriously. They praised their peers when appropriate skills and techniques were utilized, and the constructive feedback given was taken without resentment, and quickly acted upon. I was immensely impressed with our

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students and commented to them that although the field of Chinese social work is just beginning to reinstate itself, from what I witnessed in our class, it is in very capable hands. The experience I had teaching CTBU undergraduates clinical social work skills was amazing! As disparate as our cultures appeared, the underlying drive to help others in need was the same for Chinese social worker students as it was for us. This common bond allowed us to connect to each other, and we developed friendships quickly. We spent considerable time together, sharing meals, having conversations about social work in the US and in China, and visiting the Nanhu community where we conducted interviews, spent time hanging out with residents, and worked on research together. It was an experience I‘d be happy to repeat any time I get the chance. When we arrived on our first day at Nanhu, we were given a tour of the buildings surrounding a central courtyard filled with exercise equipment, tables for playing mah-jong, benches for relaxing and reading, and a couple of ping-pong tables. On one end of the courtyard was a small community store filled with under-priced household necessities. The woman who ran the store explained that much of the store‘s inventory had been donated. On the opposite side of the courtyard was the ―Adult College‖ building. On the ground floor was the drop-in medical center, a free clinic for residents complete with its own pharmacy and doctors who mixed Western and Eastern medical philosophies. I even ended up receiving medical attention from the community health clinic in the Nanhu community during my second day of interviewing. I don‘t know what it was that the doctor had me drink, but it worked! Above the medical clinic were two floors of multipurpose rooms where music lessons, art instruction, calligraphy instruction, and various game-nights and community meetings were held. The research project involved a lot of work from our CTBU student volunteers. The questionnaire was long and had to be read aloud to the participants. We ended up spending a lot of time at the Nanhu community collecting data; with visits about twice a week for the entire month of our stay in Chongqing. For our part, we served the participants hot water and tea, brought gifts, posed for pictures with participants to be later printed and given as souvenirs, conducted some on-the-spot English lessons, and answered any questions our CTBU research assistants had about the questionnaires. The whole experience was positive and fun. My large collection of lucky ―pose with a foreigner‖ photos is a visual testament to the friendly connections we made at Nanhu. I remember feeling sad when our last day at the Nanhu community arrived. I had grown accustomed to spending time with the residents, as well as with our CTBU student colleagues. Friendships had formed, and I didn‘t want to say good-bye. I remember thinking to myself how silly I was to have ever been apprehensive about my work at Nanhu. It was an absolutely wonderful experience! Before leaving CTBU for our long flight back to Philadelphia, we met one last time with our CTBU social work faculty colleagues. We thanked each other and expressed our hopes for a long future of reciprocal collaborations. Although I miss everyone I spent time with at the Nanhu community, both residents and our CTBU friends, I know I‘ll be back. In fact, I‘m scheduled to go back in 2010. I‘ve been keeping in contact with one Nanhu resident in particular who is looking forward to free English lessons, and to taking all my money playing mah-jong with her and her friends. I told her I‘m looking forward to seeing her try! It‘s almost a year since we first arrived on CTBU campus to a warm and colorful reception. Shortly, I‘ll be heading back to China, first as a chaperone for a service-learning

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trip to Beijing, Xi‘an and Hong Kong, and then back to Chongqing to meet up with my Widener and CTBU colleagues. Although the foundation of reciprocity between Widener‘s Center for Social Work Education and CTBU‘s social work department began well before our service-learning experience there, I‘m proud to feel that I contributed in some way to its continued health and evolution. Cross-cultural experiences such as this one makes us all realize how similar we actually are, teaches us to put aside our cultural differences and work together, and helps us to make sense of this shared existence we call humanity.

Shan When Dr. Poulin told me he was thinking of doing the class and research in China and invited me to join his group, I felt very pleased to have this opportunity to do this in my native country. The most exciting thing for me was the opportunity to better understand the state of social work education and practice in China. Although I am from China, my undergraduate major was not social work; so I did not know a lot about Chinese social work practice and education. I did not expect this experience to have a huge influence to me. I just thought it is a perfect chance to improve my own social work practice skills and teaching ability. We started preparing the class and research in January 2009 during my second semester in the US. The second semester was difficult for me because the classes were getting harder, and I was homesick. To prepare the class and our research project, we had to meet every Thursday between two of my classes. I still can remember munching on my boring salad during every meeting. During our meetings, we discussed the content for our social work practice class. We wanted to make the class fun and effective. The cultural difference was a main concern. I am happy I that I could provide some information about that. We were afraid those students wouldn‘t be comfortable with American class style, but we also didn‘t want to just give them boring lectures, so we decided to use ice breakers and small group discussions to make them feel comfortable to speak up. I think everyone on the team worked very hard. We must have changed the ice breakers a hundred times just because we were uncertain which one the students might like best. For the research project, my main duty was translation. I translated all of materials from English to Mandarin, and then Chinese faculty at our school translated everything back into English to make sure of the accuracy of my translation. Although translation took a lot of time, I learned about many scales measuring depression, loneliness, well-being, etc. I want to say Melanie is a wonderful class planner. She created the basic structure of our class, and it was very organized and creative. Soon it was the time to go to Chongqing. This was my first visit to Chongqing. I was nervous and excited about everything. I didn‘t know if the CTBU students would be interested in our class, and I didn‘t know if I would be confident enough to talk in public. Fortunately, our students were very friendly and nice. They even held a ping pong game for us. Travis and I were the winners! About 10 CTBU students volunteered to help us do the survey in the Nanhu community. Because we interviewed elderly people and most of them could not speak Mandarin, I had trouble conducting the interviews because the Chongqing dialect is very difficult to understand. So, I really felt relieved that we had the CTBU students to help us with the interviews.

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The CTBU students were curious about what we would be teaching them in the following three weeks. In the class, they asked a lot of good questions and showed their advanced counseling skills. They liked our small group discussion best. And surprisingly, they were not that shy and quiet as we expected. Their positive participation made our class go very well. And, their passion made me feel more comfortable to talk in front of many people. I think our class was successful, because in the class evaluation students said they learned a lot from our class and appreciated the work we had done in preparing for the class. I felt our hard work was totally worthwhile. During our class, I made many friends and had a wonderful time with my students. Moreover, from teaching this class, I realized how much progress China has made in the development of social work education. The students said they already learned some of what we taught from their classes, so that means Chinese social work students are exposed to similar advanced information as students from other countries. If social work education programs in China can focus more on teaching practical skills and providing practice opportunities to students, it will be ideal. After talking with our students, I felt sorry for them because there are not many well paid positions for social workers in China. Some of them will have to find work in other fields. I hope my country can develop a balanced social welfare system as soon as possible before our social work graduates lose their hope of becoming social work professionals. The time was short, but I learned many things about myself and my country. Now, I understand Chinese social work better, and I can see the deficiency of Chinese social work development clearly. Most importantly, I know what I can do to help improve the development of social work in China. I was a pleasure to work with this team. We all put a lot of work into this class, and I made friends with everyone. I learned the spirit of team work, and I learned that I am an excellent teacher.

John As the course instructor, I was very fortunate to have four very talented and hard-working graduate social work students enrolled in this service-learning course. The course was limited to four students due to funding constraints related to the cost of traveling to China for a threeweek period. The students accomplished an amazing amount of work during the spring semester course which accumulated in a three-week visit to Chongqing in May. During the semester, the students developed course materials and lesson plans for a six-session threeweek course on social work practice, researched, retrieved and summarized over 200 journal articles on social work practice in China and other related topics, developed a survey questionnaire with English and Mandarin versions, and prepared an Institutional Review Board (IRB) application for the protection of human subjects that was approved. The course was organized around the tasks described above, and the students took leadership in getting the various components accomplished in time for the trip to China. From my perspective, I enjoyed working with the students in a non-traditional teaching role. The students were in charge of their own learning. My job was to provide support, encourage their learning and occasionally provide expert advice. I found it professionally gratifying to observe the students‘ growth in terms of leadership and collaborative learning over the semester. I felt that the students actually learned more than they would have in a traditional

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class. They were active learners throughout the course of the semester. I also enjoyed ―helping‖ the students take ownership of the course‘s various projects. By helping, I mean relinquishing control of the process and the content. My goal was to empower the students in terms of project decision making. As a seasoned ―professor‖ and director of many things, I found this challenging. I do, however, believe that I was somewhat successful in ―turning the projects over‖ to the students, especially the practice class project. I was more active, in terms of decision making, in the design of the elderly community survey and the preparation of the IRB proposal. I am not sure if this occurred because my expertise was needed or because I was unwilling to relinquish control. Perhaps, it was some combination of both. Having an opportunity to implement the service-learning component of the course in China was a truly amazing experience. The students taught the course they developed to a class of 40 junior social work students at CTBU. They taught the class, and I observed and helped out by taking pictures and videos of the class. I felt like a ―proud parent‖ watching the next generation have a wonderful experience teaching social work to a very enthusiastic group of Chinese students. I was very proud of our students and how they were conducting themselves with their students. It was especially gratifying observing the personal transformations the students were experiencing right before my eyes. The students‘ world views were expanding, and their confidence in themselves as social workers and educators became greater with each class session. This was especially true for Shan who was now on her home turf and speaking her native language. Watching her assume a leadership role among her fellow classmates and observing her growth as a social work professional was very satisfying. It was also satisfying to observe the students effectively collaborating as a team, making adjustments on the fly and having fun doing so. Getting to know the Chinese students in the class and interacting with them in the community as they conducted interviews with elderly community residents for our research project greatly expanded my understanding of the Chinese people and their cultural beliefs. It was rewarding on a personal level to interact closely with a diverse group of Chinese students and to observe elderly community residents interact with each other and with the ―American visitors.‖ Professionally, my experiences with the students and community residents strengthened my interest in international social work. It changed my conception of community and community support. Additionally, interacting with our hosts and Chinese faculty members changed forever my understanding of what it means to welcome guests to your country and what it takes to make strangers feel at home in a foreign culture.

CONCLUSIONS The focus of the post-China phase of the service-learning course has been on scholarly activities. All four students have continued to work with me on a volunteer basis to prepare journal articles for publication as well as professional conference presentations. In addition to this chapter, the China team has had two journal articles accepted for publication and has a third article currently under review. A fourth article has been published in a Chinese social work journal. In addition, the students have presented two papers/posters at national conferences and had a poster presentation at the school‘s graduate student research symposium. It has been professionally satisfying working with my students as co-authors on

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the journal articles we have submitted. I am proud to have contributed to their on-going development as researchers and scholars. I am also grateful for the support they have given me in terms of my own scholarship. Overall, the social work in China service-learning course provided the students with a unique opportunity to learn about another culture and the practice of social work in China while affording them an opportunity to strengthen their skills in organization, collaborative team work, teaching, and social work research and scholarship. Personally, I believe that all of the identified course objectives were achieved and that the course and the service-learning experiences for the students were transformative. This experience has strengthened my commitment to active learning and community service. It has also broadened my understanding of Chinese culture and my appreciation of the importance of continuing to promote international social work.

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Guan, X. P. (2000). China‘s social policy: Reform and development in the context of marketization and globalization. Social Policy and Administration, 34(1), 115-130. Harkavy, I. (2006). ―Forward.‖ In S.L. Percy, N.L. Zimpher, and M.J. Brukardt (Eds.), Creating a new kind of university: Institutionalizing community-university engagement. Boston: Anker. Hooghe, M., & Stolle, D. (Eds.) (2003). Generating social capital: Civil society and institutions in comparative perspective. New York: Palgrave. Huerta, J. C., & Jozwiak, J. (2008). Developing civic engagement in general education political science. Journal of Political Science Education, 4, 42-60. Hutchings, A., & Taylor, I. (2007). Defining the profession? Exploring an international definition of social work in the China context. International Journal of Social Welfare, 16, 382-390. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2007.00494.x Jacoby, B. (1996). Service learning in today‘s higher education. In B. Jacoby (Ed.), Service learning in higher education (pp. 3-25). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kenworthy-U‘ren, A. L., & Peterson, T. O. (2005). Service-learning and management education: Introducing the ―WE CARE‖ approach. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4, 272-277. Knowles, M.S. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species (4th ed.). Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Company. Kolb, D.A., Boyatzis, R.E., & Mainemelis, C. (2000). Experiential learning theory: Previous research and new directions. In R. J. Sternberg and L. F. Zhang (Eds.), Perspectives on cognitive, learning, and thinking styles (pp. 227-247). NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Komiya, N., Good, G. E., & Sherrod, N. B. (2000). Emotional openness as a predictor of college students‘ attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 138-143. Kranich, N. (2005/2006). Civic partnerships: The role of libraries in promoting civic engagement. Resource Sharing & Information Networks, 18(1/2), 89-103. Lai, D. W. (2009). Older Chinese‘ attitudes toward aging and the relationship to mental health: An international comparison. Social Work in Health Care, 48, 243-259. Law, A.K., & Gu, J.X. (2008). Social work education in mainland China: Development and issues. Asian Social Work and Policy Review, 2(1/2). doi:10.1111/j.17531411.2008.00006.x Leung, J. (2006). Family support and community services for older adults in China: Integration and partnership. In H. Yoon and J. Hendricks (Eds.), Handbook of Asian aging (pp. 405-430). Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company, Inc. Leung, J. (2007). An international definition of social work for China. International Journal of Social Welfare, 16, 391-397. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2007.00495.x Lidstrom, A. (2006). Commuting and citizen participation in Swedish city-regions. Political Studies, 54(4), 865-888. McIntyre, F. S., Webb, D. J., & Hite, R. E. (2005). Service learning in the marketing curriculum: Faculty views and participation. Marketing Education Review, 15, 35-45. Mulroy, E. A. (2004). University civic engagement with community-based organizations: Dispersed or coordinated models? Journal of Community Practice, 12(3/4), 35-52. Ngai, N. (1996). Revival of social work education in China. International Social Work, 39(3), 289-301.

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Paxton, P. (2002). Social capital and democracy: An interdependent relationship. American Sociological Review, 67(2), 254-277. Poulin, J. (2010). Strengths-based generalist practice: A collaborative approach (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. NewYork: Simon & Schuster. Sewpaul, V., & Jones, D. (2004). Standards for education and training of the social work profession. International Federation of Social Workers and the International Association of Schools of Social Work. Retrieved from http://www.ifsw.org/p38000868.html Sikkema, M. & Niyekawa, A. (1987). Design for cross-cultural learning. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, Inc. Silberman, M., & Auerbach. C. (2006). Active training: A handbook of techniques, designs, case examples and tips, (3rd Ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer. Silver, P., Poulin, J., & Wilhite, S. (2006). From rogue department to poster child: A department‘s shaping of a university‘s agenda. In K. Kecskes, Engaging departments: Moving faculty culture from private to public, individual to collective focus for the common good (pp. 45-62). Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Co. Sim, T., & Ng, G.T. (2008). Black cat, white cat: A pragmatic and collaborative approach to evidence-based social work in China. China Journal of Social Work, 1(1), 50-62. doi:10.1080/17525090701855927 Souflée, F. (1993). A metatheorectical framework for social work practice. Social Work, 38(3), 317-331. Spiezio, K. E., Baker, K. Q., & Boland, K. (2005). General education and civic engagement: An empirical analysis of pedagogical possibilities. Journal of General Education, 54(4), 273-292. Stolle, D., & Howard, M. H. (2008). Civic engagement and civic attitudes in cross national perspective: Introduction to the symposium. Political Studies, 56, 1-11. Swain, M., & Xu, S. (2010, March). Service learning in China: Undergraduate social work education. Paper presented at the Association of Baccalaureate Social Work Program Directors 2010 Annual Conference, Atlanta, GA. Terkla, D. G., O‘Leary, L. S., Wilson, N. E., & Diaz, A. (2007). Civic engagement assessment: Linking activities to attitudes. Assessment Update: Progress, trends, and Practices in Higher Education, 19(3), 1-16. Tong, M. (2007). Reflection on social work field education in mainland China: A journey to become a professional social work educator. Social Work Education, 26(6), 645-648. DOI:10.1080/02615470701456608 Tsang, A.K.T., Sin, R., Jia, C., & Yan, M.C. (2008). Another snapshot of social work in China: Capturing multiple positioning and intersecting discourses in rapid movement. Australian Social Work, 61(1), 72-87. doi: 10.1080/03124070701818740 Tsang, A.K.T., & Yan, M.C. (2001). Chinese corpus, western application: The Chinese strategy of engagement with western social work discourse. International Social Work, 44(4), 433-454. Xia, X., & Guo, J. (2002). Historical development and characteristics of social work in today‘s China. International Journal of Social Welfare, 11, 254-262.

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In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 11

INTERNATIONAL SERVICE-LEARNING: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF A SUCCESSFUL EXPERIENCE Beatriz Urraca Widener University; Chester, PA.

Dedicated to Pablo Javier Ricco

ABSTRACT The short-term international service-learning experience tends to be dismissed as insufficient to accomplish the desirable outcomes of intercultural adaptation, skill development, and long-range transformational potential generally attached to programs lasting one semester or more. However, when financial and time constraints make such long-term experiences unattainable and unaffordable, programs lasting two weeks or less represent an opportunity for students to step out of their comfort zones and begin to see themselves and the world in a different way, to gauge their responses to unfamiliar situations and cultural differences, and to reevaluate their plans in order to incorporate future international travel and study. The goal of this chapter is to provide advice to faculty seeking to create effective short-term international service-learning programs based on total immersion and participation in the local culture through an emphasis on the development of interpersonal relationships. The model is a program that I developed in Argentina, which owes its success to the reciprocal collaboration we have developed with the community partner. The chapter explores the roles of the different stakeholders and discusses best practices for reflection and reentry.

INTRODUCTION The short-term international service-learning experience tends to be dismissed as insufficient to accomplish the desirable outcomes of intercultural adaptation, skill

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development, and long-range transformational potential generally attached to programs lasting one semester or more. The most common taxonomies currently in use, such as Clark‘s affective domain (Savicki, 2008, p. 82) and Bennett‘s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (Pusch & Merrill, 2008, p. 311), clearly require a significant investment of time for the sojourner to reach the highest levels of internalization of multicultural values and frames of reference. However, when financial and time constraints make such long-term experiences unattainable and unaffordable, programs lasting two weeks or less represent an opportunity for students to step out of their comfort zones and begin to see themselves and the world in a different way, to gauge their responses to unfamiliar situations and cultural differences, and in some cases to reevaluate their pre- and post-graduation plans in order to incorporate future international travel and study. For advice on practical matters such as health, safety, and risk management, the reader will find many excellent guides already available. The goal of this article is to provide advice to faculty seeking to create effective short-term international service-learning programs based on total immersion and participation in the local culture through an emphasis on the development of interpersonal relationships. The model is a program that I developed in Argentina, which at the time of writing has just completed its third year. Its unique characteristics represent the culmination of a variety of training workshops and lessons learned from field experiences with students locally and nationally, as well as elsewhere in Latin America. This program filled a combination of needs—to provide a meaningful and accessible international experience for my students; to bridge the gaps between the academic and student life areas of the university, between in-class and out-of-class learning, between my teaching and my research—and arose from the serendipitous encounter with a community partner with both a real need and the background to make a reciprocal exchange flourish.

PROGRAM DESCRIPTION At Widener University academic service-learning is defined as an ―educational experience that unites experiential components, civic engagement, and classroom activities […in] individual courses or across courses within a curriculum.‖ In most cases, the service component is an integral part of a for-credit course whose syllabus addresses the issues to be encountered or the service to be performed abroad. However, realizing that the best prospective students for a language- and culture-based program were at very different stages in their Spanish language acquisition, I decided to make the academic requirement more versatile: students must enroll in any regularly scheduled Spanish language, culture, or literature course at the intermediate level or above, either in the fall or spring term of the academic year in which the trip takes place. My colleagues and I have collaborated to include more Argentine-themed assignments in several of our courses, particularly those in which participants are enrolled. This flexibility also removes a major barrier for prospective students—scheduling—and allows each student to work at the pace that is most appropriate for them. The trip itself reinforces linguistic and cultural acquisition, the core of our Spanish curriculum, by placing students in a total-immersion context in which they need to function at the practical level of daily living with their host families and other community members, as well as express cultural observations, feelings, and emotions orally and in writing during

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reflection sessions. Two days are spent touring the city of Buenos Aires‘s historic neighborhoods, markets, and museums, as well as attending music and sporting events— activities that create opportunities to discuss cultural topics onsite. The service takes place in an impoverished suburb of the city, in collaboration with a Catholic parish which is the only institution performing any kind of social work among the neediest in the area. In Latin America much of this work is left to religious organizations, and this church in particular is made up of people who are fully committed to the ―option for the poor,‖ that is showing a preferential option toward the poor and needy in response to the Gospel, living in and with a community of people, and who wholeheartedly welcome participants of any or no faith. Among other services, the parish includes a well-established network of social workers, healthcare providers, and construction laborers, as well as many actively involved families and individuals. Students and faculty in small groups of eight to ten a year typically spend nine days fully embedded in this community, hosted by families and attending social events, and often comment that they ―feel like part of the family from day one‖;1 this is possible because this tightly-knit community fully functions as an extended family in their year-round active support of the church‘s social work and activities. The service project itself consists of fixing or building three or four houses over the course of five days with the help and supervision of hired expert construction workers. Typical tasks include roofing, carpentry, bricklaying, wiring, painting, and cleaning. Why build? Without losing sight of the visible and lasting improvement in the living conditions of entire families, physical labor is proven to defuse tensions related to discomfort with a foreign language and culture, and quickly creates the conditions for receptiveness to learning about oneself and others. While the cost of the trip could undeniably have been used to hire more local workers and purchase more construction materials, personally serving helps create sustainable wealth by mobilizing the community resources and ―represent[s] a real departure from seat-learning‖ (Porter & Monard, 2001, p. 11-12). It also introduces students to the concept of fully giving one‘s own self in service by placing one‘s self in situations that may be demanding or uncomfortable, something that in the Argentine vocabulary of resistance is referred to as ―poner el cuerpo‖:2 Literally, this phrase means ―to put the body,‖ which does not quite translate from Argentine Spanish to English. Poner el cuerpo overlaps somewhat with ―to put the body on the line‖ and to ―give the body,‖ but it transcends both notions. With respect to political agency, poner el cuerpo means not just to talk, think, or desire but to be really present and involved; to put the whole (embodied) being into action, to be committed to a social cause, and to assume the bodily risks, work, and demands of such a commitment. (Sutton, 2007, p. 1) This kind of service also maximizes the students‘ contact with diverse people in a short period of time. They spend nine hours a day in close quarters with construction workers and with the families they serve. Neighbors and teenagers often help with the work, children are around to ask questions and wonder at the sight of college students from the United States 1

Unattributed quotations throughout this paper were said or written by students and recipients of aid. Their names have been omitted to respect their privacy.

2

I owe this insight to my community partner, Fr. José María Aguirre, for whom this expression takes on an added religious meaning: to place one‘s own body on the line, so that one‘s calling to love others is not translated only into a superficial commitment of ideas.

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―changing all kinds of things around here,‖ and parents offer drinks and snacks and share their life stories. Construction, unlike other types of service where the people must come to an agency to obtain aid, places the students inside the world of the aid recipient; indeed, the full extent of conditions such as material poverty, health problems, or child neglect only becomes apparent once one spends several days inside a home. These close encounters often lead students to stop viewing ―the poor‖ as a class and to get to know them as individuals with different personal histories that led to their present hardship, to stop judging them and become more accepting and caring. They also begin to think on a more general level about the root causes of poverty and marginalization, and to ―question conventional definitions of poverty based solely in material concerns‖ (Quiroga, 2004, p. 136).

THE STAKEHOLDERS Whenever international travel is involved, the stakes are much higher than they are for domestic endeavors, because everyone involved has made a larger investment of time, personal effort, and especially money. Differences in expectations and methodologies across cultures multiply the possibilities for missteps and miscommunications. Thus collaboration among all the individuals, departments, and constituencies whose goals and objectives are enhanced by the program is crucial to ensure that when you take a group of students halfway across the world, they return with a valuable learning experience under their belts. Although the pivotal stakeholders are the faculty member, the students, and the community partner, the experience also affects and depends on the institution as a whole; and the support of individual departments and schools, the higher administration, and other offices such as student affairs and community engagement plays an important role.

Faculty Classroom learning often operates separately from the work of student organizations, volunteer services, and student life programs, yet faculty and staff in those departments share a common goal: to educate the whole student. The development of the Argentina program was greatly enhanced by my prior participation in nonacademic volunteer activities such as Alternative Spring Break, organized by students through Habitat for Humanity, and a trip to Bolivia for a group of students who are selected by the university president and serve as members of the Presidential Service Corps, organized through Amizade, a global servicelearning agency. Though these programs are independent from academic learning, I structured my participation to ensure that students were exposed to pre-trip intercultural training through reflection exercises and guest speakers, and that activities and reflections during the trips enhanced the students‘ learning through contact with the host cultures. These programs offered me valuable experience and insight from experts in leading student trips, and lay the groundwork for the development of close collaborative relationships with the staff in Student Affairs as I came to appreciate their educational work with students outside the classroom. In addition, the training I received as part of the university‘s Academic ServiceLearning Faculty Development program was instrumental in creating learning objectives and

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reflection instruments through exposure to the theoretical literature and best practices of other faculty. I owe the success of the Argentina program to this background, and would strongly recommend that anyone wishing to create their own program devote several years to acquiring the necessary experience and training. The faculty member‘s practical responsibilities may include designing the project, coordinating the logistics with the community partner, recruiting, budgeting, fundraising, and planning reflections. Some of these activities need to be done only once and, with the help of an efficient community partner, run smoothly from year to year without much additional effort. In institutions without a fully-staffed study abroad or service-learning office, faculty members wishing to undertake these types of endeavors should be fully committed to the project on both a personal and professional level, because, while there are indeed professional rewards and recognition, much of the work will be done without assistance or compensation and will entail a host of duties besides the regular teaching, service, and research obligations. It is undeniable that students benefit from these experiences; it is equally undeniable that faculty can get immense personal satisfaction from doing the work alongside them, getting to know them outside the classroom, and watching them break through learning barriers at unscheduled moments. There is also much to be gained from performing the service itself, from developing personal relationships with community hosts, from stepping outside one‘s own comfort zone, and from rediscovering our learner selves.

Students Student selection presents a number of challenges, particularly because the pool of potential participants is so small: ―Students who decide to study abroad tend to be the exception rather than the rule among college students, and students who select servicelearning programs…tend to be the exception within an exception‖ (Pusch, 2004, p. 103). An international service-learning experience needs the type of student who is not only motivated to serve, but who is invested enough in the process to devote considerable time and energy to fundraising, can handle being far away from home, and is adaptable enough to simultaneously navigate challenging cultural differences and exposure to the shock of dire levels of poverty in a short period of time. Though they may lack prior international travel experience, many of the ideal student participants were explorers in some ways before embarking on a foreign adventure, and are the type of people who need to learn through social interaction, experimentation, and direct involvement. Though recruiting flyers were posted throughout the university, these rarely yielded the kind of motivated students I was looking for. The best results were obtained by approaching students in Spanish classes, individuals I or my close colleagues knew personally and who we believed would not only benefit from the experience, but also contribute considerably to what is essentially a collaborative project in which they play an important part. It is a good idea to ask for recommendations from teachers and administrators of student organizations who know the student in different contexts, and to interview each applicant personally before making a final decision. Once the group is formed, identifying an individual who can serve as student leader helps with organizational matters and provides valuable leadership training to that student.

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Because international travel can be very expensive, it is a major challenge to recruit an ethnically, racially, and socioeconomically diverse group of students unless grants are available. A diverse group can have positive repercussions on the host community, particularly in areas where heterogeneity challenges many local people‘s fixed notions of what ―Americans‖ are like. During a trip to Bolivia, our all-white group probably reinforced those notions: we stood out prominently during the long treks home through the roadblocks that forced us to abandon our bus, and students felt intense discomfort at being seen as the racial ―other‖ among a predominantly indigenous population. Conversely, few in our Argentine host community have ever seen a person of African descent; for them the word ―black‖ designates dark-skinned immigrants of indigenous origin from provinces in the interior or from neighboring countries. Similarly, our Latino student body is predominantly Caribbean, and these cultures also tend to be unfamiliar to the local populations of the Southern Cone. Even when these students‘ oral Spanish skills are more advanced, they and our hosts both find their preconceived ideas and generalizations about ―Latin‖ culture and the Spanish language challenged, and the learning experience is mutually enriching. Achieving gender balance also presents difficulties, because the majority of participants in service-learning and volunteer projects are women (Chesler & Scalera, 2000, p. 20). In addition, as Merrill and Pusch have argued, ―gringa women in a Latin culture‖ encounter especially challenging issues (2007, p. 35) when their notions of feminism, ability, and independence collide with a very different role for women. Though we have never encountered any serious problems, and students quickly learn to deal with local attitudes with grace and humor, female students have been cautioned to dress conservatively, to be patient when their male colleagues are given the harder tasks, and to be gracious in accepting that only the men would be invited to play in the weekly soccer pickup game. Here, too, the education has been mutual, as construction workers brought up to believe that ―women do not touch the bricks‖ or that certain tasks are ―not women‘s work‖ gradually accepted that women who volunteer for this kind of project do not shy away from the heavy lifting.

Community Partners Though I have worked with and learned a great deal from extremely efficient organizations experienced in leading student groups from the United States, I found creating my own project directly with a local community partner who had never done this before a rewarding challenge. The reasons for doing this were due to a combination of need, opportunity, personal connections, professional interests, and financial circumstances. By developing a program directly with the service recipients, overhead costs can be minimized if not entirely eliminated, and project budgets can be adjusted depending on the resources available. If the faculty member has professional expertise in the host country, he or she can serve as the group‘s leader without hiring a local guide. The community partner‘s needs, in turn, can be addressed in collaboration, and they can be given latitude in designing an experience that is enriching for them and enhances the mission of their organization. In deciding to go this route, I cannot overemphasize the importance of personal connections: know your community partners well. Learn how they think, become well-versed in the structure of their organization, find out as much as you can about their values. Visit, tour, spend long hours talking and getting to know one another, not simply planning logistics.

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The glue that holds a university-community partner relationship together is reciprocity, and service should not be the only thing given by the university group: ―all parties involved should learn and all should benefit‖ (Pusch & Merrill, 2008, p. 297). Each party must receive as much as they give in order to establish a relationship that ―reinforce[s] rather than undermine[s] their capacity for sustainable development‖ (Porter & Monard, 2001, p. 9). While helping those in need is certainly the centerpiece of any service-learning project, volunteering in and of itself does not produce the capability of thinking beyond the self as a giver, and creates an unequal relationship between the participants. An ideal community partner will live and work according to principles that align naturally with the concepts of service-learning, reflection, and reciprocity. Our host families donate accommodations and meals to students and faculty as a way to do service themselves, and their eyes are also opened to our cultures. The construction workers we hire for the week, without whom we would have no idea how to do the work, exercise an immense patience with a job they could very likely have done by themselves in half the time. For them, teaching us requires a different skill and mindset than they are used to, and they rise to the occasion with grace and humor. The aid recipients often work alongside us, exchange stories, drinks, and food, and in this exchange there is dignity. In the words of our community partner, ―this experience opens up the possibility of giving and receiving. We receive the possibility of improving the quality of life of some of the neediest families, while we give what we have: the experience of family and community life, of living life in a different way, of opening up new perspectives on the spiritual and the day-to-day levels‖ (Fr. Pablo Javier Ricco, personal communication). It is crucial to work with a community partner that can provide deep, meaningful intercultural interactions through reflection. ―This deeper-level engagement often requires a degree of risk taking, of trust building, of being able to see from the other‘s perspective, and a willingness to reach out‖ (Deardorff, 2008, p. 46). Reciprocity demands that the community partner comes to understand the students‘ mindset, and that the students, in return, ―understand the service agency—its mission, philosophy, assumptions, structures, activities, and governance—and the conditions of the lives of those who are served‖ (Pusch & Merrill, 2008, p. 298). Some of the most rewarding reflection sessions have involved the leadership of one of the community partners without any faculty members present; this has the dual advantage of encouraging the students to use the target language in reflection, and of feeling freer to express their thoughts and emotions without the anxiety of being evaluated. It helps if the community partners are well-versed in reflection techniques as part of their own regular practice, and if they can offer insights to the faculty member that can aid in assessing student learning outcomes. Inviting local college-age youths to these sessions helps students develop relationships with yet another group of people, and enhances the reflections by adding a peergroup cultural comparison element.

THE UNIVERSITY As resources and areas of responsibility vary from institution to institution, the University‘s role in international service-learning programming will also vary, but in any case it is not a good idea for the faculty member to go it alone. Obtaining the support, be it economic, organizational, or simply moral, of the administration will ensure that when

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difficulties arise, one will have the backing of a variety of people with expertise in legal, financial, and risk management matters. Ideally, fully-staffed study abroad and servicelearning offices should provide much of the logistical support needed for these kinds of endeavors, and economic resources should be made available in order to ensure an ongoing, long-term commitment to the foreign community partners so that ―the value of the service given…outweigh[s] the disruption to the host agency caused by orientation, supervision, rescheduling activities, etc., in order to accommodate volunteers,‖ and so that ―social change rather than charity‖ becomes the end goal (Pusch & Merrill, 2008, p. 316).

Reflection The following passage from a student‘s journal illustrates an important learning moment: Something I thought strange and distasteful was sharing food and drinks. On my first night, my host family had a party with the neighbors to welcome us. There was rice on the table, with only one spoon and no plates. Everyone shared the spoon. At first I thought it was disgusting; I didn‘t want any germs or diseases, and that night I didn‘t eat any rice. But later I observed how my family and the construction workers shared mate [an herbal drink] everyday, with the same cup and straw. I understood that this is a beautiful tradition. When someone shares something like that, they are saying that they accept you and want to know you. On my second day I tried mate, and enjoyed the drink and the conversation.

As this anecdote illustrates, ―life experience that challenges students to reconsider the fundamental reasoning behind their most basic notions of the way the world works can precipitate an entire change in perspective. Learning of this nature is said to be transformative‖ (Hunter, 2008, p. 94-95). This needs to be articulated through structured reflection sessions that identify the points at which learning occurs, the moments when a sense of empowerment is felt, and the situations that prompt students to change their perspectives.

Pre-Trip Reflections Although it is desirable to create some degree of cohesiveness and team spirit among the participants in any kind of international travel, I have learned to deemphasize this aspect of trip preparation in favor of intercultural competence training that will lead to deep, meaningful reflections onsite. Charging students with certain planning responsibilities, such as collecting information, arranging meetings, and fundraising, accomplishes teambuilding without devoting too much time solely to this area. Once abroad, students have no choice but to work together and will naturally lean on one another for support, particularly when working in construction, if nothing else because it takes two or three people to lift a wall, a ceiling, or a roof. In my experience, when student groups have allowed interpersonal relationships among themselves to be the main focus of trip preparation, it has been detrimental to their interaction with the local population abroad. The goal is that they become

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linguistically independent and able to develop their own individual relationships abroad easily and quickly, given the brief time available. Unlike teambuilding among youths thrown together in an unfamiliar situation, intercultural competence and reflection do not come naturally, and it is our job as educators to lead students in reflective practices that help them ―learn about the subjective meaning people ascribe to events and relationships with institutions and other people, and ultimately to themselves‖ (Selby, 2008, p. 4). The goal is to prepare them to make the most of an experience that, without these components, can be no more than an anecdotal blur in a college career already filled with new and stimulating episodes. Pre-trip preparations, beginning five or six months before the trip, should consist of activities that teach students how to reflect orally and in writing. The end goals are to develop self-awareness and to foster intercultural competence, which has been defined as ―a set of cognitive, affective, and behavioral skills and characteristics that support effective and appropriate interaction in a variety of cultural contexts‖ (Bennett, 2008, p. 16). Although students participating in a short-term trip cannot be expected to acquire the complete set of skills and knowledge required for true intercultural competence, pre-trip preparation can aid in the development of ―attitudes of openness (withholding judgment), respect (valuing all cultures), and curiosity and discovery (tolerating ambiguity)…that will lead to both the conceptual shifts and the behavioral changes needed to increase intercultural competence‖ (Deardorff, 2008, p. 37). The result of experiences abroad ―may trigger a reconsideration of previously unexamined beliefs, attitudes, values, and behavior patterns whose context is the student‘s home culture‖ (Savicki, 2008, p. 88-89). The more these issues are explored in pre-trip reflections, the better the students will be prepared to understand the target culture and to manage their changes in attitude upon reentry. It is important for the faculty member in charge to be properly trained in these areas: while there is no substitute for expert, long-term in-house training, study-abroad and service-learning conferences and workshops also offer many opportunities to learn from the best practices of other experienced faculty.

Onsite Reflections Onsite reflections need to take place almost daily, and a space for them must be made when students are feeling clean, rested, and well-fed. They should not be embedded into breaks during the service activity or during sightseeing expeditions. Students reflect best when given prompts and time to think about them, when they know what is expected of them and have practiced, when they are assured a relaxed and confidential atmosphere in which it is acceptable to be silent and take time to think. The best results are obtained when students are deftly led to identify their true motivations, to distinguish charity from social justice, to observe the world around them without resorting to constant comparisons to their home culture, and to be conscious of the reciprocity involved in the exchange. I have found two methods to be very effective: OSEE (Observe, State, Explore, Evaluate) (Deardorff, 2008, p. 44) and DIE (Describe, Interpret, Evaluate) (Savicki, 2008, p. 87; Pusch & Merrill, 2008, p. 303). Focusing on description, providing possible interpretations, and postponing expressing the feelings that the events provoke teach students to absorb the experience and articulate what they have learned from it, rather than resort to automatic judgment of the people and customs they encounter.

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Reentry Because the difficulties are unexpected, reentry is often the hardest part of this process. Of the three phases of culture shock identified by Savicki, Adams, and Binder (2008), students participating in a short-term international service-learning experience will rarely get past the first, ―‗entry euphoria‘, during which their enthusiasm and fascination with the host culture overshadow the day-to-day difficulties they encounter‖ (p. 157). When students return home they are often still at this stage, and may have difficulties readjusting to their own culture, which they may begin to view as inferior or inadequate. In some cases, students experience reverse culture shock, which is more common after extended stays abroad. They feel isolated because it can be difficult both to find a receptive audience to communicate the deep feelings that they have experienced and to maintain ―relationships when challenging dominant U.S. cultural norms, beliefs, and practices‖ (Kiely, 2004, p. 15; see also Bamber, 2008, p. 155). For many, this is the first encounter with poverty on a level that is unimaginable in the United States, not merely as spectators but as deeply involved participants, working side by side for several long days with people afflicted with multiple, daunting problems. As a result, their usual communication patterns become insufficient, as this student‘s journal entry illustrates: When I came back to the United States, I could tell people what I did, I could show them pictures, but they don‘t really get how much it moved me as a person. They don‘t understand the experience, and they won‘t until they actually experience what I have gone through. I know the host community as well as the group I was with empathize with how I feel, they understand the impact. In a sense it‘s like a secret language that only a few select people can understand. Often students will reexamine values that are basic to their cultural system, and feel disgusted with the materialism of their lives in the United States, get frustrated with the excessive importance this culture attaches to time, or compare their own families unfavorably to their host families abroad. In some cases, they reevaluate their majors or career plans; one student participant, for example, credits this experience with her decision to spend the year after graduation volunteering in a Central American orphanage: ―I would not be where I am today, I would not be who I am today, if I had not met this community and become part of their family.‖ As Kiely notes, the strong impressions of these trips are most apparent immediately upon return, and the long-term impact is much harder to determine: ―Shortly after participation in service-learning activities, each study participant consistently reports ‗a sense of empowerment‘ and often expresses a ‗hopeful‘ intention to act on their emerging global consciousness to promote social justice,‖ though ―this initial sense of hope and optimism…takes on more complex and ambiguous meanings as participants begin to negotiate personal, interpersonal, and institutional barriers associated with their lives in the United States‖ (2004, p. 10). Reentry reflections should be aimed at providing the students with the support and the tools they need to articulate, comprehend, and act upon these feelings. Before returning to the United States, it is a good idea to practice a thirty-second response to the question ―How was your trip?,‖ because many of their friends will not listen to them longer than that and this often leads to disappointment and frustration. We also practice a longer response for friends and family who do want to give more time, so that students are able to convey precisely what they need. Post-trip reflections are necessary to

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make sense of the experience, to help students maintain an engagement with issues of social justice at the local and global level, to connect with other organizations on campus that deal with these issues and with other students who have had similar experiences. Support and counseling is crucial, as are formal venues for them to communicate the experience to the wider university community.

CONCLUSIONS My colleague, Colette Plum, claims that humans primarily and most readily operate with the brains of lizards when we are confronted with people or situations that are vastly different than our expectations and experience have prepared us for. As humans, we may have brains capable of higher orders of thinking, but it is our most instinctual lizard-brained selves—our fight or flight instincts—that frequently become activated when we experience confusion and disorientation… As international students and scholars we‘re doing something that does not come naturally…and is rooted in a fundamental optimism about our connectedness as human beings and about the relevance and value of the worlds of others to our particular localities (2010). The immediacy of transmitting to our students strategies for overcoming the limitations of our own lizard brains is its own reward. It is not a task one should undertake alone: obtaining training and experience, and establishing truly reciprocal collaborative relationships both at home and abroad are the essential building blocks of a successful experience. Ultimately, international service-learning projects should fit the mission and goals of each university and be tailored to the needs and characteristics of its students. This is a challenging task, but well worth the effort.

REFERENCES Bamber, P. (2008). HOW to think for a change. In Clarkson, J., Bamber, P. & Bourke, L. (Eds.), In safe hands: Facilitating service learning in schools in the developing world, (pp. 143-156). Stoke on Trent, England: Trentham. Bennett, J. .M. (2008). On becoming a global soul. A path to engagement during study abroad. In V. Savicki (Ed.), Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research, and application in international education (pp. 13-31). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Chesler, M. & Scalera, C.V. (2000). Race and gender issues related to service-learning research. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, Fall Special Issue, 1,18-27. Deardorff, D. K. (2008). Intercultural competence: A definition, model, and implications for education abroad. In V. Savicki (Ed.), Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research, and application in international education (pp. 32‐52). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Hunter, A. (2008). Transformative learning in international education. In V. Savicki (Ed.), Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research, and application in international education (pp. 92-107). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

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Kiely, R. (2004), A chameleon with a complex: Searching for transformation in international service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 10 (2), 5-20. Merrill, M. & Pusch, M. (2007). Apples, oranges, and kumys. Models for research on students doing intercultural service-learning. In Gelmon, S. B. & Billing, S. H. (Eds.), Service-learning. From passion to objectivity: International and cross-disciplinary perspectives on service-learning research (pp. 21-40). Charlotte, NC: IAP. Plum, M.C. (2010). Keynote speech presented at the Gamma Tau Chapter of the Phi Beta Delta Honor Society Induction Ceremony. 18 March2010, Widener University, Chester, PA. Porter, M. & Monard, K. (2001). Ayni in the global village: Building relationships of Reciprocity through international service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 8 (1), 5-17. Pusch, M. (2004). A cross-cultural perspective. In H. Tonkin (Ed.), Service-learning across cultures: Promise and achievement (pp. 103-129). New York: IPSL. Pusch, M., & Merrill, M. (2008). Reflection, reciprocity, responsibility, and committed relativism: Intercultural development through international service‐learning. In V. Savicki (Ed.), Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research, and application in international education (pp. 297‐321). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Quiroga, D. (2004). Beyond the comfort zone. In H. Tonkin (Ed.), Service-learning across cultures: Promise and achievement (pp. 131-145). New York: IPSL. Savicki, V. (2008). Experiential and affective education for international educators. In Savicki, V. (Ed.), Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research, and application in international education (pp. 74-91). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Savicki, V., Adams, I., & Binder, F. (2008). Intercultural development: Topics and sequences. In Savicki, V. (Ed.), Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research, and application in international education (pp. 154-172). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Selby, R. (2008). Designing transformation in international education. In Savicki, V. (Ed.), Developing intercultural competence and transformation: Theory, research, and application in international education (pp. 1-10). Sterling, VA: Stylus. Sutton, B. (2007). Poner el cuerpo. Women‘s embodiment and political resistance in Argentina. Latin American Politics and Society, 49 (3), 129-162. Retrieved from http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-169311923/poner-el-cuerpo-women.html

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 12

LET’S TALK ABOUT PEDAGOGY, RESEARCH AND PRACTICES CENTERED ON RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY IN CULTURAL-BASED SERVICE LEARNING Lori Simons, Lawrence Fehr, Nancy Blank, Brittany Russell, Andrew Goodman, Renee DeSimone, George Manampuram and Denise Georganas Widener University; Chester, PA.

ABSTRACT This study examined the effectiveness of a cultural-based service-learning course in fostering cultural competence for 37 students. The quantitative results indicate that students increased their awareness of racial privilege and racism, ethnic identity attitudes, intercultural sensitivity skills, and multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills by the end of the term. The qualitative results further indicate that students develop a deeper understanding of privilege and oppression through their critical reflections of the course content and service context. The findings highlight the importance of the diffusion of the racial identity interaction model in a diversity service-learning course

INTRODUCTION: THE INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT OF THIS STUDY The research study described in this chapter is focused on the assessment of the impact of an undergraduate service-learning course on students‘ cultural competence. Even though the findings are interesting in and of themselves, the study is important in the context of this book because it illustrates how Widener University‘s civic engagement mission is shaping the professional development and the research agenda of some of the university‘s faculty. The lead author on this study (Dr. Lori Simons) was a member of the faculty discussion group on

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service learning that, as described in Chapter 1, existed prior to President Harris‘ arrival at Widener and the adoption of a strategic plan that emphasizes community service and civic engagement. Then, when Widener‘s Academic Service-Learning Faculty Development Program (ASLFDP), described in detail in Chapter 3, was launched, Dr. Simons was an early participant in the program and was in the vanguard of faculty developing and implementing service-learning courses at the university. Dr. Simons, as an untenured, tenure-track faculty member was able to pursue her interest in service learning, in part, because her academic unit at Widener was willing to accept the scholarship of teaching and the scholarship of engagement (Boyer 1990, 1996) as valid evidence of a faculty member‘s contribution to advancing knowledge in one‘s discipline. In Chapter 2, Provost Jo Allen notes the importance of institutional acceptance of research on pedagogy and service to overcoming faculty resistance to service learning. There seems little doubt that Widener‘s adoption of a mission with civic engagement at its core was fundamentally important to the adoption of promotion and tenure standards by many of the university‘s academic units that recognize such forms of scholarship. This research study also illustrates how Widener faculty have answered Provost Allen‘s call in Chapter 2 for continued efforts to assess the impact of service learning on students‘ social, emotional, and cognitive development. Several Widener students are included as authors on this study. These students were enrolled in the service-learning course featured in this study. Their involvement in the research into the impact of the course is also a reflection of the influence of the university‘s mission, with its emphasis on ―creating a learning environment where curricula are connected to societal issues through civic engagement‖ and engaging students through ―dynamic teaching, active scholarship, personal attention, and experiential learning‖ (Widener University, 2004). Collaborative student/faculty research has become a major focus in many of Widener‘s undergraduate academic programs and appears to play a role in findings from the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) that a greater percentage of Widener seniors report working on a research project with a faculty member outside of a course or program requirement than is true of seniors at other institutions participating in the survey (Thorpe, 2010).

INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH STUDY Investigations on academic-based service learning (ABSL) have noted both improvements and reductions in students‘ diversity attitudes that result from their service experiences with recipients who differ from them in race and class at placement sites located in culturally-diverse communities (Brody & Wright, 2004; Hess, Lanig, & Vaughan, 2007). Erickson and O‘Connor (2000) suggest that contact between ingroup and outgroup members in a service-learning context serves as a prejudice-reduction method, because students forge relationships with recipients and acquire personal evidence that contradicts their stereotypes. Simons and Cleary (2006) reported that students made improvements in their interests in working with culturally different recipients after tutoring low-income, African-American and Latino children in a public school that consistently ranks low in student achievement. Dunlap, Scoggin, Green and Davi (2007) have noted that students develop an awareness of White

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privilege, evolve in relation to racial/culture/ethnic identity, and acquire a deeper understanding of racial differences when encountering new diverse environments. In contrast, Boyle-Baise and Langford (2004) observed that students enrolled in a social justice seminar acquired limited information about their own privilege or oppression from the beginning to the end of service. Baldwin, Buchanan, and Rudisill (2007) similarly found that some students change while others maintain their preconceived notions about the children they tutored. Dunlap et al., (2007) have noted that students‘ contact with recipients that does not contradict their cognitive bias will lead to stereotypical attitudes. Failure to find ABSL effects on students‘ diversity attitudes reflects a program limitation (Moely, McFarland, Miron, Mercer, & Illustre, 2002). ABSL may not sufficiently encourage students to think about how race and class influence their interactions with recipients; therefore, service experiences reinforce the ―power dynamic‖ between White students and service recipients (Moely et al., 2002, p. 24). Cultural-based service learning (CBSL) not only encourages students to reflect on their dispositions about their relationships with diverse racial and ethnic service recipients, but it also requires them to critically think about power, privilege, and oppression. CBSL also known as diversity or multicultural service learning is a pedagogical approach that intentionally integrates race- or diversity-related content with service experiences through which students examine their personal bias, gain a better understanding of diversity, and critically analyze the perceived realities of social injustices that affect the community (Baldwin, Buchanan, & Rudisill, 2007; Boyle-Baise, 2002; Waldstein & Reiher, 2001). CBSL is a combination of multicultural and experiential models of student learning. The few studies (i.e., 17 studies) that have been conducted on CBSL suggest the combination of these two discourses contribute to improvements in student learning (Boyle-Baise, 2002). The integration of a racial identity development framework in a CBSL course may further assist students in understanding their own learning process (Tatum, 1992). The purpose of this study is to determine if students improve their multicultural skills after participating in a CBSL course and to explain the possible change of skills through the racial identity interaction paradigm.

Racial Identity Interaction Model Racial identity models were developed to explain the psychological process of minority identity transformation for Blacks (Cross, 1991) and other People of Color (Sue & Sue, 2003). Cross‘s model of psychological nigrescense (the process of becoming Black) described a five-stage process in which Blacks developed a racial identity during the Civic Rights movement (Cross, 1991, 1995). Helms (1995) reformulated racial identity models to suggest interpersonal interactions between Whites and individuals belonging to different racial groups serve as a catalyst for White identity development. Helms (1990, 1995) postulates that each stage be considered a cognitive schema or status individuals use to organize racial information and to structure their reactions to each other. Individuals modify their racial status with each new interpersonal experience, and the context of interpersonal interactions allows them to express cognitive, affective, and behavior components of more than one status. The quality of interpersonal interactions may increase or decrease prejudice.

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Helms (1995) proposes there are four types of interpersonal interactions. The first type is the parallel interaction in which participants are agreeable to avoid racial tension (i.e., The children asked me if I am White because of the way I speak, the clothes I wear, and my mannerisms, it is a learning process). The second type is the regressive interaction in which both participants experience tension about racial differences, but one of them relinquishes his/her opinion to preserve the harmonious relationship (i.e., My preceptor teacher could not believe that my parents could afford to send three children to college, I felt uncomfortable by her reaction so I stopped talking to her about my personal life). The third type is the progressive interaction in which participants acquire new racial information, experience dissonance, and modify their racial statuses (i.e., A Black female who I lost touch with requested to be my friend on Facebook. When I did not accept her request, she sent me a message that said I would not be her friend because of her race. This experience made me rethink the way I interact with the children at the school). The fourth and final type is the crossed interaction in which participants perceive and react to racial material directly opposite of each other (i.e., There was a great deal of discussion in my dorm about the Democratic Presidential candidate, Barack Obama’s visit to campus. I attempted to engage in conversations with students who I did not know personally, but when they made statements about how having a Black President would end racism, I decided not to waste my time engaging in this discussion and retreated to my room). Helms‘ (1990, 1992) further proposes that White racial identity development occurs through six statuses in which they transform their views of themselves as privileged and colorblind to perceptions of themselves as racialized and less-racist. The six statuses are contact, disintegration, reintegration, pseudo-independence, immersion-emersion, and autonomy. In the contact stage, the person is oblivious to racial issues and adopts a colorblind view. Service-learners have a naïve view of race and are resistant to think of themselves in racial terms (i.e., I treat everyone the same, I don’t see race). In the disintegration stage, the person becomes aware of the social implications of race on a personal level. Service-learners begin to think of themselves in racial terms and recognize White or socioeconomic privilege (i.e., I do not think Whites are taught to see themselves as racial beings or how White privilege contributes to racism). In the reintegration stage, the person idealizes everything perceived to be White and denigrates everything perceived to be Black. The person understands, but is resistant to accept, Whites are responsible for racism. Service-learners are resistant to acknowledge of how White or socioeconomic privilege contributes to racism (i.e., I understand the benefits of being White, but why should I feel guilty for something I cannot control? Now this does not mean that I am not conscious or concerned about the plight that Blacks had to endure, but I still don’t feel the need to grieve over something that I cannot change). In the pseudo-independence stage, the person understands the unfair advantages of growing up White and the disadvantages of growing up Black in the United States. Servicelearners adopt liberal views in which they perceive programs such as affirmative action or special education as ways to improve racial or educational disparities (i.e., The tutoring program is a great way to help the children; however, I couldn’t help but wonder if a White school would embrace Black tutors the same way this Black school accepts White tutors). In the immersion-emersion stage, the person searches for a personal meaning of racism and the ways in which one benefits. Service-learners acquire a deeper understanding of racism (i.e., My mother noticed my interview questions and informed me that it was inappropriate for me to ask the questions I wrote. I informed her that if I didn’t ask these questions or engage in

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this type of dialogue then I was perpetuating the cycle of oppression by maintaining a colorblind view). In the autonomy stage, the person develops a positive, less-racist selfconcept. Service-learners develop a positive racial identity in which they embrace their Whiteness, recognize the connection between privilege and oppression, and engage in activities to combat racism (i.e., I realize that I have been a passive racist because I did not correct my boss when she being an active racist. It’s hard for me to admit that I have partaken in racism in the past, but I need to understand what I have done in the past in order to move forward with being an ally in the future). The racial identity interaction model may be useful in describing the cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes in students over the semester. Specifically, this study sought to answer three questions: 1. Do students make improvements in their cultural competence (i.e., awareness of racial privilege and racism, perceptions of multicultural issues, ethnic identity and prejudice attitudes, intercultural sensitivity, and multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills) from the beginning to the end of the semester? 2. What is the value of a cultural-based service-learning course? What and how do students learn from participating in this course? 3. Are there consistent findings between the qualitative and quantitative data?

CBSL Course Description The multicultural psychology course objectives were to foster students‘ cultural competence (i.e., ethnic identity, racial attitudes, multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills). In-class time (50 minutes, 3 times per week, 15 weeks) began with a discussion on student concerns about taking this class, guidelines for this course, and a lecture on multiculturalism. The next two classes consist of an orientation on cultural-based servicelearning activities (i.e., mentoring, tutoring) by guest speakers representing the placement sites. Students were required to tutor or mentor children who differ from them in race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status at either an elementary public school or a communitybased after-school program in a district that consistently ranks low on state performance indicators (Pennsylvania Department of Education (PDE), 2007). The school district serves children from one of the most racially segregated and economically distressed cities in the United States (US Census, 2000), and all public schools in this district qualify for Federal Title funding for basic academic programming (PDE, 2007). The rest of the course is devoted to lecture, reflective and experiential activities, and discussion. Lectures and discussions correspond to assigned readings. Students are required to read the psychology of prejudice by Nelson (2006), White privilege by Rothenberg (2008), and why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria by Tatum (1997). They also read supplemental articles on multicultural psychology (Reid, 2002; Sue et al., 1999), culturalbased service learning (Boyle-Baise, 2002), racial-ethnic identity development (Cross, 1991; Helms, 1990), and cultural competence (Stuart, 2004). Experiential activities (i.e., crossingthe-line) (Goldstein, 2008; Kivel, 2002; Pedersen, 2004; Singelis, 1998), talking circles (Wolf & Rickard, 2003), and video-clips (i.e., People Like Us, Blue Eyed) are used to stimulate reflection and discussion.

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Students are required to complete a multicultural observation paper, a movie critique of a diversity film, an intercultural interview paper, and a journal about their course and service experiences (Simons, 2008). The multicultural observation is an immersion experience. Students attend an activity associated with a culture or ethnic group that is distinctively different from them. For example, some students attend a church service other than their own, dine at restaurant that serves ethnic food, or go to a part of the community or city to which they have never been. Then they write a short description about what they did, how it felt while they were doing it, and what they learned. Students are also required to watch a diversity film (i.e., Crash, Mississippi Burning), apply diversity theories to explain the main theme of the movie, and describe what they did or did not learn in terms of racial identity development and multicultural competence (i.e., awareness, knowledge, & skills). In addition, students are required to complete an intercultural interview paper. This assignment requires students to develop an interview on any topic related to multicultural psychology (i.e., classism, ageism, racism), interview two individuals who differ in one cultural characteristic (i.e., age, race, religion, sexuality, nationality, education, gender, or socioeconomic status), and compare and contrast their responses. Students integrate theory and research to explain the main findings from the interviews. Students are also required to complete structured reflections questions after each class and service experience so they can critically analyze their thoughts and feelings about race and class concepts within the course and service context. The course ends with a social network activity (Trimble, Stevenson, & Worell, 2004) and a reflective discussion about how student concerns about taking this class have changed throughout the semester.

RESEARCH METHODS Participants College students from a private teaching university in a northern metropolitan area completed a survey about their multicultural psychology course. Data were gathered from 37 students at the beginning and at the end of the semester during two academic years (20072008, 2008-2009). All of the students completed the pretests and posttests. Cultural-based service-learners in Sample 1 (2007-2008) did not differ from those in Sample 2 (2008-2009). Independent t and chi-square tests were used to measure possible differences in gender, race, age, and service activities between the two groups. Most students identified themselves as White (70%) and female (74%) as shown in Table 1.

Measures A demographic questionnaire, developed by the researchers, was used to gather information on gender, race, age, GPA, area of study, year in school and volunteer experience. The Color-Blind Racial Attitude Scale (CoBRAS), developed by Neville, Lilly, Duran, Lee, and Browne (2000), assessed contemporary racial issues. The CoBRAS, a 20-item self-

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report measure, yields scores on three scales: 1. Unawareness of Racial Privilege (respondents evaluate their lack of awareness of White racial privilege); 2. Unawareness of Institutional Discrimination (respondents evaluate their lack of awareness of racial issues associated with social policies, affirmative action, and discrimination against White people); and 3. Unawareness of Blatant Racial Issues (respondents evaluate their lack of awareness of blatant racial problems in the United States). Item scores are added together to produce three subscale scores. Cronbach‘s coefficient alpha for each scale ranged from .86 to .88 (Neville, Lilly, Duran, Lee, & Browne, 2000). Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Cultural-Based Service-Learners (n = 37) Age (M, SD) Other variables: Gender Male Female Ethnicity African-American White Did not wish to report ethnicity Year in School Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Major Psychology Social Science Nursing Social Work Business English/Secondary Education Service Placement Elementary Public School Community-Based Program Service Activities Tutor Mentor Tutor/Mentor Teacher Assistant Continued to participate in service hours Kept in touch with the placement Previous service-learning course Previous diversity course Previous volunteer work Future service-learning course Service hours (M, SD)

19.91 (1.91) % 26 74 24 70 6 3 54 29 14 63 8 17 3 3 6 48 52 49 26 14 11 57 43 50 16 19 60 11.77 (3.4)

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The Multicultural Awareness-Knowledge-Skills Survey (MAKSS), developed by D‘Andrea, Daniels, and Heck (1991) assessed multicultural competency. The MAKSS, a 60item self-report measure, yields scores on three scales: 1. Awareness (respondents examine their multicultural awareness); 2. Knowledge (respondents assess their multicultural knowledge); and 3. Skills (respondents evaluate their multicultural counseling skills). Item scores are added together to produce three subscales. Cronbach's coefficient alpha for each scale ranged from .75 to .96. The Multicultural Environmental Inventory (MEI), developed by Pope-Davis, Liu, Nevitt, and Toporek (2000) measured four aspects of a multicultural graduate counseling psychology program: 1. Curriculum and supervision (respondents rate the degree to which multicultural issues and topics are covered in their course and field work); 2. Multicultural environment (respondents rate the degree to which they feel safe, comfortable, and valued within the program); 3. Recruitment (respondents rate the degree to which honesty in recruitment has been shown by the counseling psychology program); and 4. Research (respondents rate the degree to which faculty conducts multicultural research in the program). Intercorrelations ranged from .29 to .69 (Pope-Davis et al., 2000). The curriculum and supervision and multicultural environment subscales was used in this study. The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), developed by Phinney (1992), measured two aspects of students' ethnic identity: 1. Ethnic identity achievement based on exploration and commitment; and 2. Sense of belonging to and attitudes toward, one's ethnic group. Mean scores were calculated to produce two subscale scores. Reliability for this scale is strong (alpha = .80). The Pro-Black Scale and Anti-Black Scale, developed by Katz and Hass (1988), measured positive and negative components of people‘s contemporary racial attitudes. The Pro-/Anti-Black scale, a 20-item self-report measure, yields scores on two subscales: 1. The Anti-Black Scale (respondents indicate higher prejudicial attitudes towards Blacks); and 2. The Pro-Black Scale (respondents indicate less prejudicial attitudes toward Blacks). Items are added together to produce two separate subscale scores. Intercorrelations ranged from .16 to .52 (Katz & Hass, 1988). This scale was modified to measure attitudes toward minorities by replacing the term ―Blacks‖ with ―Minorities‖ in the questions, consistent with diversity service-learning research (Moely et al., 2002). The White Racial Identity Attitude Scale, Revised (WRIAS) and the Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (BRIAS), developed by Helms and Carter (1991), measured race-related developmental schemas. The WRIAS is 60-item self-report measure, yields six scores on six subscales: 1. Contact (respondents evaluate their lack of awareness of their own racial-group membership); 2. Disintegration (respondents evaluate their ambivalent awareness of the implication of race for members of other racial groups); 3. Reintegration (respondents appraise their active and passive endorsement of White superiority and Black inferiority); 4. Pseudeo-Independence (respondents evaluate the degree of their intellectualized acceptance of one‘s Whiteness and quasi-recognition of the sociopolitical implications of racial differences); 5. Immersion-Emersion (respondents assess their proactive and self-initiated development of their positive White identity); and 6. Autonomy (respondents appraise their positive White identity orientation). Items are added together to produce six subscale scores. Cronbach‘s coefficient alpha for each scale ranged from .53 to .82 (Helms & Carter, 1991). The BRIAS, a 60-item self-report measure, yields scores on four subscales: 1. Conformity (respondents evaluate their denial or lack of awareness of the personal relevance

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of societal racial dynamics); 2. Dissonance (respondents assess their degree of confusion or disorientation when racial dynamics are in consciousness or awareness); 3. Immersion (respondents appraise their physical and psychological withdrawal from one‘s racial/ethnic group); 4. Emersion (respondents assess the degree of joy and contentment in one‘s own group); and 5. Internalization (respondents evaluate their positive own-group racial identification with capacity to appreciate the positive aspects of Whites). Items are added together to produce five subscale scores. Cronbach‘s coefficient alpha for each scale ranged from .41 to .74 (Helms & Carter, 1991. The Quick Discrimination Index (QDI), developed by Ponterotto, Potere, and Johansen (2002), measured racial and gender attitudes. The QDI, a 30-item self-report measure, yields a total scale score (respondents evaluate their overall sensitivity, awareness, and receptivity to cultural diversity and gender equality). Items are added together to produce a total scale score. Cronbach‘s coefficient alpha for this scale is strong (α = .88) (Ponterotto, Potere, & Johansen, 2002).

Design and Procedure A triangulation mixed-methods design was used to measure differences in students‘ cultural competence from the beginning to the end of the semester. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected simultaneously and the results were merged together to understand the problem under investigation (Creswell, 2005). All of the students completed an informed consent form and a pretest survey measuring cultural competence. Students completed the survey, placed it in a coded, confidential envelope and gave it directly to the researcher. Surveys took about 45 minutes to complete. Students engaged in experiential activities, viewed video clips, and participated in reflective discussions as part of the course. Topics that were covered in this course included multicultural psychology, attitudes, stereotypes, and prejudice, ageism, sexism, and other isms, classism and racism, prejudice, racial identity development, oppression and privilege, prejudice reduction, and cultural competence. Students completed five assignments for this course - a multicultural observation paper, a movie critique of a diversity film, an intercultural interview paper, a cultural-based service-learning activity in which they were required to tutor or mentor children for 10 hours over the semester, and structured reflection questions about the course content and the service context. In addition, students selected from one of the racial identity attitude scales (i.e., White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (WRIAS), Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale (BRIAS), and completed it at their own pace during a class period in the middle of the semester. Each questionnaire took approximately 10 minutes to complete. White students completed the WRIAS, and Black students completed the BRIAS. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for students‘ racial identity attitude profiles. Students were required to complete the survey again postservice (i.e., after completing 10 hours of service).

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M

SD

Schema Profile

White Racial Identity Attitude Scale Contact

31.11

3.50

High

Disintegration

23.69

3.49

Low

Reintegration

20.00

5.19

Low

Pseudo-Independence

34.30

3.60

High

Immersion/Emersion

32.92

3.76

High

Autonomy

35.80

2.77

High

Black Racial Identity Attitude Scale Conformity

36.16

6.11

High

Dissonance

18.57

4.92

Very Low

Immersion

31.71

5.02

High

Emersion

24.83

2.63

Low

Internalization

50.00

4.32

Extremely High

Note. Higher scores indicate stronger levels of racial identity.

RESULTS Quantitative Analyses A paired t-test was conducted on Anti-/Pro-Black, CoBRAS, MAKSS, MEI, MEIM, and QDI scores to measure differences in students‘ cultural competence from the beginning to the end of the semester. Students increased their awareness of racial privilege (t = 4.58, p<.001) and racism (t = -3.83, p<.001), intercultural sensitivity (t = -3.83, p<.001), and multicultural awareness (t = -2.11, p<.05), knowledge (t = -3.87, p<.001), and skills (t = -2.12, p<.05) by the end of the semester as shown in Table 3.

Qualitative Analyses The constant comparative method was used to construct a common framework of the value of cultural-based service learning (Creswell, 2005). Open coding consisted of categorizing and naming the data from 37 student papers and journals according to service learning (Eyler & Giles, 1999) and multicultural models (Howard-Hamilton, 2000). Coders counted the number of responses for each category and divided the responses by the total number of student papers and journals to obtain the percentage for each category as shown in Table 4. Students demonstrated multicultural awareness and knowledge in their multicultural movie and intercultural paper assignments, while they demonstrated a deeper understanding of the diversity content, privilege and oppression, and multicultural skills in their journal reflections. In addition, selective coding consisted of systematically analyzing data from

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student journals using topical codes based on the racial identity model (RID) (Helms, 1995). Coders counted the number of responses for each category and divided the responses by the total number of student journals to obtain the percentage for each category as also shown in Table 4. Because the majority of students in this sample were White, their reflections illustrate how White students transform their colorblind views of race as shown in Table 5, and the White racial identity attitude profile served as a reliability check for topical codes derived from the RID model. Table 3. Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores and Standard Deviations on Culture Competence Measures for Cultural-Based Service-Learners Time Points Pretest Measure

M

Posttest SD

M

SD

df

t

Anti-Black/Pro-Black Attitudes Anti-Black

-.96

7.59

-1.93

7.13

28

.70

Pro-Black

7.51

8.84

10.51

7.71

28

-2.28*

Color-Blind Racial Attitude Scale (CoBRAS) Racial privilege

27.76

7.31

19.86

5.46

29

4.58***

Institutional Discrimination Blatant Racial Issues

23.93

5.56

22.09

5.97

30

1.88

14.71

4.70

12.71

4.38

30

2.31*

Multicultural Awareness, Knowledge, and Skills Survey (MAKSS) Awareness

28.20

2.65

29.93

4.02

14

-2.16*

Knowledge

35.34

5.13

41.70

4.77

16

-3.87***

Skills

29.62

4.92

32.06

4.69

15

-2.14*

Multicultural Environment Inventory (MEI) Curriculum and Supervision Environment

35.71

5.41

43.78

6.82

13

-4.19***

42.06

6.39

44.75

4.79

15

-1.85

Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) Exploration

15.87

4.50

17.84

3.72

32

-2.61*

Commitment

25.71

6.90

28.43

5.11

31

-2.91**

Quick Discrimination Index (QDI)

100.75

19.64

109.64

15.73

23

-3.83***

Note. ***p<.001, **<.01, *<.05. The MAKSS and MEI were added to the survey for the second sample of students.

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Lori Simons, Lawrence Fehr, Nancy Blank et al. Table 4. Major Categories from Papers and Journals for Cultural-Based Service-Learners

Topics

Culture Prejudice Racism White privilege Socioeconomic privilege Fear or resistance to discussing racial issues in class Learned communication skills Racial identity development Knowledge or skills gained through social interactions Value of the course Multicultural awareness Multicultural knowledge Multicultural skills Self-knowledge Development of new or less-racist attitudes Prejudice reduction Deeper understanding of content knowledge/Application skills Impact of race Adopting a perspective of a Person of Color Stereotyping Tolerance Awareness of racial differences between self and recipients Community or social responsibility Culture shock/Eye-opening experience Value of service Ageism Sexism The intersection between privilege and oppression Steps to confront racism and privilege Awareness of racial similarities between self and recipients Preconceived notions about recipients Classism Whiteness Discrimination Steps to become an ally Colorblind attitudes Resistance: Steps to confront racism and privilege Acknowledging racial differences Adopting a perspective of a Person of Color

Movie Paper % 31 31 79 0 0 0 1 63 0 0 89 84 52 68 0 0 26

Intercultural Interview % 57 57 71 29 14 0 0 7 65 0 92 87 50 43 0 0 50

Journal Reflections % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 97 93 93 92

0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 21 0 0 0 21 05 31 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 14 50 14 0 0 0 42 0 57 0 0 0 0 0

92 92 92 89 89 87 83 83 83 83 75 75 75 69 67 60 50 50 37 25 11 8

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Table 5. White Racial Identity Development Interaction Model Status Contact

Characteristics Resistance and fear

Preconceptions

Disintegration

Racial awareness

Impact of race

Racial differences

Culture-shock

Racial similarities

Reintegration

White privilege

Socioeconomic privilege

Pseudoindependence

Prejudice reduction

Tolerance

Immersionemersion

Deeper understanding of the course content

Examples I‘m a little worried about the discussions we will be having in class especially those involving race and racism. I do not want to offend anyone with my questions or opinions. I‘m not sure what I am getting into with this class, it could be either fun or a nightmare. I have never worked with diverse children and I am afraid they will reject me. When I look in the mirror, I don‘t see the color of my skin. I see me as a person. The service experience was an eye-opener, because it forced me to think about what it means to be White. I have grown up with privileges because I am White. I never saw my race because I was not denied privileges because of it. In fact, most White people are unaware of the privileges they have. However, we need to understand these privileges and make them visible before we can change them. This is the first step in understanding and changing how White privilege contributes to inequalities. I was colorblind and never thought any different. This is because I never had to think about my race until now. After reading Tatum‘s book, I understand that I never thought about my race because I am White. The color of your skin dictates opportunities. For instance, the Black children I work with attend a school that does not have up-to-date technology. This would never be tolerated in a White school. I was taken back by the climate of the school; the lack of resources. The children did not have basic knowledge of letters and they are in the third-grade. The teacher yelled the entire time I was there. This may be normal for them but it is abnormal for me, but I went to a suburban school with mostly White children. I come from a small town and the school I went to was similar to the one that I am working in. The classroom was over crowded, and lacked supplies and resources. I can recall struggling to read similar to the child I am working with. As a White student, I can add to McIntosh‘s list of privileges that I can walk into the school to tutor the children and will not get questioned by the security guard or administrative staff. My parents forbid me to go into the City because of what they heard about the community surrounding campus, but after venturing into this community for this course, I realize I have been living in fantasyland because of the advantages I have been given as an upper-class male. I have tried to unlearn the racism that I was taught but I still do not feel guilty for being White; I have stood up for People of Color to Whites who have made derogatory remarks. I have learned to identify my own ―isms‖ and put myself in other people‘s shoes before I think and speak through activities and readings in class. After we watched the Blue-Eyed film, I wrote down questions for my interview assignment. My mother noticed and told me that it was inappropriate to ask such questions. I informed her that if I did not ask these questions then I was perpetuating the cycle of racism by maintaining a colorblind view.

% 100

69

100

92

89

83

75

100

100

93

89

92

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Lori Simons, Lawrence Fehr, Nancy Blank et al. Table 5. (Continued).

Status

Characteristics Adopting a perspective of a Person of Color

The link between privilege and oppression

Steps to confront racism on campus

Acting as an ally

Autonomy

Resistance Confronting racism example Communication skills

Course value

Self-knowledge

Multicultural awareness

Autonomy

New less-racist attitudes

Examples I would feel that all eyes are on me when discussing race and privilege in a mostly all-White class. I would feel like an outcast or that I did not belong. I would think that White people can‘t understand what racism is until they spend a day in my shoes. I would not want White people to relate to my experiences, but I would need them to be aware of racism and contribute to reducing it. After participating in the backward/forward activity, I felt guilty because I had so many privileges. I realized that my socioeconomic privileges are a result from my race and racism. The opportunities for White, middle and upper class individuals exceed those available for People of Color regardless of their social class. As students, we can write letters to the President of the college requesting a more diverse student body and faculty, and request better tuition plans for underprivileged and that this class be mandatory. I have acted as an ally by educating my family on racism and the things I have learned in class. I have spoken my mind and challenged others when they have said racist things. I think about how I say things and try not to get defensive, but that part is hard. I did not answer the questions on how to confront racism on campus because I do not see it. I was taught that we learn to oppress each other as humans regardless of our race. The fear I had about discussing race in class has vanished. The course empowered me to have a voice. I learned how to express my thoughts without feeling any discomfort, because there wasn‘t any judgment in the course. The course forced me to step out of my box and open up to people who are different from me. The discussions were deep, sometimes awkward, but healthy at the same time. The journals were tedious, but forced me to think, really think about where I came from, what I was doing, and who I want to become as a White male. I realize that I have been a passive racist. It‘s hard for me to admit that I have partaken in racism in the past, but I need to understand what I have done in the past in order to move forward with being an ally in the future. I learned that I do not know as much about race, class, culture, and diversity as I thought I knew. This class made me aware how different each person is by the discussions between classmates. It opened my eyes to both White and socioeconomic privileges I have. Through this course, I became aware of my stereotypes and have learned to change them; The knowledge I acquired from my mentee contradicted my stereotypes. I have changed my thoughts and attitudes about recipients. I am more aware how White and socioeconomic privilege contributes to the social disparities in the community and the inequities in the school system.

% 92

75

75

50

25

100

100

97

94

93

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Table 5. (Continued). Status

Characteristics Multicultural knowledge

Service value

Skills

Whiteness

Examples The course provided information I can carry with me the rest of my life. It really helped me understand who I was and the privileges I have because of my skin color, as well as understanding what those privileges mean for People of Color. A little girl asked me to read her a story that was about Ruby Bridges, the first African-American to go to an integrated school. I started to read the story and then realized what I was reading and got embarrassed. This situation demonstrated exactly what we learning in class. White people get embarrassed when they talk about race and there I was embarrassed, but I grew from this experience. As I reflected on the yarn activity, I realized how important it is to establish relationships with others who differ from me and to engage in a dialogue with them about race; The test we took in class showed me how much I have grown and what areas I need to keep working on to be more culturally competent. Tatum‘s book made me feel the dry concepts you were teaching us in class. I learned that I am White and with being White there are privileges which afford me the opportunity to fight against racism and make a difference. I learned just because I am White, it doesn‘t mean I am a bad person.

% 90

83

67

60

DISCUSSION The current study highlights the importance of the racial identity interaction model in a CBSL course. The first objective of this study was to measure differences in students‘ cultural competence from the beginning to the end of the semester. Students increased their awareness of racial privilege and racism, intercultural sensitivity skills, and multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills. They also made improvements in their commitment and sense of belong to their ethnic identity and reductions in their prejudice attitudes by the end of the semester. These findings are consistent with those of previous studies that show students taking a diversity course become more aware of racism, White privilege, and prejudice (Case, 2007; Kernahan & Davis, 2007). A second objective of this study was to detect ―what‖ and ―how‖ students learn while engaged in a cultural-based service-learning course. Students acquired multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills through their own learning process of racial identity development, congruent with previous research (Dunlap et al., 2007; Helms, 1995; Tatum, 1992). Students began the CBSL course with both resistance and fear. All of them were resistant to engage in a dialogue about race and racism, because they were concerned they would offend a peer in class. More than half of them also had preconceived notions about working with diverse recipients in an urban neighborhood. Students‘ resistance to discuss racial issues represents the parallel relationship and both their preconceived notions and level of resistance represent the contact status of the racial identity interaction model. The course content and the service context appear to have served as a catalyst for triggering and reformulating students‘ racial cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses, consistent with the racial identity interaction model (Helms, 1995). Most students described

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their early visits at the school as a cultural-shock or an eye-opening experience that led to their racial awareness. White students reported that they never consciously thought about being White or the impact of their race until they engaged in interpersonal interactions with recipients. Students identified both similarities and differences between themselves and recipients to explain how they acquired racial awareness. Students‘ comparisons of racial similarities represent the regressive relationship and their racial awareness represents the disintegration status of the racial identity interaction model. Students also provided examples how the course content, class activities, and their work with recipients contributed to their deeper understanding of racial or socioeconomic privilege, congruent with the racial identity interaction model (Helms, 1995). They expressed a wide range of emotions ranging from shame and guilt to anxiety, sadness, and anger in their examples illustrating White or socioeconomic privilege. It is possible that helping students process their awareness of White or socioeconomic privilege led to cognitive dissonance. Students‘ cognitive dissonance represents the progressive relationship and their recognition of privilege represents the reintegration status of the racial identity interaction model. Students further described how the CBSL course helped them understand their own beliefs and attitudes about racial differences as a way to resolve their cognitive dissonance felt by their recognition of privilege, consistent with service-learning research (Dunlap et al., 2007; O‘Grady, 2000). Most students provided examples of racial tolerance and prejudice reduction to illustrate how their experiences in the course and at the placement contributed to the development of their new attitudes toward others who are racially different from them. Students‘ racial attitudes represent the progressive relationship and their racial tolerance and prejudice reduction represent the pseudo independence status of the racial identity interaction model. Most students described shame, guilt, sadness, and anger as they continued to experience cognitive dissonance through their continual work with recipients and deeper reflections of race or socioeconomic privilege in the course, congruent with racial identity models (Helms, 1995; Tatum, 1997). Few students described discomfort or resistance in their reflections of adopting a perspective of a Person of Color (Rothenberg, 2008) or ways in which White students could challenge the ways White privilege operates on campus (Kivel, 2002; Rothenberg, 2008). In fact, most students described acquiring a deeper understanding of racism and the ways in which privilege contributes to this cycle of oppression. The combination of the course content with the service context contributed to students‘ conceptions of and dispositions toward privilege and oppression beyond tolerance. Students‘ discomfort and resistance represent the crossed relationship, while their thoughts and feelings about racism represent the progressive relationship, and their comprehension of the connection between privilege and oppression represents the immersion/emersion status of the racial identity interaction model. All of the students described the value of CBSL in assisting the development of their multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills by the end of the course consistent with previous research (Case, 2007; Tatum, 1992). In fact, all students described how they learned to engage in a dialogue about race without feeling anxious. Many of them also provided examples how the course taught them about themselves. White students learned to view themselves as racial beings and to understand their own privilege beyond feeling guilt or shame. It is important to note that the second sample of student perspectives of race may have been enhanced by the historical event of having the Democratic Presidential Candidate

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Barack Obama visit our campus during his campaign and the election of him as the first African-American President of the United States. CBSL taught students how to remove race and class barriers. Students‘ ability to engage in a racial dialogue represents the crossed relationship and their acquisition of multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills represent the autonomy status of the racial identity interaction model. A third objective of this study is to compare qualitative data with quantitative data to detect similarities and differences. Similarities between the qualitative and quantitative findings were observed for cultural competence in students‘ journal reflections, course papers, and posttest surveys. The course content and service experience appear to have contributed to students understanding of multicultural issues, consistent with their posttest curriculum and supervision scores. Moreover, Tatum (1992) recommends that students engage in a meaningful, productive dialogue about racism to raise consciousness and to promote social change. Students acquired diversity awareness and knowledge through their multicultural movie review and intercultural interview assignments. In addition, D‘Andrea, Daniels, and Heck (1991) have noted that the combination of multicultural and experiential approaches contribute to the development of cultural competence. Students demonstrated multicultural skills through their synthesis and application of diversity material, systematic analysis of the race and diversity concepts, and critical reflections of simulation, experiential, and service/immersion activities. Most students tutored children who were culturally diverse and academically behind in a community-based after-school program. CBSL gave students an opportunity to experience the effects of racial and social oppression; thus, their colorblind and prejudice attitudes decreased and their multicultural awareness, knowledge and skills increased. This consistency of data on students‘ surveys, reflections, and assignments contribute to the confidence in our claims that students benefit from participating in a CBSL course. The reliability of quantitative and qualitative data for racial identity development further indicates that White students develop a positive, less-racist identity through their interpersonal experiences in both the course and service contexts. Similarities were observed in racial identity development between student profiles and journals even though journals were coded anonymously and compared to descriptive data measured by the White racial identity attitude scale. High scores on the contact, immersion/emersion, pseudoindependence, and autonomy subscales suggest that students transform their colorblind views of race and privilege to perceptions of themselves in which they embrace their Whiteness, understand the social implications of being White and privileged, and make an effort to engage in activities or events that challenge racial oppression. Low scores on the disintegration and reintegration subscales indicate that students exhibit a mild level of racial ambivalence or intolerance toward other racial groups, which is consistent with their journal descriptions of racial similarities and differences. It is plausible that students‘ greater awareness racial differences, enhanced understanding of White and socioeconomic privilege, and comprehension of the role of privilege in perpetuating racism may explain why the disintegration and reintegration statuses were not strongly expressed in this sample. Differences were also noted between the qualitative and quantitative data in students‘ perceptions of the value of the course. Students did not improve their multicultural environment subscale scores, although most of them provided reflections about how the course (100%) and the service (83%) contributed to the development of their multicultural skills. Possible explanations for this inconsistent finding may be attributed to construct

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validity errors and ceiling effects (Heppner, Kivlighan, & Wampold, 1999). The multicultural environment subscale measures the degree to which students feel safe and valued within a graduate counseling program rather than students level of comfort discussing race in an undergraduate psychology course. In addition, students may have rated their responses too high at pretest which would limit the amount of change that could be measured at posttest, thus contributing to the lack of observed difference in multicultural environment subscale scores. Qualitative assessments may be a more effective method for assessing undergraduate students‘ perceptions of the value of a CBSL course. The study adds to the research on CBSL; however, the results should be viewed in light of a few key limitations. First, homogeneity effects are associated with the small sample of students who participated in this study. The majority of participants were White, came from middle-class backgrounds, and the first-generation to attend a four-year college. Non-White students may have reacted differently to the course and service experiences than the White students (Neville et al., 2001). Second, history effects are associated with the second sample of student responses. The election of President Obama as the first African-American President of the United States may have further enhanced student‘s awareness of privilege and oppression. Third, testing and social desirability effects are probably associated with the results since assignments, surveys, and reflections were collected at different points in time. Finally, the lack of randomization methods precludes us from inferring causality between the course content and the service context on cultural competence. Future research should evaluate culture competence with larger samples of students randomized to diversity, service learning, and diversity service-learning conditions to draw conclusions that are more definitive. Despite the identified limitations, there are several important contributions made by this study. First, the course content and the service context appeared to increase students‘ sense of belonging and commitment to their multi-group ethnic identity, understanding of diversity topics, awareness of racial privilege and racism, and intercultural sensitivity skills by the end of the semester. These findings support previous recommendations for the infusion of diversity content in both the course content and service context (Dunlap et al., 2007; O‘Grady, 2000). Second, the multicultural movie review and the intercultural interview assignments appear to have contributed to multicultural awareness and knowledge. These assignments provided students with opportunities to learn about diversity topics, examine and apply racial identity and culture competence models, and critically reflect on their own learning process. Issues of racism, sexism, ageism, and socioeconomic and White privilege appeared in students‘ papers. It is important to consider the developmental levels of students when introducing them to issues of privilege and oppression (Tatum, 1992). Readings, assignments, and stimulation activities should move from ―safe‖ to ―taboo‖ topics so that students are comfortable and willing to engage in meaningful discussions about the role of privilege in racism. Third, experiential (or simulation) activities, video-clips, and service or immersion experiences appear to have contributed to students‘ deeper understanding of racial differences, White and socioeconomic privilege, and racism. Verbal and written reflections on simulation activities and film clips provided students with opportunities to lean that diversity exists among themselves with respect to socioeconomic privilege and racial identity development. Moreover, service experiences provided students with opportunities to engage in the four types of interactions with recipients and to acquire information about them that

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contradicted their preconceived notions, experience cognitive dissonance, and change their racial attitudes, consistent with the racial identity interaction model (Helms, 1995).

CONCLUSIONS It is important for students to engage in progressive interpersonal interactions with recipients so that they develop an awareness of racial differences that contradicts their preconceptions. This will require faculty to establish service activities that remove the power dynamic between the advantaged students and the disadvantaged recipients. For instance, students established mutually beneficial partnerships with recipients. Students helped recipients learn how to read and they learned about their culture to sufficiently answer the reflection questions. Reflections of their interpersonal interactions assisted students with their privilege awareness process, resolution of cognitive dissonance, and modification of racial attitudes. The integration of racial identity development models in the CBSL course furthered students understanding of the transformation of their racial identity attitudes. Fourth, critical reflection appeared to have contributed to multicultural skills. Structured reflection questions required students to critically think about race and diversity concepts within the course and service context, challenge their thoughts and feelings about privilege and oppression, and made them draw comparisons about how their cognitions and emotions changed throughout the semester. Finally, the consistency of quantitative and qualitative data provides a framework for how White students transform their colorblind views and acquire cultural competence.

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November 4, 2008, from http//:www.teachpsych.org/otrp/syllabi/Syllabi.php?category =special topics cross listed with diversity Simons, L., & Cleary, B. (2006). An evaluation of academic service learning: Student and community perspectives on lessons learned. In K. McKight Casey, G. Davidson, S. H. Billig, & N. C. Springer (Eds.). Advancing knowledge in service learning: Research to transform the field (pp. 113-135). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Stuart, R. B. (2004). Twelve practical suggestions for achieving multicultural competence. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 3-9. Sue, D. W., Bingham, R. P., Proche´-Burke, L., & Vasquez, M. (1999). The diversification of psychology: A multicultural revolution. American Psychologist, 54, 1061-1069. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice, 4th edition. New York: Wiley. Tatum, B. D. (1997). Why are all the black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? New York: Basic Books. Tatum, B. D. (1992). Talking about race, learning about racism: The application of racial identity development theory in the classroom. Harvard Educational Review, 62, 1-24. Thorpe, S. (2010). Report on the National Survey of Student Engagement, 2008/09. Chester, PA: Widener University, Office of Institutional Research. Trimble, J.E., Stevenson, M.R., & Worell, J.P. (2004). Toward an inclusive psychology: Infusing the introductory psychology textbook with diversity content. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. United States Census Bureau. (2000). US Census data. Retrieved March 23, 2008, from http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html. Waldstein, F. A., & Reiher, T. C. (2001). Service learning and students‘ personal and civic development. The Journal of Experiential Education, 24 (1), 7-13. Widener University. (2004). Strategic plan. Chester, PA: Author. Wolf, P. R., & Rickard, J. A. (2003). Talking circles: A Native American approach to experiential learning. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 31, 39-43.

In: Civic Engagement and Service Learning… Editors: M. W. Ledoux, S.C. Wilhite,and P. Silver

ISBN 978-1-61122-518-1 ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 13

EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF A UNIVERSITY’S CIVIC ENGAGEMENT PROJECTS ON THE COMMUNITY Stephen E. Kauffman Widener University; Chester, PA, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT The implementation of civic engagement activities across Widener University has forced recognition of issues faced by all entities who participate in such efforts. In particular, what are the impacts of these efforts, and how do you assess them? This chapter will describe a model of assessment currently in the early stages of implementation at Widener. Specifically, the chapter will present a framework for assessment and describe and analyze the methodological questions and choices that were confronted during model development and implementation. Topics include: (1) Research purpose; (2) Definition of civic engagement; (3) Problem domains and measures; and finally (4) Target constituencies. Subsumed within the chapter are additional issues confronted during implementation. The goal of the chapter is to assist other institutions in impact assessment by describing Widener‘s experience in creating a model that is systematic, comprehensive, and transferable. It is hoped that improved assessment may help universities develop information for planning, public relations, participatory, and fundraising purposes, while communities and funders may use the results to assess choices and determine civic engagement ―effective practices.‖

INTRODUCTION In recent years, there has been a rapid expansion in the number of colleges and universities participating in community engagement activities. Although formal civic engagement efforts can be traced in this country at least to the creation of Land Grant Colleges with the Morrill Act of 1862 (Jischke, 2004), and to even longer-standing beliefs about the role of education in a democracy, this contemporary expansion has been encouraged

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by a variety of influences both internal and external to the post-secondary institution. These influences include the intractability of many social problems, the concentration of expertise within the academy, and an increasing accountability for mutual exchange and positive impact on their surrounding communities (Ratner & Brummitt , 2006), the availability of government funding and the support of current public policy in legislation such as the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act (Kittredge, 2009), beliefs about civic responsibility (Ehrlich, 2000), and increasingly visible manifestations of social caring and compassion (Jacoby & Associates, 2009). Nurtured by such influences, post-secondary institutions (PSIs) are implementing a broad spectrum of projects, including everything from opportunities for course-based servicelearning projects to large scale, multi-million dollar community development activities. Even a cursory examination of the spectrum provides a diversity of activity types, including various forms of university-community collaboration (Russell & Flynn, 2000), field placements and service learning (Bye, 2005), course-centered community research (Hyde & Meyer, 2004), participatory action research, university-sponsored social work services through an agency offering free services to the community (Poulin, Silver & Kauffman, 2006; Poulin, Kauffman, & Silver, 2007; University of Maryland, n.d.), as well as a number of major community investment, redevelopment, and real estate projects. Although there are major differences in the degree to which schools engage in such efforts, it would be difficult to find more than a few PSIs that do not provide at least some opportunity for civic involvement in this current environment. This phenomenon, comprised of the Civic Engagement (CE) and Service-Learning (SL) movements, is changing the way many schools define themselves. It is affecting not only how they educate students, but also how they assess merit and the workload of personnel. This effort has the potential to transform the relationship between PSIs and the environments of which they are a part. The scope of involvement in CE is as diverse as American education itself; and, indeed, some institutions have enthusiastically embraced the effort. Widener University, for example, a metropolitan university in Pennsylvania, has embarked on a substantial expansion of such activities over the past ten years. The PSI has evolved from a university with only a relative handful of CE opportunities in the 1980s and 1990s, to one where virtually every department and student organization now has some venture that involves or targets the external community through service learning or other civic engagement activities. At this PSI, a range of projects have arisen, including a community-based social work agency, law and physical therapy clinics serving multiple needs, several business development initiatives, a number of activities in support of the regional educational systems, including reading, cultural enrichment and engineering programs with the local under-resourced school district (Thurlow, Ledoux, McHenry, & Burns, 2007), and neighborhood community development projects (Musewicz, Pickron-Davis, Harris & Marczyk, 2006). Further major efforts include a charter school serving K-5th grades, and University Crossings, a $50 million project with a range of community redevelopment goals. Recent additions to this list include a federallyfunded violence prevention center and the Oskin Leadership Institute, launched in the fall of 2008 as a result of largest gift in the university‘s history. The mission of this institute is to develop individuals‘ capacity to understand that global issues and problems are within their power to solve and to prepare individuals to that end.

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Yet, despite the ubiquity of such efforts and the value that PSIs, like Widener, and the larger society place on them, several important issues surrounding civic engagement exist, and several questions remain unanswered. Among these is the critical question of how much impact these activities really have on the communities that are served. In other words, what are the systemic consequences, both as benefits and costs that accrue to communities served by a university‘s civic engagement efforts? Further, are these impacts sufficient to warrant the huge public and private investment that supports the activities? In the same way that diverse programs and activities exist across America‘s PSIs, there are likely to be a variety of possible impacts, including economic, social, and educational costs and benefits. Yet, the degree and scope of these impacts are largely unknown at this point. In part, the problem is that impact assessment is affected by a highly complex set of issues that overlay any form of systematic examination. For example, the rapid expansion of CE activities, along with the diversity of programs in size, focus, funding, and intent, makes systematic and comprehensive tracking and monitoring of the programs problematic, even at a small PSI. Further, concerns about academic autonomy might leave some people nervous about external oversight of a specific CE project. Nevertheless, while most academicians will agree that a reasonable degree of academic autonomy to administer these projects ought to exist, universities would benefit from an effective, ongoing process to identify and quantify such projects across departments and units within the university structure as a necessary starting place for any kind of effective impact assessment. Further, assessing the effects of a university‘s civic engagement efforts remains a challenge due to the number of constituencies and problem impact domains that may be involved. Even a small program is likely to have several groups affected, and may include students, faculty, administration and a broad spectrum of constituent groups from the nonuniversity community. Among these external groups are found project funders, research subjects, local governments, and the general public – often across multiple geographic jurisdictions. In addition, the types of impacts may vary, and may include economic, social, perception-related and/or environmental costs and benefits – some of which are planned, and some of which are unanticipated. Finally, and perhaps most importantly for the present research, there exists a great potential for aggregate impacts resulting from a multiplicity of a university‘s efforts, beyond those specifically associated with a given program. One additional and significant concern affecting assessment lies with the problem of research itself – in particular, what methods would best enable a systematic, comparative, and comprehensive measurement of CE‘s costs and benefits. Overall, the scope of issues appears dramatic, but it is not impossible to undertake a systematic approach to addressing the issues. This chapter will present a model for tracking a university‘s civic engagement activities, and for assessing the aggregate impacts of these efforts – both those that are planned and those unplanned. The chapter will describe and analyze the methodological questions and choices that were confronted during model development and its implementation to date. The model presented is being implemented at Widener University, a moderate-sized metropolitan university that, as described in Chapter 1 and elsewhere in this book, is located in a city that has experienced several decades of social and economic stress. In this context, the university has a commitment to civic engagement that is manifested in a large number of civic engagement programs, with a variety of sizes, auspices, and funding sources. The goal of the chapter is to assist other institutions with impact assessment by examining some of the unique

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issues associated with the design and implementation of a systematic and comprehensive methodology for evaluating the impacts of civic engagement. A systematic assessment of civic engagement activities may help universities develop better information for planning, public relations, participation and fundraising purposes. For communities and funders, a better understanding of what civic engagement actually does may contribute to enhanced support and participation, thereby increasing the likelihood of success with similar programs. Funders increasingly want to see tangible results for any of their efforts (Rockefeller Foundation, 2003), and civic engagement efforts are no exception. For all groups, improved methods for assessment may contribute to the identification of problems and issues associated with implementation, as well as better choices of more effective practices. These ends may be achieved by helping the PSI address such questions as:     

What types of resources, and in what amounts, do faculty members and students need to support civic engagement efforts? What are the benefits and costs of such projects to both the university and the larger community? What are the issues affecting successful implementation of projects? What types of projects should the university (and the larger community) initiate, fund, and/or promote?

THE CONTEXT OF CIVIC ENGAGEMENT Civic engagement (CE) is an elastic concept. Terms and concepts such as citizenship, democratic participation, community building, social capital, and public work have all been applied to aspects of the phenomenon (Jacoby & Associates, 2009). Yet the core of the idea is captured in the commonly cited statement by Ehrlich (2000), ―Civic engagement means working to make a difference in the civic life of our communities and developing the combination of knowledge, skills, values and motivation to make that difference. It means promoting the quality of life in a community, through both political and non-political processes‖ (p. vi). As such, engagement, in the post-secondary domain, refers to a formalized relationship between a college or university and one or more community-based entities or groups striving to meet a community goal. There are various modalities of service that fall under this definition of CE – service learning, experiential education, internships, community-based research, and community service (Leiderman, Furco, Zapf, & Goss 2003). Of this typology, perhaps the most widely subscribe element is service learning. Service learning is generally defined as: ... a course-based, credit-bearing educational experience in which students (a) participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs and (b) reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility. (Bringle & Hatcher, 2000, p. 274)

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In other words, service learning is a modality that seeks to enhance student learning through the deliberate provision of some good or service to the community. It is an experience that depends upon a mutual benefit. In this way, educators and universities are able to promote and enhance students‘ learning experience while working toward certain socially beneficial outcomes. The other forms of civic engagement share important thematic elements with service learning, even as they differ to a greater or lesser extent. Outreach, for example, has been defined as scholarship ―…that cuts across teaching, research and service that involves generating, transmitting, applying, and preserving knowledge for the direct benefit of external audiences in ways that are consistent with university and unit missions‖ (Russell & Flynn, 2000, pp. 197-198). But it is different from service learning, as it is unconnected to university courses and course goals. Similarly, community research is research activity that has benefit to both the target community and to the students who are learning to do research (Hyde & Meyer, 2004). Internships and practica are similar to, but not the same as, service learning (Bye, 2005) in that practica are curricular learning experiences that take place outside of the classroom, but typically they do not have a fully articulated social benefit. Whatever benefits accrue to the community are by-products of the learning experience, as opposed to intentionally designed aspects. Opportunities for participation have dramatically increased in recent years. For example, in 2005-06, over 17,000 classes offering some service-learning components were identified (Campus Compact, 2007), representing a major expansion over previous measurements. Yet along with this expansion have come a number of questions and issues about engagement that require attention. Examples of these questions include whether and to what degree civic engagement activities achieve the expectations placed upon them, or what program components facilitate more effective outcomes, or what resource allocations are adequate? All of these questions relate to the problem of impact – the type and degree of effects the universities have upon the various constituencies involved. Some of these questions have received adequate attention, while others less so. It is in this context that evaluation and assessment take center stage.

ASSESSMENT LITERATURE The problem of assessing civic engagement, and/or dimensions of the project has confronted universities and colleges for more than a decade. For example, persons connected to a federally funded program called the Community Outreach Partnership Centers, or COPC, program held a 1996 symposium in Wilmington, Delaware, which brought together researchers from a number of COPC partnerships and others to examine some of the problems of evaluation (Rubin, 2000). From the conference, a number of issues were identified, most of which are still unresolved, including how to assess programs in light of extreme project diversity and lack of standard definitions and measures. Other researchers have identified the need for effective evaluation methods as critical to improving the process (Gelmon, 2003a; 2003b) and demonstrating that benefits accrue from the effort (Gelmon, Agre-Krippenhaman & Cress, 2005). Such evidence, in turn, contributes to the overall success of the CE movement (Gelmon, 2000; 2003a; 2003b; Holland, 2001).

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Process and Implementation Studies Despite the unresolved issues, a variety of approaches have been used to examine CE efforts over the years. One traditional way of classifying evaluation research organizes it into process, outcome or impact evaluation. Process evaluation studies have been used both as a methodology and as a heuristic analytical approach to understanding what individual programs do, and why. They attempt to develop a context for programs, as well as explanations of why certain outcomes occur. Of particular note here is that they are often designed in such a way as to monitor and track program implementation. Data collected from the monitoring process may be used for a number of purposes, including the development of simple program descriptions, or for the purposes of providing feedback to a program for service improvement. There are a number of illustrations of such efforts in the CE arena. In such examples, the predominant purpose has been to describe program dimensions and to analyze implementation characteristics. Often, these studies have focused their attention on how a PSI may better structure itself or how it may better design its CE modality to address concerns such as culturally relevant CE strategies (Anderson, 2006). Other PSI implementation variables, such as the effects of participation and support of internal constituencies, including administration, faculty, and students, have also been examined (Campus Compact, 2008; Keilsmeier, Scales, Roehlkepartain, & Neal, 2004; Poulin, Kauffman, & Silver, 2007), as have some of the difficulties of implementation itself (Hammond, 1994; Sellnow & Oster, 1997). Indeed, a significant body of research on CE to date has, in general, focused on process and implementation issues. To this end, attempts have been made to characterize the entire range of issues associated with successful implementations, and perhaps the most successful comprehensive approach to date has been the Furco Rubric (Green, 2008). The Furco Rubric is a comprehensive tool for examining the process and quality of the institutional arrangements of service learning across a number of dimensions, including faculty, administration and community partners and the quality of partnership arrangements. The model may be used for both assessing the potential effectiveness of a program, as well as for diagnosing the causes of program difficulties. In sum, process evaluations, while not intentionally designed to assess impact, may in fact play a useful role in an impact assessment. Some of the issues identified in such analyses, such as cultural competency (Anderson, 2006), the role of power (Blake, 2006), honesty in relationships (Bringle & Hatcher, 2000), degree of partnership and/or the quality of partnerships (Bringle & Hatcher, 2002; Cox, 2000; Leiderman, Furco, Zapf, & Goss 2003; Portland State University, 2008;), degree of perceived mutual benefit (Bernal, Sheliman, & Reid, 2004), and trust and the quality of communication (Arbuckle & DeHoog, 2004) may all serve as important impacts in and of themselves.

Outcome Studies Another body of research, one that moves closer to impact assessment, is more commonly associated with CE outcomes evaluations. This type of research examines whether the program has achieved the targets that have been set for it. More specifically, outcome

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evaluation assumes that a set of goals and objectives has been developed, and the evaluation seeks to determine the degree to which the objectives have been met. In such research studies, the attempt commonly focuses on narrowly defined effects or changes to a specific constituency, such as the students or faculty, or one of the targeted externally affected groups. As such, the evaluations are focused on specific, pre-determined outcomes. The National Service-Learning Clearinghouse (2004) developed an extensive list of such evaluations, and these evaluations, as well as many others, have demonstrated a number of positive changes that the programs have enabled. These changes have included a variety of effects on students and/or faculty, such as enhanced student learning (Eby, 2001), altered perceptions (Blanc, 2008), changes in values and/or attitudes (c.f. Astin & Sax, 1998; Dalton & Petrie,1997; Sanders, McFarland, & Bartolli, 2003; Toews & Cerny, 2005) and other similar outcomes (Astin & Sax, 1998; Driscoll, Holland, Gelmon, & Kerrigan,1996; Hammond,1994; Sellnow & Oster, 1997 ). Almost universally, empirically sound outcome evaluations that use the program‘s objectives as benchmarks share an important methodological element – a design structured to show causality. Simplistically, this may be articulated as a baseline – program – outcome configuration. The assumption, given that all appropriate methodological requirements are in place, including perhaps the use of control groups, is that it is program effort that causes the changes from baseline to outcome (subject to a whole series of ifs, ands, buts, or maybes). As such, the approach is clearly of great benefit, particularly when associated with wellestablished evaluation standards, such as linkage with a logic model. The primary limitation with the approach is, however, a necessary focus on only intentional and specific changes. Such evaluations are not designed to measure aggregate, cumulative and/or unanticipated effects. These later issues commonly define the domain of the impact.

IMPACT STUDIES Impact evaluations, the approach most relevant here, seek to determine the consequences of a program (or programs) over and above those predetermined elements addressed by the outcome evaluation. Such impacts may be intended or unintended, consequential to directed effects, and may also be cumulative or effected through aggregation. A type of study that begins to move more toward the impact assessment are what may be thought of as cross-institutional or cross-constituency studies. Although the studies above, as well as other similar studies, are extremely valuable, they are narrowly focused; and, none were designed to measure both cumulative impact and unanticipated effects. To address this point, a small number of cross-university or cross-constituency studies exist. Studies of this variety have examined cross-university impacts on faculty workload (Hammond, 1994), faculty perceived effects on students learning and skills (Hesser, 1995), faculty reward systems (Huyser, 2004), and the methods used and supports needed by faculty who practice engaged teaching methods (Axlund & McWilliams, 2009). In other words, these studies have attempted to examine a particular type of impact across a larger geography or demographic category.

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Although the effects of programs on larger communities are needed (Anderson, 2006; Holland, 2001), there are some studies that have attempted to examine the effects across constituencies. Interestingly, it appears that the impacts on education, children, and families have received the most attention, as in the case studies presented in the work of Chibucos and Lerner (1999). The University of Minnesota College in the Schools program is another such study (Wahlstrom & Riedel, 2004). This study examined primarily the attitudes and perceptions of program participants about both process effects and benefits and costs to the various constituent groups (teachers, children, administrators, etc.). The effects of a program on an under-resourced school district (Thurlow, Ledoux, McHenry, & Burns, 2007) and on a struggling neighborhood (Musewicz, Pickron-Davis, Harris & Marczyk, 2006), both located in Chester, PA, demonstrated some useful work in this area. In another study, community perceptions about the value of civic engagement through the use of student volunteers received both positive comments by community members as well as perceptions of challenges that required attention (Ward, 1999). More recently, a case study indicated a need for identifying strategies that are culturally relevant (Anderson, 2006). Such culturally relevant strategies require understanding what the actual changes resulting from CE efforts are on a community. Further, improving organizational capacity has been examined in some research, including a study of community organizations in East St. Louis, IL (Reardon 1998). These studies have proved to be quite valuable, but as the cross-institutional studies tended to focus on academic constituencies, these latter studies, while examining the community perspective, have focused on a single problem domain. Thus, as with the other types of studies considered, there is the need to expand the dimension of the research to more types of impacts.

Economic Impact Studies In addition to education and children, economic impacts, as a specific problem domain, have also received attention. For example, a study at Yale (Daniel & Schons, 2010) attempted to develop a way of assessing the effect of an anchor institution‘s impact on local investment. The assessment in fact suggested that the university and the community both benefit from local investment, but the study provided few indicators that might be of use to the present study. On the other hand, this type of analysis has been popular, possibly in part because of the ease in establishing direct metrics through such indicators as dollars spent or jobs created, as in the case of Duke University (Fishleder, Hewitt & Vogel, n.d.), Columbia University (Leichner, LaFlam, & Garry 2009) and at the University of California at Berkeley (Bates, Cross, Golin & Redman 2009). In all of these cases, the argument in favor of investment has been made. There have been some economic studies, such as the University of California at Berkeley report (Bates, Cross, Golin & Redman, 2009) on the economic and social impacts of the university on the bay area that have been more comprehensive, but even these have interpreted multiple impact domains in economic terms and have assessed a variety of social concerns through economic measures. Such an approach has value, but is limited in that it loses significant qualities of the impacts. However, the economic approach has been popular. Indeed, Widener itself has attempted to assess the economic impacts of some of its projects. In one measurement, the overall economic impact of the university on the region was estimated, although this assessment went well beyond the impacts of civic engagement activities alone. In a report generated by the

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Econsult Corporation (2005), the total value of Widener‘s expenditures and productivity exceeded one-half billion dollars.

Cumulative Impact Studies Unlike the research described above, a very small number of studies have attempted to address the problem of impact comprehensively. This expanded approach seeks to examine a variety of different types of impacts, across multiple constituencies, and in a way that attempts to assess the aggregate and cumulative effects on the various constituencies. One model of note that attempted to develop a comprehensive methodology, illustrated in the work of Driscoll, Holland, Gelmon, & Kerrigan (1996) and Gelmon, Holland, Morris, & Driscoll (2000) is influencing an impact assessment of CE across multiple universities in Australia (Holland 2009). Widener University itself has attempted to identify at least some of the impacts aggregated beyond the economic alone. The Bonner Foundation (2009) identified a number of high visibility projects along three primary impact domains – community engagement, economic engagement, and educational engagement. While this was an effective start, it did not address the full scope of the projects and activities at Widener, nor did it address the cumulative or aggregate effects of these programs on the city. Social Impact Assessment These studies suggest a series of methodologies called social impact assessment (SIA) that might provide some guidance to civic engagement impact assessment. Burdge (2003) defines SIA as the systematic appraisal of ‗‗impacts on the day-to-day quality of life of persons and communities whose environment is affected by a proposed policy, plan, programme or project‘‘ (p. 85), and suggests that good SIA provides ‗‗qualitative and quantitative indicators of social impact that can be understood by decision-makers and citizens alike‘‘ (p. 85). While a number of methodologies and approaches to SIA exist, a fairly basic model attempts to characterize the program in action, and then assess a number of variable sets affected by the program. Specifically, SIA attempts to describe the project type, and then assess the effects on population characteristics, community and institutional structures, political and social resources, individual and family changes, and community resources (Inter-organizational Committee on Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact Assessment, 1994). This SIA approach, when applied to CE, provided several key concepts that were integrated into the framework for the present research. As most of the research on impacts of PSIs has been limited to single domains, or has reinterpreted multiple impact domains in economic terms, the SIA framework is useful, because systems for assessing cumulative impacts of civic engagement remain illusive – both generally and for Widener in specific. As the number of PSIs with complex and diverse CE efforts increases, the need for a comprehensive and flexible model also increases.

WIDENER UNIVERSITY AND THE CITY OF CHESTER It is in this context of limited research on the impacts of CE on a community that the present project is focused. The site where the research is taking place is Widener University –

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a metropolitan university that has a genuine commitment to civic engagement and service learning fully integrated into its mission (Widener University, 2009), as well as a local community that is in critical need of assistance. The university, with a full-time enrollment of over 4,800 students, has four campuses, but the main campus is located in Chester, PA, a city that faces a number of serious issues. By almost any statistical measure, Chester, a city with a 2008 population of 36,564 (CityData, n.d.,) is one of the most severely distressed cities in the United States. From its founding in the 17th century through the 1960s, the city supported a healthy economic and social environment for a diverse population. This included a large number of good paying industrial jobs, supported by a vibrant cultural life. Yet, beginning in the early 1970s, the city experienced several decades of extensive economic change and a lack of effective political leadership, leaving Chester‘s civic institutions weakened and its population severely impoverished. A few socio-economic indicators serve to illustrate the city‘s present condition. The city has a high unemployment and poverty rate, a median household income that is only two-thirds that of the state of Pennsylvania (City-Data, n.d.) and a severally decaying housing stock (American Fact Finder, 2010). The city also has serious issues with its educational system, and a crime rate approximately three times the US average (City-Data, n.d.). The incidence of many health problems exceeds surrounding county and state averages (CrozerKeystone, 1997). Some of the health problems, including asthma and high blood lead levels, are associated with the environmental conditions in Chester, as identified by research conducted by the US Environmental Protection Agency (Harris, n.d.). Finally, the public school system has some of the lowest test scores in math, reading and writing (Pennsylvania State Department of Education, 2010) in the state. Widener University‘s commitment to address the needs of Chester and those of other areas of the region make it an ideal site for the development and testing of such a model. Even a cursory description of the service-learning and other civic engagement projects at the school is impressive. The university has programs targeted at legal assistance, medical and nursing care, education for a variety of age groups, social services, engineering services, environmental education and remediation, criminal justice, and business and economic development. The university has, as well, a service-learning support and training structure for faculty, and a dedicated administrative unit, called the Office for Community Engagement, to help oversee many of the activities. Similarly, its connections to the national movement are impressive, with affiliations to initiatives such as Project Pericles, Campus Compact, and the Coalition of Urban and Metropolitan Universities. What the university does not have, however, is a formal mechanism for identifying, tracking and assessing these projects. This deficiency has had consequences. For example, the university administration has sought funding from several external foundations to expand its activities. Although in several cases the university has been successful in its seeking of funds, in other cases foundations have been tentative about funding, largely because the entire civic engagement movement lacks a body of research literature on the social benefits and impacts of the programs.

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Impact Assessment at Widener While the Bonner Foundation‘s (2009) identification of three strands of high visibility CE at Widener represented a start to impact assessment, the report did not address the full scope of the projects and activities at Widener, nor did it address the cumulative or aggregate effects of these programs. The report was also a ―one-shot‖ description of the programs, rather than an ongoing monitoring or tracking design. In the present research context, an examination of the above projects, as well as the assessment literature, suggests that the key to an effective system of assessment is intrinsically tied to the answers one derives from a series of questions about the methodology and analysis. To understand both the questions and the opportunities and limitations provided by various answers, this section will briefly describe the model in play at Widener, and will follow up this summary with an extended discussion of the questions and answers.

Current Research The current project began in late 2008 with a conversation in which James Harris, the President of Widener University, and the researcher discussed the possible benefits to Widener University and the surrounding community if some of the impacts of Widener‘s recent and continuing expansion of CE efforts could be identified. Over the course of the next year, the researcher designed, in consultation with a number of other faculty, both inside and outside Widener, the outline of the project. The purposes and research goals for the project are as follows.

Project Goals  To assess the scope and impact of Widener University‘s civic engagement projects  To develop and implement a system for tracking the civic engagement projects of Widener University and its faculty members and students  To disseminate the tracking and impact assessment model widely, through publications and other means, for the benefit of the larger higher education community Purposes of Project  To develop knowledge about civic engagement  To identify ―Effective Practices,‖ and to provide empirical justification for undertaking certain projects  To identify and help publicize campus/community opportunities  To provide information about what works for all constituencies (university administration, staff, students; funders; community partners)  To enhance the involvement of these constituencies in planning and implementation To meet these goals and purposes, it was determined that the final model construction would have to include two research design components, plus an advisory group made up of faculty and community members to oversee the project and to serve as a mediating

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―institution‖ to help clarify the questions that needed to be asked, as well as the findings as they came available. The first design component is essentially a system for identifying and tracking the civic engagement activities at Widener, and the second component is a series of methods used for measuring the impacts of these activities. Upon initiation, however, an immediate problem was identified. Given that many of the programs were already in operation prior to the impact assessment, an unexposed population would be difficult, if not impossible, to identify. Thus, a decision was made to initially focus on simply describing and characterizing the programs and impacts (or what might be considered a program - outcome design), but then to improve the rigor in subsequent years and evolve the design into a more causal baseline – program – outcome configuration. As such, certainty about the true source of the programs‘ impacts would necessarily develop slowly. The core elements of the model are shown on Table 1 and are discussed below. Table 1. Widener University Selected Research Dimensional Choices by Constituency: Sample, Methods, Measures & Design) Constituencies University Administration Faculty Staff

Students Extra-mural Program participants/beneficiaries Organizational partners

General community

Research Dimensional Choices Population & Sample All full-time University personnel

All students, 10% random sample All participants, initial convenience sample & subsequent random selection All CPO‘s

All Chester residential addresses; .1% sample

Data Collection Methods Component 1 – tracking survey to identify CE projects Component 2 – web-based survey Web-based survey Pre-post surveys

Component 1 – tracking survey to identify CPO‘s Component 2 – web-based survey Annual mailed surveys

Research Component 1 - Tracking Research Component 1 was the methodology developed for the identification and tracking of university civic engagement efforts. Identifying the university activities is necessary in order to assess the scope of institutional efforts and to classify impact domains for subsequent impact measurement. It is also a necessary step in developing the constituency populations for later impact research efforts. The population for this component includes all faculty, administration, staff and student leaders involved in one or more civic engagement activities, with the intention being the identification of all civic engagement efforts begun or ongoing as of July 1, 2008. Three phases of data collection are included. The first two phases involved the distribution of a survey instrument through email to all administrators, program

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directors, faculty, and students involved in pre-identified CE efforts. The instrument was initially a traditional form to be filled out by hand and was subsequently converted to an entirely web-based format. This phase is currently being implemented and will continue until the researchers and advisors are satisfied that the programs at Widener have been fully characterized. The next phase (Phase 3) will institutionalize the process, with the university administering the process through its Office of Community Engagement. During this phase, anticipated to begin in the fall of 2011, a web-based form will be available through which the responsible university persons will be required to identify and provide essential information for all CE efforts. While little discussion has taken place about who within the university will ultimately have responsibility this process once initiated, the university administration is fully supportive of the effort. In at least two campus-wide notifications, President Harris has urged compliance with the request for data by the researchers. Without such support, completion of the project would be much more difficult, and institutionalization would not be possible. The instrument for the tracking research contains 34 questions, both open-ended and identified response. This instrument is the primary mechanism for measurement of the independent measures. These are the number, type, and location of civic engagement activity provided. The instrument also serves as the primary tool for identifying members of the population constituencies who will be later surveyed in Research Component 2, the actual impact assessment. With the support of the university administration, this instrument will be filled out annually (or upon project initiation) by university administrators, program directors, faculty and student leaders of the various projects, as well as by appropriate representatives of the community partners. Finally, the instrument also seeks to identify some of the purposes and impact domains of the CE projects. The variables included on this tracking form include: 

             

Type of activity o Service learning o Community research o Outreach o Experiential education Problem domain Location of activity Structure of services Duration and starting/ending points of activities Types of university participants Numbers of university participants Project purposes and goals Funding sources Types of intra-organizational collaboration Organizational partners Degree / Intensity of contact Expenditures Person hours Physical plant / space used

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Importantly, the choice was made that all programs and services having an effect on the communities outside of Widener‘s gates would be included, and these programs could be academic or non-academic in focus. This meant that the instrument would necessarily have to be widely distributed, and only later would final choices be made about those programs to include in the official database. Such a wide distribution has ultimately meant that over 400 persons were targeted to receive the instrument – all full-time faculty, administration, employees, and leaders of student organizations. Further, in this initial research phase, no distinction is made relating to the target constituency or their geographic location. Although the final impact assessment will target Chester PA, it was decided that a true characterization of Widener‘s programs must necessarily consider all groups and all locations. Then, those programs that target Chester will be selected for the impact assessment. The significance of this geographic element cannot be understated, as Widener has programs that reach as far away as South America, China, and Eastern Europe.

Research Component 2 - Impacts Component 2, the second research design element, addresses the actual collection of impact measures. The methods will vary according to constituency (e.g., organizational partners, program participants/beneficiaries, non-program participant community residents, university personnel, and students), and will include surveys, pre/post testing, and some secondary analysis of existing data. A brief description of these follows by constituency. Constituencies. Impacts from organizations that are partners with the university are elicited through a self-administered, emailed survey tool to the director or assistant director. A Community Partner Organization (CPO) is defined as an organization that works with a Widener faculty, staff or student for the purposes of carrying out a CE project. CPOs may also be the ―target‖ of a CE change effort, but in order to be included as a member of this contingency it must fulfill some administrative or implementation function. The population of CPOs for this survey is constructed from information abstracted from the data collected in the Component 1 research. Based on an initial examination of university data, each CE works with an average of two organizations in the implementation of their activities, although some internship/practicum programs work with well over 100 organizations. The total population of organizations, allowing for duplication, identified to date is 453, and this number is expected to go much higher. The CPOs in this group are sent a survey once each year. The survey instrument for this group includes measures of economic effects, bio-psycho-social effects, perception impacts, and domain specific impacts. A sample of individuals from the community who participate in activities of the university is surveyed each year. The population lists for these surveys are being developed as aspects of Component 1 research, and from these lists, a sample will be selected for interview. At this point in the research, the sample is entirely a convenience sample due to a series of difficulties in developing full population lists, but it is planned that the survey sample will be structured to achieve a 95% confidence level, based on the annual total population served. The location-delivered instrument for this group includes measures of economic effects, biopsycho-social effects, perception effects, and domain specific impacts. One random sample survey of Chester residents will be conducted every three years, beginning in 2011. Initial calculations indicate that a sample of approximately 250 residents

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(a .1% sample of residential addresses) is needed to achieve a 95% confidence level. These surveys will be conducted during the summer of each academic year. Impacts on university full-time personnel will be assessed through a self-administered, emailed survey tool that will be sent to all faculty members every two years. The instrument for this group includes measures of economic effects, bio-psycho-social effects, perception impacts, and domain specific impacts. Similarly, impacts on students will be assessed through a self-administered, emailed survey tool that will be sent to all students every two years. The instrument for this group includes primarily measures of values, learning experiences, and general goal attainment measures. Instruments & measures. Owing to the multiple constituencies involved in the research, many of the measures are specific to the groups and programs within which they participate. The types of programs and the problems those programs are designed to address are conceptualized as problem domains (Kauffman, 2009). An illustrative list of problem domains is presented in a subsequent section. Within these problem domains are a wide variety of indicators specific to the domain. There are, however, some cross-cutting measures as well. How these unique and cross-cutting measures work together may be classified according to a typology of impacts that is briefly presented here. Specifically, there is a four level typology that addresses the relationship of the target constituent to the potential degree of impact (Kauffman, 2009). The four categories are: 







Primary program impacts – impacts directly experienced by a constituent and associated with a program‘s purpose. These are the intended effects for a participant, typically associated with a program‘s objectives. Secondary program impacts – these are impacts experienced through some mediating institution, such as family, organization, or government. These are impacts that result from changes, not to the individual, but to an institution with which the individual has an interaction. Tertiary program impacts – these are impacts experienced at an even more indirect level than the secondary program impacts, such as changes to the local employment conditions. Quartiary or generalized impacts – these are indirect impacts created as the perceived consequences of other impacts. For example, these impacts could be how a person perceives the PSI as a consequence of other more direct experiences with the PSI.

The types of impacts identified as secondary, tertiary, and quartiary represent a typological expansion to more accurately capture the effects of what Social Impact Assessment (SIA) calls indirect impacts (Inter-organizational Committee on Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact Assessment, 1994). These types of impacts, as opposed to direct impacts, all represent some mediating influence, such as a family, organization, or community. Such impacts, while possibly predictable, are more often likely to be unintentional or consequential to changes in the mediating institution. Thus, specific impact indicators must be sensitive to constituency, problem-domain, and degree of impact. They must also be sensitive to the intentionality (or un-intentionality) of the impact. And finally, following the approach of social impact analysis, they have to be sensitive to a range of purposes associated with the civic engagement experience.

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Findings to Date The database developed as the major outcome of Research Component 1, although an ongoing activity and certainly incomplete to date, has already provided some very interesting and useful data about Widener University‘s CE projects and, in a very minor way, some of the impacts of these products. Table 2 presents some of these findings, including a few that are most related to impacts. Again, note that these findings are preliminary, and while the actual numbers will change, the representative trends are likely accurate. The time period assessed in these data are academic years 2008-09 and 2009-10, with almost all of the programs in operation for both years. Overall, 69 discrete programs have been identified to date, although the size and number of component elements in these vary greatly. Of these programs, 53 (76.8%) have a nonacademic focus, meaning they are unconnected to a class or course of study, and 16 (23.1%) have an academic focus. By type, 60.9% are community outreach (which includes voluntary and service projects), 20.3% are experiential education, 15.9% are service learning, 11.6% are community-based research, and 8.9% are practicum/internship programs. The actual number of service-learning projects is under-represented here, as this represents the number of faculty reporting a service-learning course, offered on a regular basis, which are not a part of the Academic Service-learning Faculty Development Program. The impacts of these programs are only minimally addressed here, as this survey is primarily an attempt to characterize the Widener activities, while the actual impact measurement is addressed in the second research component. Nevertheless, some interesting data are available. In terms of the perceived benefit to university participants, 73.9% reported that the program builds desirable student values, while 31.8% reported the benefit to be enhanced student learning and 26.1% reported hand-on learning as the program‘s benefit. Other responses included its value in strengthening relations with the community (15.9%) or strengthening relations with other institutions (14.5%). Perceived benefits to the community included: addressing the unmet needs of individuals (86.5%); building organizational capacity (27.5%); helping to build sustainable programming (20.3%); strengthening the local economy (10.1%); and helping create a more pleasant community (10.1%). There are other impact measures in these data including the total number of partner organizations (n = 332), although this number includes a large number of practicum/internship and committee participants. The targeted program participants included 4350 individuals and 97 organizations of all types. Again, these numbers will certainly increase with time.

RESEARCH DIMENSIONAL CHOICES As may be seen from this brief description of the Widener model, a number of issues and choices affected the design in its early application. Some of the decisions were based on ordinary research considerations, but some were specific to the topic. Consider, for example, the model for examining a community-university partnership, as being composed of seven specific stages: initiation, formulation of research questions, development of methodology and research instruments, data collection, data analysis, results interpretation and evaluation,

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and decision-making or action (Williams, Labonte, Randall, & Muhajarine, 2005). In most ways, these stages are not different from any research project. Table 2. Preliminary Results from Research Component 1 – Widener University Civic Engagement Programs Question/Variable

Percentage of the total

Programs with an Academic Focus

Number of Programs (with possible duplication) 16 1

Programs with a Non-academic Focus

53

76.8

Community Outreach

42

60.9

Experiential Education

14

20.3

Service Learning

11 2

15.9

Community-based research

8

11.6

Practicum/Internships

6

8.9

Build student values

51

73.9

Enhance student learning

22

31.8

Hands on learning

18

26.1

Strengthen relations with Community

11

15.9

Strengthen relations with other institutions

10

14,5

Other

1

1.4

23.1

Civic Engagement Program Type 3

Perceived Benefit to University Participants 3

Perceived benefit to Community participants 3 Enhance environment

3

Address unmet needs of individuals

60

86.5

19

27.5

Build organizational capacity (both of single organizations and of networks) Held build sustainable programming

14

20.3

Strengthen local employment/economy

7

10.1

Help create more pleasant/safer communities

7

10.1

Strengthen local employment/economy

7

Other

2

Total Partner Organizations 4

432

100

Program Participants

4350

100

Organizations – all types

97

100

Target Constituencies Effected, Annual Average

Notes: 1 Many of these programs have multiple projects associated with them, such as the actual number of service-learning courses associated with the Academic Service-learning Faculty Development Program. This program alone provides a large number of courses each year. 2 This represents the number of faculty reporting a service-learning course, offered on a regular basis, which are not a part of the Academic Service-learning Faculty Development Program. 3 Due to multiple responses, numbers will exceed 100%. 4 This number includes a large number of practicum/internship and committee participants.

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But there are choices and complexities connected to a comprehensive project like that undertaken at Widener that are distinctive to a project of this type. The expansive quality of the project, with a multiplicity of problem domains and constituencies that are unique to this type of research, introduces additional considerations. As other PSIs are increasingly concerned with evaluating the impacts of their efforts, the chapter will now examine a few of the dimensions or elements affecting methodological choice, with analysis of the consequences of various alternatives provided. These dimensions are:    

Purpose – what is the intention of the project? Definition of civic engagement Target constituencies Problem domains and measures

Purpose of Research The first element of development of a system for determining the impacts of a university‘s CE efforts are determining the purpose for the research. Although this first appears as a simple concept – evaluating the impact of a university‘s actions – it is in fact far more complex and addresses a whole series of important concerns. Indeed, the research purpose is mired in a series of questions tied to the ultimate use of the data and potential impacts of the findings themselves. To be successful, the project must begin with an honest discussion of what questions the data seeks to answer, what the data are to be used for, and who are the intended audiences for the findings. Of course, the answers to any of these questions are not necessarily exclusive, but subtle differences affect the entire research process, from the resources needed to the venues of presentation. There are at least three dimensions of analysis necessary for the definition of research purpose, and in part these dimensions are similar to some of the traditional approaches that have been used to classify the concept of research purpose. The first of these is the commonly used approach for classifying research purpose into one of three types that speak to the level of sophistication and depth of knowledge associated with the research area. These three types are exploration, description, or explanation (Grinnell & Unrau, 2008). Briefly, exploration suggests an early and methodologically less rigorous examination of a phenomenon, while description seeks to highlight the characteristics of the phenomenon. Explanation, usually requiring the greatest rigor, seeks to identify causal connections within the phenomenon. The second dimension associated with research purpose is the evaluative theme. Again, a traditional structure applies here, based upon the types of data examined. These evaluative themes include process evaluation which examines the characteristics of a program, an outcome evaluation which attempts to determine the degree of programmatic success, and an impact evaluation which seeks to determine the effects of the program – both planned an unplanned. On first glance, it would appear that an impact evaluation is the relevant component of this dimension, but in fact for many universities the impacts cannot be studied without some, often significant, attention to the other two components. There are several reasons why this is the case. First, one of the primary functions of a process evaluation is the identification of a

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program‘s elements. This approach to program evaluation includes answering such questions as ―who is doing how much of what and for how long?‖ For a number of reasons, many universities may not have a comprehensive knowledge of the CE activities they themselves offer. Therefore, development of a system to identify and monitor CE activities is a necessary step in order to understand the ultimate impacts. The types of information provided by an outcome evaluation – understanding the goals, success and failures of various CE activities, but more importantly, the causal linkages of impacts to programs – is also very useful in understanding the connection of various impacts to the university‘s efforts. As noted in the discussion of impact categories above, knowing which programs create what level of effect is necessary for separating out effects from background noise. What all of these various evaluative approaches suggest is that a comprehensive approach, not dissimilar to the general model of social impact assessment, is needed that includes elements of process, outcome, and impact evaluations. Using such an approach will allow a wide range of questions to be asked and will allow a wide range of answers to be developed. Of course, the difficulties increase with scope, but in the Widener case it was decided that the ability to explore, describe and explain in various contextual situations would yield the greatest benefits. The third dimension of purpose is audience. Despite the overt intent of researchers, as well as beliefs about the ideological assumptions of positivistic science, knowledge has consequences. But it is not only the findings of a study that have consequences; but even the questions asked are often determined by the ultimate audience of a study. In the case of the actions of large, expensive, and some would say ideologically driven institutions like colleges, the questions asked and the findings from those studies are the subject of close scrutiny. Clearly affecting all of these possibilities are the reasons the university establishes a CE program at all. A range of often overlapping alternatives exists here, as it is rarely the case that all CE efforts are coordinated within the university. These multiple sources of CE are likely to expand and change through time. Nevertheless, some sense of why the university is involved in such an effort will go a long way toward clarifying the purpose of the evaluation itself. Participation and the potential sense of empowerment for participants in CE projects are inextricably linked to considerations of audience and research purpose. Achieving a sense of empowerment is often best served with the early and ongoing integration of target constituencies into the research process. It is important for educational institutions to remember that the community residents are the experts concerning their needs (Kisker, 2007). Therefore, before a program is started within a community, a needs assessment should be done to determine what the residents feel is needed. Listening to the needs of the community can benefit a program in many ways (Roehlkepartain, 2008), and community members may serve as valuable informants as to the types of impacts that can and should be examined. As Bringle and Hatcher (2000, p. 274) observe, ―Institutional changes that support the scholarship of engagement include intentionally clarifying mission in a manner that produces increased congruence between mission and practice.‖ This importance of aligning community needs with CE projects applies to the impact assessment as well as to the development of the university‘s CE programs. Differences are often found between experts and the public over a variety of issues, including which problems

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are most important (Ansley & Gaventa, 1997; Darling, Hager, Stockdale, & Heckert, 2002; Morrow-Howell, Proctor, & Rozario 2001; Walters, Iliffe, & Tai, 2000), how a problem should be defined (Culp, Howell, & Culp, 2001; Hudson & Carlson, 1998; Weischeit & Wells 2001), and which factors will affect successful program outcomes (Koons, Burrow, & Bynum, 1997). Researching the impact of programs is no different. Again, in the Widener case, the most comprehensive response to this dimension was the one selected. Widener University has a variety of constituencies, both internal and outside the university that are interested in the university‘s activities. Developing a research approach that can provide answers to the range of constituent questions may serve the university and the community best over the long-term.

Definition of Civic Engagement Conceptually, the next set of decisions that must be addressed is determining the institution‘s definition of civic engagement. Like research purpose, the definition of civic engagement affects every subsequent aspect of the impact measurement process. The core question to be addressed here is: ―How broadly does your institution define civic engagement?‖ The answer is not necessarily an easy one. Whether using the CE typology that includes service learning, experiential education, internships, community-based research, and community service (Leiderman, Furco, Zapf, & Goss 2003) or the more collaboratively focused typology of Russell and Flynn (2000), who contend that there are four essential forms of collaboration that will ultimately benefit both higher learning institutes and communities (service learning, outreach, inter-professional preparation, and strategic alliances), the range of possibilities is extensive. On one end of the continuum lies the narrowest definition. Here, CE encompasses only projects that both express an overt CE intent and provide service to the community and learning opportunities to the student – in other words the service-learning structure in place at a large number of colleges and universities today. Somewhere in the middle of this continuum are found programs that either (a) primarily exist to educate students, but offer a service/social contribution as a component of the learning structure – such as an internship or practicum, or (b) primarily exist to offer a service/social contribution, but educate students as a component of the service structure. Farther along the continuum are projects that exist largely or exclusively to make a social contribution, with little or no educational intent, such as the service functions of a college fraternity or sorority, or a university‘s community redevelopment efforts. At this end of the continuum are found projects with no intended social contribution at all but which nevertheless make a serendipitous contribution to the community. These could include a wide variety of projects, with many kinds of faculty research efforts included in this category. So the question then is how wide a definition is acceptable? A solid and justifiable middle ground may be found by focusing on the concepts of intent and net effect. Intent implies the desire to affect a social benefit, while net effect is the actual resulting degree of social benefit. There are at least three levels here. Again, the narrowest definition is one where there is expressed intent for a social benefit associated with the project – and the case may be even be strengthened (if desired) by a co-extant educational benefit. The next level includes those projects that have no expressed intent but nevertheless have a strong social

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benefit net effect. At the lowest level are projects without intent and without social benefit, and these can be excluded from the institution‘s CE umbrella. The approach we are using is to cast a wide net and to ask the project coordinators to selfdefine intent and net effect. However, all final decisions are made by a group of faculty (including the researcher) and community participants who have volunteered to scrutinize the final list of projects that are included in the database.

Target Constituencies The next dimension of impact research choice is the target constituencies. As with research purposes, the target constituencies – the groups selected as subjects – are not always the same across all universities and CE projects, but instead they vary by the kinds of programs that are offered. Different constituencies may have different interests, concerns, and experiences. Thus, the groups that are selected for study may yield different information, and they most certainly will experience different impacts. A comprehensive list of all possible constituencies and their characteristics is probably impossible to develop, but there are several general constituent groups for which impacts may be assessed. These include provider groups (university-based providers – may be administrators, faculty, staff and students, and community organizational partners), programspecific, direct impact groups (university-based beneficiaries – may be administrators, faculty, staff and students, and extra-mural program beneficiaries), community component, indirect impact groups (residents, organizations, local government), and ancillary groups (funders, non-local government). There are other issues having to do with the scope of CE programs that need to be addressed when considering the target constituencies of the research. Among these issues are the geo-temporal element, or more specifically geography and time. Geography refers to the locations where impacts are to be found, while time refers to when the target contingency experienced the CE effort. Neither is necessarily simple to identify. In part, this is because, in universities with multiple CE projects, there may be different beginning and ending times, as well as projects targeting different locations. Further, some impacts may dissipate over time, while others are enhanced. These elements are perhaps most important in the measurement of impact intensity, and in the selection of an unexposed comparison group (or baseline phase). Impact intensity refers to the cumulative degree of exposure as determined by amount, type, and duration of CE project efforts (Kauffman, 2009). As most university CE efforts have been implemented in an ad hoc, uncoordinated fashion, the determination of a true unexposed baseline for many problem domains is likely impossible. This means that impact intensity must be measured by either (1) the use of multi-variate statistical methods such as multiple regression or MANOVA, (2) the use of retrospective baselines, and/or (3) the use of exposure surrogates, such as distance from the institution. Each of these has limitations, but until true baselines are established over time, impact determination will depend upon their use.

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Problem Domains and Measures Once the dimensions of purpose, guiding assumptions, and target constituencies have been selected, the choice of measures is somewhat narrowed. For example, if a narrow definition of CE is used and the projects are well-characterized, then information about geography, time, and impact intensity may be adequate, and certain classes of measures need not be examined. On the other hand, more complex and less well characterized project sets may require extensive measures of the projects themselves. With this in mind, there are several ways for organizing and thinking about the measures. Of course the easiest is a simple classification into independent, dependent, and contextual (or control) variables. The independent variables are those associated with the project characterization or impact intensity. These may include project type or numbers and types of systems served. Where the real complexity comes into play is with the contextual (control) and dependent variables – the actual impacts. In addition to all of the normative issues of measurement, there are several factors of special importance here. Among these are questions addressing (1) intentional vs. unintentional impact, (2) aggregate/cumulative impact vs. problem domain specific impact, (3) impact type, and (4) indicator type. Each of these is discussed below.

Intentional vs. Unintentional Impact The concern here is fairly well understood. Virtually all programs have intended outcomes – usually determined by the goals and objectives of the program. Although there are huge numbers of possible goal domains, some of the more common include: 4. Goals that seek improvements in intangible concepts, such as the distribution of rights or psychological status; 5. Goals that seek improvements in processes; 6. Goals that seek specific, measurable, targeted outcomes. Articulation of these goals and objectives is a critical component of both program development and program evaluation. The issue here, however, is that actions have consequences often beyond those specifically intended. The larger the action, or the source of the action (such as a university), the greater the opportunity will be for some unintended consequence. Many examples exist – the role of the U.S. highway system in concentrating inner city poverty (Wilson, 1990); the Aswan dam and increased disease in east Africa (Jobin, 1999); and the success of a charter school causing community fragmentation.

Aggregate/Cumulative Impact vs. Problem Domain Specific Impacts This issue is related to the one above, but speaks to the possibility that (1) some impacts are only evident after a target constituency is exposed to a number of programs, and/or (2) some types of impacts are the consequence of other impacts. For example, the positive or negative perception of a university might result not from a single service-learning course, but rather from the cumulative press of a large number of such university actions. At the same time, at least some of the impacts assessed must be linked to the specific types of actions undertaken by the university – or what may be called ―problem domains.‖ Simply stated, problem domains are the projects, characteristics, concepts, and measures

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associated with different thematic social concerns. Table 3 lists a selection of problem domains, while Table 4 presents a selection of possible measures/indicators associated with some of the domains. Table 3. Problem Domains Problem Domains Animal Health Communications Education Environmental Family Health/Mental Health Household Economy Housing Infrastructure Micro Economics

Nature Extractive Enterprises Organizational Capacity building Psychosocial Issues Recreation and Leisure Safety & Security Social Attitudes Social Development Technology University Facilities & Events

Even a short list of the number and types of projects that may need to be considered in a given impact assessment may quickly overwhelm the researcher. Projects are widely disparate, including collaborative, community research activities (Small, 1996), inquiry groups (Rubin & Jones, 2007), literacy promotion (Nichols, Spang, & Padron, K., (2005), health promotion (Arguelles, 2004), social services (Cook, Bond, Jones, & Greif, 2002), neighborhood revitalization (Seunga, Doe, & Lowert, 2004), community support (Brooks & Schramm, 2007), and educational enhancement (Thurlow, Ledoux, McHenry, & Burns, 2007). The more general impact types may, however, be some of the most interesting. For example, characteristics of successful projects often speak to process or relational impacts that go beyond any specific service or problem domain. A successful community-university partnership is one that organizes around and or synthesizes its course of work and development through a shared vision, mission and common goals. Factors that contribute to successful community-university partnerships include, trust , respect, commitment, cultural sensitivity, shared decision making, equitable sharing of resources, shared vision and mission, developed operating policies and long- and short-term goals, and follow-through to disseminate results and sustain the project after the grant ends (Holland, Gelmon, & Green, 2003). Even though the actual selection of indicators is complex, guidance does exist. For example, Geodegebuure and Van der Lee (2006) present an extensive list of community partnership indicators, including their strengths and weaknesses, that they have drawn from the literature. Most of the measures are focused to some degree on the economic impacts of universities, but the assessment is nevertheless quite extensive. In the model we are applying, the attempt is being made to integrate the program specific impacts into a framework that is sensitive to multiple problem domains and multiple constituencies. The measures are coordinated across constituencies whenever possible, with the understanding that degrees of reciprocity and mutual benefit are integrated into the concept of engagement itself. Further, degrees of impact are considered as well, although this is addressed more extensively in the analytical phase.

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Problem Domains Household Economy Income Poverty Employment/ Unemployment Economic stability

Housing Homelessness Cost of housing Availability of housing Cost of land Quality of housing

Psychosocial Issues Individual competency Family stability/communication

Environmental Lead poisoning Community beautification Air pollution Water pollution Hazardous waste Environmental justice Work related disease

Micro Economics

Organizational Capacity building Leadership training Fundraising training Fundraising Non-profit organizational development Employer provided education and training Minority issues Unions Management information Communications

Business development Accounting Taxation Foundation development Real estate Labor productivity

Nature Extractive Enterprises Energy

Technology literacy Digital divide issues Computer skills Computer ownership

Health/Mental Health Diet/nutrition Disease prevention/wellness Alcohol abuse prevention Alcohol abuse treatment Drug abuse prevention Drug abuse treatment Mental illness prevention Mental illness treatment Medical care Disabilities Vocational Hospice Insurance coverage Safety & Security Adult Crime/violence Juvenile crime/gangs Family violence Forensic science Terrorism Corrections Immigration Law enforcement Sense of safety Social Development Availability of aging services Availability of recreation/leisure resources Availability of health insurance International Transportation infrastructure Personal political power

Social Attitudes Racism Classism Sexism Community perceptions Neighborhood solidarity Positive peer roles

Education Student support – pre-elementary Student support – elementary Student support – secondary Student support – post-secondary Teaching – preelementary Teaching – elementary Teaching – secondary Teaching – postsecondary Family Adoption assistance Child development training Childcare Elder care Pregnancy prevention Well baby care

Animal Health Availability of veterinary services Pet training

Recreation and Leisure Availability of recreational activities

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The final issue speaks to data collection methods. As with any research, the choices range from secondary analysis of existing data, to various forms of surveys, to experimental designs, and finally qualitative approaches such as focus groups. Each of these methods has its place, and more than likely, a mixed-method approach will serve the assessment best. A few thoughts, however, may be helpful. First, at least some of the target constituencies might have to be paid, particularly in low income communities or with time-pressed non-academic persons. Historically, the use of incentives has been commonplace, but with the demands on people‘s time today, as well as a certain level of expectation, the need to actually pay people is greater. It will help to increase the likelihood of participation, and it may help to cut through the noise of multiple and ongoing demands on individuals and families. Second, certain ends associated with civic engagement may be furthered if an element of participatory action research is included in the overall design. Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a format often utilized to conduct social research within a community partnership project. PAR is viewed as a co-learning process involving the researchers and community members with the intent to generate new knowledge that is useful to both sides of the working relationship (Williams, Labonte, Randall, & Muhajarine, 2005). Three core elements of PAR have been identified. These are: (1) inclusion of citizens in most phases of the research; (2) seeking to motivate action through the research; and, (3) intentional power redistribution between the researcher and the targeted subjects (Williams, Labonte, Randall, & Muhajarine, 2005).

CONCLUSIONS The approach to assessing the impacts of civic engagement efforts at Widener University is designed to be as comprehensive as possible by addressing the dimensions of purpose, guiding assumptions, target constituencies, and measures applied. Widener‘s scope of commitment to CE and the variety of programs offered calls for a fully articulated model of assessment. It is hoped that, as the model is refined through application, it will be useful to other PSIs that also have expanding systems of civic engagement.

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INDEX A absorption, 72 abuse, 110, 111, 202, 206 academic progress, 88 accessibility, 95 accountability, 67, 180, 204 accreditation, 2, 105 accuracy, 138 acquaintance, 69 action research, 177, 180, 203, 207 activism, 65 adaptation, 145, 204 administrators, viii, 3, 4, 75, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88, 149, 186, 190, 191, 199 adolescents, xix, 177, 208 advantages, 30, 160, 169 advocacy, xix, 42, 44, 54, 113 aesthetics, 73 affirmative action, 160, 163 Africa, 200 African Americans, 55 agencies, xviii, xx, 7, 9, 14, 16, 18, 30, 50, 52, 54, 58, 59, 61, 80, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119 aggregation, 185 aging population, 134 alcohol abuse, 111 altruism, 94 amalgam, 2, 38 ambivalence, 173, 177 American culture, 132 American Educational Research Association, 19, 48 American Psychological Association, 177, 178 anger, 6, 172 anxiety, 151, 172 appointees, 97 Argentina, ix, 145, 146, 148, 156

Aristotle, 68 assault, 58 assessment techniques, 28 assets, 15, 117 asthma, 188 attachment, 129 authorities, 115 authors, vii, viii, ix, x, 23, 29, 65, 67, 140, 158 autonomy, 160, 173, 181, 204

B background, 68, 146, 149, 197, 204 background noise, 197 barriers, viii, 37, 39, 50, 51, 116, 149, 154, 173 basic needs, 102 basic services, 87 beautification, 46, 202 beginning teachers, 38 behavioral change, 153, 161 behavioral problems, 205 behaviors, 10, 40, 43, 130 Beijing, 133, 138, 144 benchmarks, 185 bias, 159 Black students, 165 Blacks, 159, 160, 164 blood pressure, 101, 102 board members, 93 Bolivia, xx, 148, 150 brainstorming, 115 Brittany, xx, 157 budding, 127 budget deficit, 9 building blocks, 100, 155 buildings, 46, 137 bullying, 110, 111, 115 bureaucracy, 82

210

Index

by-products, 183

C campaigns, 46, 93 canals, 176, 206 candidates, viii, 2, 10, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 175 capacity building, 59, 61 caregivers, 85, 88, 105 Caribbean, 150 caricature, 66 case examples, 126, 143 case study, vii, 27, 186, 203, 208 casting, 18 catalyst, 121, 159, 171 category a, 166 Catholic school, 91 causality, 174, 185 Census, 5, 11, 50, 64, 161, 178 Chad, 15 challenges, vii, ix, 1, 5, 15, 22, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 32, 50, 53, 54, 60, 63, 84, 86, 87, 109, 110, 114, 115, 118, 127, 135, 149, 150, 152, 186, 207 chaos, 55 character, 10, 65, 66, 70, 71, 80, 102 child abuse, 110, 111 China, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 192 citizenship, 35, 40, 77, 93, 121, 182 City, 5, 91, 110, 169, 187, 188, 204 civil law, 4 civil society, 121 clarity, 55 class period, 165 classification, 53, 108, 200 classroom, 14, 15, 16, 17, 29, 32, 36, 38, 39, 41, 45, 46, 59, 71, 75, 79, 82, 84, 93, 126, 129, 131, 136, 141, 146, 148, 149, 169, 178, 183 classroom management, 46 classroom teacher, 45, 46, 80 classroom teachers, 80 cleaning, 101, 147 clients, 4, 14, 54, 55, 62, 63, 86, 95, 96, 98, 123, 125, 126, 127, 130, 205 climate, 169 clinical psychology, 23, 105 closure, 44 coding, 53, 166 cognitive development, 17, 158 cognitive dissonance, 172, 174, 175 cognitive perspective, 47

coherence, 36, 47 collaborative approaches, 26 college campuses, 18, 117, 207 college students, 14, 64, 141, 142, 147, 149, 177 colleges, viii, x, xiii, xiv, 2, 8, 13, 19, 23, 40, 81, 108, 121, 176, 177, 179, 183, 197, 198, 206 communication, ix, xvii, 19, 26, 29, 42, 44, 45, 53, 62, 82, 97, 107, 110, 127, 129, 131, 154, 168, 184, 202, 208 communication skills, 53, 168 communications studies, 22, 23 community relations, xvii, 8, 93, 101 community service, ix, 26, 27, 40, 51, 52, 62, 77, 102, 108, 141, 142, 158, 182, 198 community support, 86, 140, 201 community-based organizations, 64, 142, 177, 207 comparative method, 166 compassion, 66, 70, 73, 74, 76, 132, 180 compensation, 149 competition, 86 complement, 62, 67, 68, 75 complexity, 37, 71, 85, 200 compliance, 191 complications, 15 composition, 10, 77, 85 comprehension, 172, 173 computer science, 23 conceptual model, 33 conceptualization, 125 conference, 7, 31, 96, 114, 126, 128, 140, 183 confidentiality, 15 configuration, 185, 190 conflict, xv, 67, 177 congruence, 197 consciousness, 70, 75, 154, 165, 173 consensus, 121 constituent groups, 181, 186, 199 construct validity, 173 consulting, 61 consumption, 44 contingency, 192, 199 control group, 185 cooperative learning, 44 coordination, 29, 30, 62, 113, 118 correlation, 129 corruption, 5, 50 cost, x, 60, 94, 100, 112, 139, 147 cost-benefit analysis, x Council of Europe, xv counsel, 18 counseling, 59, 88, 98, 136, 139, 155, 164, 174, 176, 177 counseling psychology, 164

Index course content, 55, 157, 165, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 182 course work, 36, 37, 38, 39, 43 covering, 53 creativity, 10 crime, 5, 50, 81, 114, 117, 118, 188, 202 criminal justice system, 111, 114 critical thinking, viii, 17, 32, 41, 45, 65, 67, 70, 75 critics, ix cues, 126 cultivation, 66, 69, 107 cultural beliefs, 140 cultural differences, 38, 126, 127, 130, 134, 138, 145, 146, 149 cultural norms, 127, 154 cultural tradition, 38, 123 curricula, viii, 4, 22, 49, 80, 94, 158 curriculum, xix, 7, 16, 21, 27, 36, 40, 44, 45, 50, 51, 61, 64, 68, 80, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 103, 104, 114, 117, 121, 123, 125, 127, 133, 134, 135, 136, 142, 146, 164, 173 curriculum development, xix cycling, 36

D daily living, 134, 146 dance, 57 data analysis, 64, 194 data collection, 114, 117, 190, 194, 203 database, 48, 113, 114, 117, 192, 194, 199 David Hume, 68 deficiency, 139, 188 democracy, 42, 47, 67, 75, 77, 121, 143, 179, 204 denial, 164 Department of Justice, 113, 114, 116, 118, 119 dependent variable, 200 depression, 133, 138 developing countries, 105 developmental change, 37 developmental theories, 39 diffusion, 157 dignity, 151 directors, xv, 191 disadvantaged students, 46 disadvantages, 160 disappointment, 154 disclosure, xiii discomfort, 127, 147, 150, 170, 172 discourse, 44, 67, 69, 70, 143 discrimination, 163, 177 disposition, 67, 68, 70 dissonance, 160, 172

211

diversification, 178 diversity, xix, xx, 2, 23, 25, 38, 46, 52, 55, 75, 111, 127, 157, 158, 159, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 180, 181, 183, 208 doctors, 137 domestic violence, xviii, xx, 4, 58, 110, 111, 114 donations, 95, 96, 100 donors, 90 drawing, 35, 42 dream, xv drinking water, 133 drug abuse, 111 dynamics, 54, 165

E Eastern Europe, 192 economic change, 50, 188 economic development, 6, 8, 9, 49, 84, 188 economic growth, 5 economic indicator, 188 economic problem, 50 economic resources, 152 economic well-being, 49 economy, 8, 122, 194, 195 editors, x education reform, xv educational experience, vii, 13, 80, 146, 182 educational practices, 13 educational process, ix educational programs, 123 educational research, 18 educational system, 38, 69, 180, 188 elaboration, 126 elderly population, 122 elders, 127, 130 election, 172, 174 elementary school, xvii, 10, 40, 80, 83, 91, 119 elementary students, 10 elementary teachers, xviii emotion, 36, 177 emotional responses, 17 empathy, 15, 17, 66, 67, 70, 75, 126 employees, 6, 99, 192 employment, 62, 111, 123, 134, 193, 195 empowerment, 32, 52, 125, 152, 154, 197 encouragement, 89 enforcement, 202 engineering, 23, 26, 180, 188 England, 155 English comprehension, 136 enrollment, 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 64, 87, 90, 188 entrepreneurs, 8

212

Index

environmental conditions, 188 environmental factors, 122 environmental issues, 41, 43, 45 Environmental Protection Agency, 188 epistemology, 73 equipment, 15, 70, 71, 74, 75, 76, 95, 102, 105, 137 equity, 176 ethics, xviii, 66, 73, 74, 75, 108 ethnicity, 161, 163, 177 euphoria, 154 evil, 68 exercise, 15, 137, 151 expenditures, 187 experimental design, 203 expertise, 10, 26, 31, 32, 62, 93, 96, 98, 140, 150, 152, 180 experts, 23, 75, 82, 125, 148, 197 exploration, 36, 44, 164, 196 exposure, 43, 52, 55, 56, 102, 111, 149, 199

F Facebook, 160 facilitators, 27, 126, 127, 128, 133 faculty development, viii, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 33 fairness, 9 faith, 69, 109, 110, 112, 147 family income, 5 family therapy, xix, 59 farmers, 71 feedback, 3, 4, 25, 29, 60, 103, 114, 117, 128, 133, 136, 184 feelings, 68, 72, 146, 153, 154, 162, 172, 175 feminism, 150 filters, 36 financial instability, 82 financial resources, 90 financial support, 27, 58, 107 first dimension, 106 fish, 134 flexibility, 115, 127, 134, 146 flight, 135, 137, 155 flooring, 95 focus groups, 117, 203 foreign language, 16, 88, 147 formal education, 81 foundations, 9, 38, 61, 75, 188 freedom, 47, 61, 132 funding, 7, 8, 9, 10, 27, 29, 50, 61, 62, 63, 80, 87, 89, 90, 95, 105, 110, 113, 116, 139, 161, 180, 181, 188 fundraising, 93, 149, 152, 179, 182

G gangs, 118, 202, 208 gender balance, 150 gender equality, 165 general education, 122, 142 genre, 72 geography, 185, 199, 200 global village, 156 globalization, 142 goal attainment, 193 governance, 3, 44, 50, 62, 151 GPA, 162 grades, 30, 87, 180 grading, 23, 28 graduate students, ix, 88, 89, 121, 124, 127, 128, 129, 134 grass, 7 grassroots, 110, 111, 204 Great Britain, 123 grounding, 116 group activities, 128, 130 group membership, 164 group work, 136, 204 guidance, x, 18, 69, 96, 98, 187, 201 guidelines, 161, 177 guilt, 172 guilty, 160, 169, 170

H health care professionals, 102 health education, 105, 107 health insurance, 202 health problems, 148, 188 heterogeneity, 150 high school, 50, 91 higher education, x, xiv, xv, xvii, xviii, xix, 1, 13, 19, 21, 25, 28, 36, 39, 40, 63, 67, 93, 108, 121, 122, 134, 142, 189, 204, 205, 206 highway system, 200 home culture, 153 homicide, 118 homogeneity, 174 honesty, 164, 184 Hong Kong, 138 hospitality, 23, 134 host, 84, 86, 132, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154 hostility, 66 household income, 11, 188 housing, xiv, xxi, 60, 81, 102, 188, 202 human agency, 144

Index human behavior, 52, 53, 125 human capital, 51, 122 human development, 52 human resources, 89 human rights, xv, 125 human subjects, 139 humanitarianism, 75 Hunter, 49, 63, 152, 155

I ice, 136, 138 ideal, 85, 93, 139, 149, 151, 188 ideals, 43, 44, 67 identity achievement, 164 ideology, 41, 66, 122 imagination, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 75, 76 immersion, 131, 145, 146, 160, 162, 172, 173, 174 immigrants, xx, 38, 150 impact assessment, 179, 181, 184, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 197, 201, 204, 206, 207 Impact Assessment, 187, 189, 193, 204, 206 impacts, 43, 89, 94, 176, 179, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206, 207 impulses, 67 incidence, 58, 188 inclusion, 103, 203 increased workload, 61 independence, 150, 160, 169, 172, 173 Independence, 164, 166 independent variable, 200 individual students, 36 individualized instruction, 88 industrial revolution, 5 inferiority, 164 infertility, xx informed consent, 165 initiation, 103, 190, 191, 194 insight, 52, 74, 126, 147, 148 integration, 25, 27, 29, 31, 36, 37, 39, 159, 175, 197 intellect, 69, 71 intentionality, 193 interdependence, 4 internalization, 146 internship, 51, 61, 97, 192, 194, 195, 198 interpersonal interactions, 159, 160, 172, 175 interpersonal relations, 145, 146, 152 interpersonal relationships, 145, 146, 152 intervention, 88, 104, 116, 119, 133 intimacy, 129, 133 investors, 85 isolation, 72, 101

213

J justification, 189 juvenile justice, 115 juveniles, 114

K Kentucky, 43 kindergarten, 9, 10

L labor force, 5, 50 lack of confidence, 9 lack of control, 5 landscape, 86 language acquisition, 146 language barrier, 126, 132, 135 Latin America, 146, 147, 156 law enforcement, 116 leadership, ix, xiv, xix, 7, 9, 21, 40, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 89, 94, 96, 98, 99, 100, 106, 139, 140, 149, 151, 207 leadership style, xiv learners, 35, 36, 38, 44, 46, 83, 125, 140, 160, 162 learning activity, 28, 165 learning difficulties, 38 learning environment, 4, 14, 15, 22, 80, 94, 125, 158 learning outcomes, 17, 23, 25, 26, 89, 151 learning process, 159, 160, 171, 174, 203 learning styles, 38, 46, 126, 127 legislation, 10, 69, 84, 123, 180 leisure, 202 lesson plan, 133, 134, 139 lethargy, 82 liberation, 125 life experiences, 55, 125 limitations, 136, 155, 174, 189, 199 literacy, 48, 52, 60, 88, 201, 202, 207 living conditions, 122, 133, 147 lobbying, 89 local community, xiv, 3, 6, 41, 46, 50, 51, 53, 57, 58, 60, 63, 80, 85, 94, 100, 101, 107, 112, 118, 150, 188 local government, 6, 80, 181, 199 logistics, 28, 149, 150 loneliness, 138 long-term retention, 17

214

Index

M magazines, 73 Maine, 143 majority, 6, 24, 26, 63, 84, 111, 150, 167, 174 management, ix, xv, xx, 3, 9, 23, 59, 60, 62, 82, 85, 96, 97, 108, 112, 116, 118, 123, 142 Mandarin, 138, 139 mandates, 81 MANOVA, 199 manufacturing, 5 mapping, 52, 113, 114, 117 marches, 66 marginalization, 148 market economy, 122 marketing, 56, 59, 103, 113, 117, 142 marketplace, 77 materialism, 154 mathematical knowledge, xvii mathematics, 91, 207 matrix, 114 median, 5, 188 membership, 84, 97, 112, 204 mental health, xix, 86, 112, 127, 130, 142 mental health professionals, 130 mentor, 17, 60, 99, 102, 161, 165 mentoring, 9, 161 mentoring program, 9 mentorship, 99, 104, 115 messages, 58, 71, 73 meta-analysis, 91 metaphor, 70 methodology, 18, 22, 81, 182, 184, 187, 189, 190, 194 Miami, 19 microcosms, 40 middle class, 5, 50 military, 1 minorities, 164 minority students, 91 misconceptions, vii, 38, 44 missions, 106, 107, 183 modification, 175 momentum, 98 monitoring, 111, 181, 184, 189 moral development, 76 motivation, 21, 25, 27, 29, 31, 182, 206 multicultural education, 177 multiculturalism, 161 multiple regression, 199 music, 24, 57, 137, 147 musicians, 58 mutuality, 75

N naming, 166 narratives, 70 national policy, 122 national strategy, 47 National Survey, 13, 158, 178 nationality, 162 needy, 147 neglect, 148 negotiating, 30 nerve, 136 networking, xix, 30, 54, 59, 113, 116 next generation, 140 No Child Left Behind, 10, 88 noise, 65, 203 North America, 141 Not for profit, 77 nursing, 22, 23, 25, 188 nursing care, 188 nurturance, 84 nutrition, 202

O objectivity, 156 obstacles, 15, 18, 22, 25, 29, 30, 32, 53, 54, 81, 86, 110, 135 offenders, 114, 117 openness, 46, 130, 133, 142, 153 oppression, 52, 157, 159, 161, 165, 166, 168, 170, 172, 173, 174, 175 optimism, 135, 154, 155 organ, 184, 201 organizational culture, 62 organizational development, 59, 202 organizing, 31, 58, 117, 118, 200 otherness, 75 outreach, viii, ix, x, 9, 49, 59, 63, 77, 80, 81, 83, 89, 90, 96, 102, 113, 115, 117, 118, 130, 194, 198, 205, 208 outreach programs, viii, 49, 130 overhead costs, 150 overlap, 15, 97, 112 overlay, 181 oversight, 9, 29, 84, 181 ownership, 86, 99, 104, 140, 202

P paradigm, 38, 67, 75, 159 paradigm shift, 38

Index parallel, 37, 45, 124, 126, 160, 171 parental involvement, 91 parenting, 59 parole, 111 pedagogy, ix, xviii, xix, 16, 18, 19, 21, 28, 29, 31, 32, 38, 41, 48, 65, 71, 75, 77, 121, 158 peer review, 18 performance, 75, 91, 161 performance indicator, 161 permit, 86 personal accounts, 58 personal communication, 151 personal life, 160 personal relations, 112, 149 personal relationship, 112, 149 personal relevance, 164 personhood, 70 photographs, 129 physical activity, 104 physical fitness, 104 physical therapy, ix, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 180 pilot study, 205 planning, vii, xiv, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 44, 45, 50, 54, 80, 82, 86, 98, 99, 101, 117, 127, 134, 149, 150, 152, 179, 182, 189 plants, 84 pleasure, xiv, 59, 67, 72, 73, 74, 132, 139 pluralism, 4 poetry, xviii, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77 police, 8, 15, 18, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116 political leaders, 85, 188 political party, 81 political power, 86, 202 politics, 15 pollution, 202 poor performance, 9 positive attitudes, 129 positive feedback, 30, 128 post-secondary institutions, 40, 180 poverty, xiv, 5, 38, 50, 84, 91, 111, 148, 149, 154, 188, 200 praxis, 36, 75 pregnancy, xxi prejudice, 158, 159, 161, 165, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177 preparedness, 26 presentation skills, 124 prevention, ix, 59, 88, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 180, 202 primary function, 196 priming, 177 prior knowledge, 44, 126

215

private investment, 181 probation officers, 111 problem solving, 17, 41, 46, 109, 125 problem-solver, 47 problem-solving, 18, 32 problem-solving skills, 32 productivity, 187, 202 professional development, vii, xvii, xviii, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 42, 53, 79, 82, 86, 90, 100, 108, 157 professional growth, 21 professionalism, 53 professionalization, 141 proficiency results, 207 profit, 6, 7, 9, 10, 50, 61, 82, 85, 87, 90, 123, 202 program outcomes, 198 programming, 83, 90, 93, 103, 105, 107, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 151, 161, 194, 195 property taxes, 6, 74 proposition, 83 protective factors, 112 psychological withdrawal, 165 psychology, 86, 161, 162, 164, 165, 174, 176, 177, 178 public awareness, xix, 113 public education, xiv, 82 public life, 42, 68 public policy, 42, 180 public safety, 40 public schools, 6, 83, 161, 206 public service, 29

Q qualitative research, 53 quality of life, xiv, 59, 151, 182, 187, 208 quantitative research, 133 questioning, 75, 85, 95

R race, 54, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 208 racial differences, 159, 160, 164, 168, 172, 173, 174, 175 racial issue, 160, 162, 168, 171 racism, 157, 160, 161, 162, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 177, 178 radius, 15 rape, 58 reactions, 58, 131, 159 readership, 71

216

Index

reading, 45, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82, 88, 133, 137, 169, 171, 180, 188, 207 reading difficulties, 82 real estate, 85, 180 reality, 13, 22, 36, 70, 76, 89 reasoning, 67, 68, 152 recall, 169 reception, 137 reciprocity, 26, 56, 138, 151, 153, 156, 201 recognition, 5, 10, 27, 122, 123, 134, 149, 164, 172, 179 recommendations, iv, 24, 25, 29, 115, 128, 149, 174 recreation, 202 recruiting, 58, 149 redevelopment, 180, 198, 207 redistribution, 203 reflection, xiii, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 36, 46, 52, 70, 102, 106, 131, 145, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153, 158, 161, 165, 175, 208 reflective practice, 36, 153 regeneration, 67, 68, 69, 70 regression, 129 rehabilitation, 95, 134 rehabilitation program, 134 relevance, 67, 70, 77, 155 reliability, 53, 167, 173 relief, 71 religion, 162 remediation, 82, 84, 188 renaissance, 6 repair, 102 replacement, 102 reputation, 5 requirements, 37, 38, 48, 51, 61, 123, 185 resentment, 66, 136 resilience, 91 resistance, 16, 18, 77, 147, 156, 158, 168, 171, 172 resolution, 175 resource allocation, x, 62, 183 respect, 66, 125, 127, 130, 147, 153, 174, 201 restructuring, 80 revenue, 8 rewards, viii, 27, 32, 149 risk management, 15, 146, 152 rotations, 97

S sadness, 172 safe haven, 84 sample survey, 192 scarcity, 123 scheduling, 37, 54, 87, 146

schema, 36, 131, 159 scholarship, ix, 29, 32, 80, 81, 89, 123, 141, 158, 175, 183, 197, 206 school community, 81 school culture, 41 school enrollment, 64, 87, 89 schooling, xiv, 9, 40, 77 screening, 101, 114 second language, 10 self-assessment, 106 self-awareness, 75, 153 self-concept, 161 self-confidence, 88 self-efficacy, 17 self-esteem, 56, 133 self-improvement, 70 self-reflection, 75 self-study, 11 seminars, 22, 31, 113 sensation, 72 sensations, 72 sensitivity, 67, 111, 127, 157, 161, 165, 166, 171, 174, 201 service provider, 62 sexism, 165, 174 sexual violence, 58, 63, 114 sexuality, xviii, xix, xx, 59, 162 shame, 172 shape, viii, 17 shelter, 38 shock, 149, 154, 168, 169, 171 simulation, 173, 174 skill acquisition, 54 skills training, 51 skin, 169, 171 small businesses, 58 soccer, 150 social benefits, 188 social capital, 56, 92, 121, 142, 182 social change, xx, 56, 125, 152, 173 social class, 170 social construct, 44 social constructivism, 44 social desirability, 174 social environment, 53, 188 social events, 147 social ills, 122 social injustices, 159 social justice, 52, 125, 153, 154, 159, 175, 176 social network, 162 social oppression, 173 social participation, 67 social policy, xxi, 53, 134, 142

Index social problems, 50, 117, 122, 180 social resources, 187 social responsibility, 21, 44, 94, 168 social sciences, 141 Social Security, 123 social services, 52, 116, 134, 188, 201 social status, 75 social structure, 74 social support, 129, 133, 135 social support network, 133 social theory, xix social welfare, 52, 122, 123, 125, 134, 139 social workers, 51, 54, 55, 64, 123, 128, 129, 134, 139, 140, 141, 147, 207 socialization, 31, 62, 64 socioeconomic status, 161, 162 solidarity, 202 solitude, 72 space, 61, 75, 85, 87, 95, 96, 100, 107, 136, 153, 191 special assistant, xvii, 80 special education, 160 specialists, 82 specialization, xvii species, 142 speech, 156, 208 Spring, 88, 104, 148 staffing, 86 stakeholders, x, 2, 86, 105, 106, 107, 112, 145, 148 standard deviation, 165 standardized testing, 9 state control, 81, 82 State Department, 188, 207 statistics, 115, 117, 204 stereotypes, 158, 165, 170 sterile, 96 strategic planning, 2, 3, 4, 59, 94, 96, 106, 115 strategy, xiv, 6, 28, 61, 62, 63, 67, 143 stressors, 84 stroke, 95 structuring, 125, 127 student achievement, 158 student development, 88, 208 student enrollment, 2 student populations, 91 student teacher, 39, 82 subgroups, 116 subjectivity, 71 substance abuse, xxi, 50, 86 Sun, 7, 81 supervision, 29, 59, 60, 80, 94, 96, 98, 100, 147, 152, 164, 173 supervisor, 99, 175, 204 supervisors, 63, 96, 99, 100, 102

217

suppression, 116, 119 Supreme Court, 91 surrogates, 199 survey, 23, 24, 28, 29, 41, 42, 45, 50, 110, 114, 128, 129, 130, 138, 139, 140, 158, 162, 165, 167, 175, 190, 192, 193, 194, 204, 208 survival, 1, 10, 58 survivors, 58, 59 sustainability, ix, 32, 48, 61, 94, 98, 99, 100, 106, 107, 111, 112, 113 sustainable development, 151 sympathy, 68 symptoms, 84 synthesis, 173

T tax base, 5, 50 teacher preparation, xviii, 37, 43, 47 teacher thinking, 48 teaching experience, 23, 25, 133, 135 teaching strategies, 18, 32, 38, 39, 41 team members, 54 technology transfer, 8 tension, 160 tensions, 147 tenure, xiii, 2, 3, 5, 18, 23, 27, 37, 158 territory, 66 test scores, 188 testing, 174, 188, 192 therapeutic intervention, 130 therapy, ix, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 107 thinking styles, 142 third dimension, 197 thoughts, 36, 60, 151, 162, 170, 172, 175, 203 threats, 84 time commitment, 18, 26, 103 time constraints, 27, 29, 30, 145, 146 time frame, 27, 43 time management, 17, 60 time periods, 22 trainees, 108 training, viii, 7, 38, 54, 59, 64, 76, 83, 88, 113, 115, 116, 117, 143, 146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 155, 176, 188, 202, 207 transcription, 53 transformation, 144, 155, 156, 159, 175 transformations, 140 translation, 37, 38, 39, 126, 127, 138 transparency, xiv transportation, 16, 26, 27, 87 trial, 36

218

Index

triangulation, 165 tuition, viii, x, 79, 89, 170 turnover, 62, 99 tutoring, 9, 36, 81, 158, 160, 161 typology, 182, 193, 198

vocabulary, 44, 147 voluntarism, 74 volunteer work, 163 volunteerism, xxi, 19, 42 vulnerability, 40, 91

U unemployment rate, 50 uniform, 118 uninsured, 93, 94, 95 unit plan, 8 universities, x, xiii, xiv, 4, 10, 13, 19, 22, 25, 31, 32, 37, 41, 47, 48, 68, 79, 89, 90, 108, 121, 134, 176, 177, 179, 181, 182, 183, 187, 196, 198, 199, 201, 204, 206 updating, 17, 95

V vacuum, 110 validation, xx, 88, 177 venue, 44 victimization, 58 victims, 4, 58, 114 video, 117, 126, 128, 136, 140, 161, 165, 174 videos, 140 violence, ix, xiv, xix, 5, 58, 59, 63, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 180, 202 violent crime, 110 vision, vii, xi, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 61, 79, 83, 87, 96, 105, 106, 110, 111, 201, 206

W waste, 160, 202 watershed, 108 wealth, 14, 74, 147 wear, 132, 160 web, 47, 113, 190, 191 welfare, 9, 59, 122, 134 Wellesley College, 177 wellness, xix, 104, 105, 202 wholesale, 66, 69 wildlife, 42 windows, 136 work ethic, 132 work study, 14 workers, 69, 147, 150, 151, 152 workload, 61, 180, 185 World War I, 50 World Wide Web, 48 worldview, 131

Y yarn, 171 young adults, 122, 177