Among the Prophets: Language, Image and Structure in the Prophetic Writings (JSOT Supplement Series)

JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT SUPPLEMENT SERIES

144

Editors David J.A. Clines Philip R. Davies Editorial Board Richard J. Coggins , Alan Cooper, Tamara C. Eskenazi, J. Chery l Exum, Robert P. Gordon, Norman K. Gottwald, Andrew D.H. Mayes, Carol Meyers, Patrick D. Miller

JSOT Press Sheffield

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AMONG THE PROPHETS Language, Image and Structure in the Prophetic Writings

Edited by Philip R. Davies and David J.A. Clines

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 144

Copyright © 1993 Sheffield Academi c Press Published by JSOT Press JSOT Press is an imprint of Sheffield Academi c Press Ltd 343 Fulwood Roa d Sheffield S1 0 3BP England Typeset by Sheffield Academi c Press and Printed on acid-free paper in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd Guildford

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Dat a Among the Prophets: Language , Image and Structure in the Prophetic Writings. — (JSOT Supplemen t Series, ISSN 0309-0787; No. 144 ) I. Davies, Phili p R. II. Clines, David J.A . III . Series 224 ISBN 1-85075-361- x

CONTENTS Preface 7 Abbreviations 8 List o f Contributor s 1

0

Part I ISAIAH K.T. AITKEN

Hearing an d Seeing: Metamorphose s o f a Motif in Isaiah 1-3 9 1

MARVIN A. SWEENE Y

On unfsos i n Isaiah 8. 6 4

2 2

MICHAEL L. BARRE

Of Lions and Birds: A Note on Isaiah 31.4- 5 5

5

FRANCIS LANDY

The Construction of the Subject and the Symbolic Order : A Reading of the Last Three Suffering Servan t Songs 6

JOHN F. A. SAWYER

Radical Images o f Yahweh in Isaiah 63 7

0 2

Part I I EZEKIEL M.G. SWANEPOEL Ezekiel 16 : Abandoned Child, Brid e Adorne d or Unfaithfu l Wife ? 8

4

6 Among

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JOHN B. GEYER

Ezekiel 2 7 and the Cosmic Ship 10

5

LESLIE C. ALLEN

Structure, Tradition an d Redaction in Ezekiel's Death Valley Visio n 12

7

Part II I MINOR PROPHETS

ALAN COOPER

In Praise o f Divine Caprice: Th e Significance of the Book of Jonah 14

TIMOTHY L . WILT

Jonah: A Battle of Shifting Alliance s 16

ATHALYA BRENNER

Jonah's Poe m ou t of and within its Context 18

4 4 3

JAMES NOGALSKI

The Redactiona l Shaping of Nahum 1 for the Boo k of the Twelve 19

Index of References 20 Index o f Authors 21

3 3 6

PREFACE The paper s presente d i n thi s volum e wer e originall y offere d t o th e Journal for th e Study o f th e Old Testament and accepted b y its editor s for publication . I n view of the growing pressure o n space in the Journal, it wa s subsequentl y decided , wit h th e consen t of th e contributors , to issue the m i n th e JSOT Supplemen t Series , i n th e belie f tha t suc h a volume also affords a more convenient format for the reader intereste d in th e themes an d directions o f current research int o the prophets . The Editor s

ABBREVIATIONS AB Ancho AnBib Analect ANET J.B BOB F BETL Bibliothec BHS Biblia Bib Biblica BibOr Biblic BKAT Biblische B N Biblische flZ Biblische BZAW Beiheft CBQ Catholic CML J.C.L

r Bible a biblica . Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts . Brown, S.R. Driver an d C.A. Briggs , Hebrew an d English Lexicon of the Old Testament a ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium hebraica stuttgartensia

a et orientalia r Kommentar: Altes Testament Notizen Zeitschrift e zur 7A W Biblical Quarterly . Gibson, Canaanite Myths and Legends (Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 2n d edn, 1978) . GKC Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, ed. E. Kautszch, trans. A.E. Cowle y FRLANT Forschunge n zu r Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments HAR Hebrew Annual Review HAT Handbuc h zum Alten Testament HDR Harvar d Dissertations i n Religion H TR Harvard Theological Review HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual Int Interpretation JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society JQR Jewish Quarterly Review JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament JSOTSup Journal for th e Study o f th e Old Testament, Supplement Series NCB Ne w Century Bible NEB Ne w English Bible NJPSV Ne w Jewish Publication Society Version OTL Ol d Testament Library RHPR Revue d'historic et dephilosophic religieuses SBL Societ y of Biblical Literatur e SBLDS SB L Dissertation Serie s SBT Studie s in Biblical Theology

Abbreviations 9 ST Studia TDNT G

TDOT G.J TSK Theologische

UT C.H UUA Uppsal VT Vetus

theologica . Kittel and G. Friedrich (eds.) , Theological Dictionary o f th e

New Testament . Botterweck and H. Ringgren (eds.), Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament Studien und Kritiken

. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook (Rome, 1965) a Universitetsarsskrif t Testamentun

WBC Wor d Biblical Commentary WMANT Wissenschaftlich e Monographien zum Alien und Neuen ZA W Zeitschriftfur

Testament

die alttestamentliche Wissenschqft

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS K.T. Aitke n Department o f Hebrew & Semitic Languages, Aberdeen , Scotlan d Leslie C. Allen Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena , California , USA Michael L . Barre St Mary's Seminar y an d University, Baltimore, Maryland , US A Athalya Brenne r Oranim Colleg e of Education, Tiv'on , Israe l Alan Cooper Hebrew Unio n College, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA John B . Geye r Dundee Congregational Church , Dundee , Scotlan d Francis Land y University of Alberta , Edmonton , Alberta , Canad a James Nogalsk i The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary , Louisville, Kentucky, USA John F.A . Sawye r Department o f Religious Studies, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England M.G. Swanepoe l Lunnonroad 211 , Pretoria , Sout h Afric a Marvin A. Sweene y University o f Miami, Florida, US A Timothy L . Wilt United Bible Societies , Kinshasa, Zaire

Part I ISAIAH

HEARING AND SEEING: METAMORPHOSES OF A MOTIF IN ISAIAH 1-39 K.T. Aitke n ABSTRACT n

The moti f *( °0 hear/see'/'(not) know/understand' occur s in four forms . Rhetorica l and thematic connection s betwee n th e forms map out a series of transformations i n the movement from judgment to salvation. A negative/negative (didactic ) for m pre sents Israel's lack of knowledge a s the result of a perverse refusal to hear Yahweh's words an d see his works. Thi s i s transformed int o a positive/negative (theological ) form, whereby Israe l is disabled from attaining knowledge throug h hearing and seeing, and its judgment is sealed. However, within th e context of salvation, the negative/ negative for m is transformed int o a positive/positive (didactic ) form , as Israel now responds to Yahweh, while th e positive/negative for m i s likewise transforme d into a negative/positive (theological) form a s the disabilities that had prevented knowledg e are removed .

The words 'hear ' and 'see', together with 'know' and 'understand' , are frequently use d in Firs t Isaia h (chs . 1-39 ) a s summarizing terms fo r Israel's responsivenes s o r lac k o f responsivenes s to Yahwe h an d it s consequences, and together they ma y be said to form on e of the central motifs o f the book. Besides its frequency, th e centrality of the motif is also suggested by the commission of Isaiah in 6.9-13, where the prophet is told to go and say to the people, 'Hea r indeed, but do not understand, and se e indeed, but d o not know' (v . 9). This formulation of the motif clearly lay s great stres s o n the positive-negative relatio n in which the terms stand to one another. Equally clearly, this is only one of a set of four possibl e relations between the terms: A. no t hear/see — B. hear/se e — C. hear/se e — D. no t hear/see —

no t know/understand [ no t know/understand [ know/understan d[ know/understan d[

] +-] + +] -+]

AITKEN Hearing an d Seeing 1

3

Each o f these form s finds more o r less explici t expressio n in a number of passage s i n th e book . I t is reasonable t o assum e tha t the y stan d in some kin d of relation t o one another, and that these relations centr e on the negativ e an d positiv e value s variousl y assigne d t o th e terms . Accordingly, this set of potential relations between 'hear/see ' and 'know / understand' ma y be taken t o form a structural matrix withi n which the motif ha s significance , and within which its forms ar e transformed . The matri x itsel f alread y point s towards a certain degre e o f organi zation an d patterning o f relations between th e individual forms o f th e motif. First , fro m th e perspectiv e o f th e secon d term , th e form s clearly fal l int o tw o contrastin g pairs : thos e whic h d o no t resul t i n knowledge/understanding (A, B), and those which result in knowledge/ understanding (C , D). Secondly, betwee n the pairs ther e i s an inversio n between a negative/negative (A ) and a positive/positive (C ) form, and between a positive/negative (B ) and a negative/positive (D) form. Thi s implies tha t 'C ' is a transformation of 'A', and 'D' is a transformation of'B'. It remain s t o b e see n whethe r an d i n wha t way thes e relation s an d transformations suggeste d b y th e matri x a t thi s fairl y abstrac t leve l are articulate d throug h th e expression s o f th e variou s form s o f th e motif withi n the present literar y form of the book. 1 A. Not Hear/See —Not Know/Understand I.Isaiah 1.2-20 These verse s for m a well-rounde d rhetorica l an d kerygmati c uni t within th e chapter . The y compris e tw o panel s o f complain t followe d by appeal : vv . 2-4, 5-8(9); vv . 10-15 , 16-20 . Bot h panel s ar e intro duced b y ]n« n //i?&tt j (vv . 2, 10) , and ar e linke d t o eac h othe r b y th e repetition may //ano (vv . 9, 10) , and by the inclusion mr r CD ) -o n -o (vv. 2, 20). There is also a close thematic correspondence betwee n th e opening complain t an d the closing appea l concernin g Israel's si n and rebellion. Thus , oy^sn i n an d inn i^i n (v . 16) pick u p o'lnn (v. 4), D^nte m (v . 18 ) pick s u p «o n ^y (v . 4), an d th e verb s ]« & an d 1. O n connection s betwee n th e moti f i n chs . 1-39 an d chs . 40-55, se e R.E. Clements, 'Beyon d Tradition-History: Deutero-Isaianic Developmen t o f Firs t Isaiah's Themes', JSOT31 (1985) , pp . 101-104 ; R . Rendtorff, 'Jesaj a 6 im Rahmen der Kompositio n de s Jesajabuches' , i n J . Vermeyle n (ed.) , Th e Book o f Isaiah (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989) , pp . 73-82.

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m& (v . 20) ech o JHDB , 3ti ? an d p» (vv . 2, 4) . The them e o f th e divin e complaint in vv . 2-3 i s Israel' s lac k o f knowledge (pnn n ^ I I JJT «b ) resultin g from thei r rebellio n (IHDS ) against Yahweh . Th e perversit y o f Israel' s conditio n i s emphasize d through th e contras t wit h th e o x an d ass . I n v . 4 th e complain t i s expanded i n propheti c speec h i n term s o f Israel' s sinfulnes s (»o n / / ]ii?), having rejected (aw ) and despised (p« ) Yahweh. The for m an d languag e o f v . 2 recall th e lega l charg e brough t by parents against a rebellious so n (mini -m o p ) i n Deut. 21.18: 'h e will not liste n (yiyti WK ) t o ou r voice' . Thoug h th e ver b use d i n v . 2 i s urns, mn i s foun d i n 1.20 , 3. 8 an d 30. 9 (nn) . Thi s las t passag e i s particularly significant , sinc e i t look s bac k t o vv . 2-4 an d explicitly describes Israe l a s 'son s wh o ar e no t willin g to hea r th e instruction (mm) o f Yahweh' (cf . tr-mo o^a , 30.1). 1 Furthermore , th e elabora tion o f th e charge i n v . 4 appears t o be equivalent to refusin g t o hea r Yahweh's voice. This is suggested b y the parallel i n 5.24, where Israe l have forsake n (OKQ ) th e instructio n (mm) o f Yahweh, 2 an d despise d ()*«]) his word . Israel's lac k o f knowledg e is therefor e roote d i n their refusal t o hear Yahweh' s instruction. Accordingly, th e secon d pane l begin s wit h a summon s t o Israel to hear Yahweh's instruction (mm, v . 10), an d ends with the choice con fronting Israe l eithe r t o b e willin g t o hea r (UEW ) o r t o refus e (]Kft ) t o hear and rebel (ma). The thematic correspondence between th e appea l in vv . 16-2 0 an d th e complain t in vv . 2-4 implie s tha t throug h hear ing an d no t rebelling Israe l wil l know an d understand . This implica tion i s strengthene d b y th e lin k betwee n th e lan d bein g 'devoured ' C?DK) by th e enemy a s a consequence o f lack of knowledge and rebel lion i n v . 7 (cf . v . 20) an d 'eating ' O^N ) th e fruit s o f th e land—th e one th e resul t o f lac k o f knowledg e an d rebellion , an d th e othe r o f hearing an d no t rebellin g i n v . 19. The appea l i n vv . 19-2 0 therefor e holds ou t th e possibilit y of a transformatio n of th e moti f fro m 'no t hear-not know' to 'hear-know'. 2. Isaiah 5.8-24 This passag e contain s a serie s o f wo e sayings . The y appea r t o b e 1. J?to s i s collocate d wit h mo i n Lam. 3.42 , an d wit h antu K 1? i n Isa . 48.8 an d Jer. 3.1 3 (cf. also Ezek. 2.3-5).

2. Cf . (wit h Dti? ) 'Vipa lynarvb //Tmrrn N oaw , Jer. 9.12.

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arranged i n a concentric pattern, though the symmetry is offse t by th e elaboration o f the wo e sayings in the first half o f the pattern : a. social evils (vv. 8-10) b. drunkenness (vv. 11-17) c. sin and iniquit y (v . 18-19 ) d. perversit y (v . 20) c'. wise in own eyes (v. 21) b'. drunkenness (v. 22), together with a', social evils (v. 23-24)1

In vv . 12b-13 a Israel' s conditio n i s onc e agai n describe d a s lac k o f knowledge (mm^D) , though now it is rooted i n the people's failure to see (run K b //oran Kb ) th e activity of Yahwe h (v- r nfoi? a //mr r ^s) . The contex t (vv . ll-12a) suggest s tha t thi s failur e arise s fro m th e mindless pursui t of drunkenness and revelry . According t o v . 19 , Israel conten d tha t th e faul t lie s no t i n thei r failure to see but in Yahweh's failure to act—let Yahweh speed his work (ntojjfc) an d carr y ou t hi s plan , an d the y woul d se e an d kno w (ru n / / in*1). These words adumbrat e a transformation i n th e moti f fro m 'no t see-not know ' (vv . 12-13 ) t o 'see-know ' a s perceive d fro m Israel' s point o f view . The prophet , however , take s a differen t poin t of view . The participl e annn n 'wh o say ' (v . 19) is syntacticall y dependent o n ••in 'woe ' i n v . 18 . Thereby no t onl y is Israe l condemne d fo r speakin g such words , bu t th e word s ar e equate d wit h iniquit y (p» ) an d si n (rmon, v . 18) . Furthermore , th e nex t sayin g highlight s th e perversit y of Israel , wh o hav e inverte d goo d an d evil , ligh t an d darkness , th e sweet an d th e bitter (v . 20). I t too i s introduced by trn&»n ^n , whic h suggests i t i s a 'commentary ' o n Israel' s word s i n v . 19 . It migh t b e noted tha t thi s commen t o n Israel's perversity lie s a t the centr e o f the concentric pattern . Consequently , th e transformatio n adumbrate d b y Israel i n v . 1 9 simpl y serve s t o reinforc e thei r failur e t o se e an d know (vv . 12-13) . A t th e sam e time , i t als o serve s t o intensif y thi s failure. I t arise s no t merel y fro m a mindles s pursui t o f drunkennes s and revelry , bu t fro m a deep-seate d perversit y whic h wil l no t se e what can be plainly seen .

1. Thi s them e i s sustaine d in th e wo e sayin g i n 10.1-4 , whic h probabl y originally formed par t of the series.

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There i s thus a close connectio n between 1.2-2 0 an d 5.8-24 centred on the relation betwee n hearing/seeing and knowing/understanding. This correspondence i s reinforce d b y a numbe r o f verba l an d themati c links between th e passages. Th e following key words are repeated: JT P (1.3; 5.1 3 [nin]);'» » (1.3 ; 5.13) ; s in (e.g . 1.4 ; 5.8) ; [rwon ] Kca n //]i » (1.4; 5.18 ; cf . 1.18) ; fK J (1.4 ; 5.24) ; m m (1.10 ; 5.24) , ^mfc r tin p (1.4; 5.19 , 24) , acr n 7/jn n (1.16-1 7 [cf . D»mn, v. 4]; 5.20 [21 0 7/jn]. 1 The passages, therefore , ar e complementar y expression s o f the nega tive/negative for m o f th e motif , givin g a n assessmen t o f Israel' s sinfulness agains t th e Hol y On e o f Israe l wit h respect t o hearin g th e words of Yahweh (1.2-20) an d seeing the work of Yahweh (5.8-24). 3. Isaiah 22.8b-14 In thi s passage, th e self-relian t policies pursue d by Juda h during the Assyrian crisi s ar e condemned. Se t against an oracle dealin g with the Assyrian invasio n an d th e rap e o f Juda h (vv . l-8a) , i n vv . 8b-ll a contrast is drawn between what Judah's response wa s and what it ought to hav e been : the y 'looked ' (n« i //eron) t o thei r weapons , fortifica tions an d wate r supply , an d di d no t 'look ' (rm i «• ? / / eron N 1?) t o Yahweh wh o ha d brough t i t abou t (rrifli?) . I n vv . 12-1 4 a furthe r contrast i s draw n between th e mournin g t o whic h Yahweh had sum moned th e people an d th e drunkenness and revelry t o which they had abandoned themselves. These verse s ar e ver y closel y relate d t o 5.8-24 . Her e to o ther e i s a failure t o 'see ' (m o NW/er'D n «*? , 22.11 ; 5.12 ) Yahweh' s activit y (rrtoJJ, 22.11; VT ntoi?Q , 5.12). The associatio n between thi s failure and drunkenness recall s thei r connectio n in 5.11-12 . Bot h passage s hav e banquet scenes in view, and vividl y portra y revelry an d excess through pairs of words linked by waw (22.13 ; 5.12a). In addition, th e description o f Israel' s offenc e a s 'thi s iniquity' (ru n )ii?n , 22.14 ) echoes th e equation o f Israel' s pervers e refusa l t o se e Yahweh' s wor k wit h iniquity (yu O in 5.18-1 9 (cf . also 1.4) . Finally , ninax mr r MN O rfra n i n v. 1 4 recalls m«3 S mr r ^TI O in 5.9. 2 I n th e ligh t of thes e connection s with 5.8-24 , lac k o f knowledg e (cf . 5.12-13 ) ma y b e assume d t o b e implicit in the failure to 'see'. 1. O f these key words , f«D , yii? , and biosr on p d o not recur i n chs. 1-5 , whil e the root ITP otherwise has a quite differen t sense (5.5). 2. Thi s expression is found only in these two passages.

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4. Isaiah 30.8-17 These verse s ar e se t withi n th e context o f a condemnation o f Judah's policy o f allianc e wit h Egyp t during th e Assyria n crisis (vv. 1 -7). A in 22.8b-14 , a contras t is drawn (nX 22.11 ; 30.1 ) between wha t the people di d an d wha t the y ough t t o hav e done : the y courte d Egyp t instead of consulting Yahweh (vv. 1-2). Bu t Egypt's help is futile an will redound t o their sham e (vv. 3-7). The condemnation take s the form of a woe saying against 'rebelliou s sons' (an-n o o^n , v . 1). The them e of Israel' s rebelliousnes s i s then picked u p an d develope d i n vv . 8-14 a s th e reaso n fo r writin g down the prophet's words a s a witness (v . 8). Its expression i n v. 9 closely echoes the language of 1.2-20 : Israel ar e a 'rebelliou s people / / lying sons' (D-W O D^ a //ntt DJJ ; cf. Dvrnttjf c c^ n + D:J, 1.4; nrvw, 1.20 ) who are 'unwillin g t o hear ' (inQt i n«-«b ; cf. anuBtii irmrrDN , 1.19 ) th e 'instruction' (mm ; cf. 1.10 [also 5.24]) of Yahweh. In vv . 10-14 Israel's rebellio n against Yahweh's torah i s spelled ou t in terms o f thei r oppositio n t o their seer s an d prophets, commandin g them no t t o communicat e divine torah i n wor d an d visio n bu t t o prophesy falsehoo d (vv . 10-11). I n particular , Israe l hav e despise d Yahweh's wor d ('thi s word') concernin g relianc e o n Yahweh alon e (cf. v . 15 ) and have relied on oppression and perverseness (v . 12) , but they wil l pa y th e pric e fo r 'thi s iniquity ' (m n pi?n , vv . 13-14) . Her e again ther e ar e close echoes o f 1.2-20 , especially a t the points wher e 1.2-20 is related t o 5.8-24. Thus , the charge that Israel have 'despised (OKQ) this wor d (n:n)' recall s 1. 4 (po // mi?) an d 5.24 (m&» + y«3 // mm + ONE), whil e th e prominence give n to the epithet 'th e Holy One of Israel' , whos e wor d the y hav e rejecte d (30.11 , 12 ; cf . v . 15), echoes th e rejection o f the [wor d of] the Holy One of Israel i n 1. 4 and 5.24 (cf . also 5.19) . Further , th e definitio n o f Israel' s rejectio n o f Yahweh's wor d a s m n pj?n (v . 13 ) recalls pi ? in 1.4 , and correspond s to th e refusa l t o se e Yahweh's work as yii ? i n 5.18-19 . The expressio n itself recur s agai n onl y in 22.14, wher e it similarl y provide s th e basi s for a n announcemen t of judgment on Israe l fo r thei r refusal t o 'see' . The conclusio n t o th e passag e (vv . 15-17) return s t o th e them e o f Israel's respons e i n th e fac e o f th e Assyria n threat . Israe l hav e rejected Yahweh' s cal l to trus t and rel y on him alon e as a means of security, an d hav e relie d o n militar y strength . These verse s see m t o expand o n the divine instruction Israe l were unwillin g to hear i n v. 9. This i s suggeste d b y th e repetitio n betwee n m»ff l i3H-« b (v . 9) an d «b

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nrroN (v . 15) . Significantly , i t als o presuppose s Israel' s rejectio n o f the grounds for th e transformation of the motif adumbrated by Yahweh in 1.19 : nnjJEtt h IDHH-DK . Interestingly , therefore , th e judgmen t announced i n v . 1 7 echoes 1. 8 throug h th e repetitio n o f n ~ir m i n a poetic image o f solitariness . Thus, 30.8-1 7 an d 22.8b-1 4 ar e ver y closel y relate d t o 1.2-2 0 an d 5.8-24 respectively. I n them the motif is applied t o the Assyrian crisis , once agai n fro m th e complementar y viewpoint s o f a failur e t o hea r and a failure to see . Within thes e passages , Israel's lack o f knowledge/understandin g i s rooted, explicitl y or implicitly, in a failure to hear the word of Yahweh and t o se e th e wor k o f Yahweh . Hence , 'no t know/understand ' i s implied b y 'no t hear/see' , whil e conversel y 'know/understand ' i s implied b y 'hear/see' . The transformation o f 'no t know/understand' t o 'know/understand' i s therefor e possibl e onl y throug h th e prior trans formation o f 'no t hear/see' t o 'hear/see' . In their very differen t ways , both 1.2-2 0 an d 5.8-2 4 rais e th e possibilit y o f thi s transformation , though i t remains unrealize d (cf . 30.9). The relation betwee n hearing / seeing and knowing/understanding upo n which th e negative-negative form o f th e moti f rest s i s therefor e essentiall y empirica l an d didacti c in character . It is clea r tha t thi s for m ha s it s plac e withi n the genera l context of Israel's judgment. B. Hear/See—Not Know/Understand I . Isaiah 6.1-13 In v . 9 Isaiah i s instructe d t o g o an d sa y t o th e people : 'Hea r (i)ftti ) indeed, bu t d o no t understan d Cpa) , an d se e (n«-i ) indeed , bu t d o no t know (in 11)'. By way of explanation, h e is told hi s prophetic task i s to dull th e people's organ s o f perception: t o mak e thei r heart s fat , thei r ears heavy, an d to coat their eyes. The purpose o f this i s to make th e people deaf , blin d an d ignoran t s o that the y migh t no t repen t an d b e healed (v . 10) , thereb y makin g judgment certai n (vv . 11-13). Whereas th e formulation o f th e motif i n v . 9 expresses the relatio n 'hear/see—not know/understand' , v . 1 0 interpret s thi s rathe r mor e prosaically i n term s o f the dullin g of th e organs o f perception t o pre vent seeing , hearin g an d understanding. Thus, fo r example, th e failure

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9

of th e ear s t o hea r i n v . 1 0 is equivalen t t o th e failur e of hearin g t o bring understandin g i n v . 9. The moti f is set within the context of the vision of Isaiah i n vv. 1-7 , in whic h hearing and seeing likewis e play a central role . Isaia h 'sees ' (rim) wit h his 'eyes ' th e divin e king (vv . 1 , 5), an d 'hears ' th e pro clamation o f hi s divin e glor y an d holines s (v . 3; cf . unfflN , v . 8). Thi s results i n Isaiah's awareness o f his own sinfulness an d the sinfulness of the people. However , hi s lip s ar e touche d b y coal s fro m of f th e alta r and hi s iniquit y is removed an d his si n is forgiven. It therefore seem s that the experience o f Isaiah stand s i n part a s a model o f what is to be denied t o th e peopl e throug h hi s preaching : Isaia h ha s 'seen ' an d 'heard'—and, by implication, he 'understands' ; the people wil l also see and hear, bu t they will not understand. 2. Isaiah 28.1-29 This chapte r ca n b e divide d int o fou r mai n sections : vv . 1-8 , 9-13 , 14-22 an d 23-29. The sections ar e linked together t o form a rhetorica l and kerygmati c unit . Th e firs t section , wit h it s announcemen t o f judgment i n vv . 2-4, i s closely boun d with the announcement tha t th e agreement wit h Sheol wil l be annulle d in vv. 14-2 2 throug h repetitio n of the key words OsM < 7)o <> QCDi2j...o <) B //I-D (vv . 2, 17; cf. v. 15) , and forms o f th e roo t Dtt~ i (vv . 3, 18) . Verse s 1- 8 an d 14-2 2 thu s for m a framework aroun d vv . 9-13. Verse s 9-1 3 ar e furthe r linke d wit h vv. 14-2 2 throug h th e repetitio n o f th e expressio n m n Di? n (vv . 11 , 14) an d njjint i •pnrt/ 1' (vv . 9, 19) , an d wit h vv . 23-2 9 throug h th e repetition o f th e ke y wor d m v (vv . 9 , 26) , whil e vv . 14-2 2 ar e linked wit h vv . 23-29 throug h th e repetitio n betwee n m m TI N n« Q mios (v . 22) an d mias m m GJJ G (v . 29) . Verses 1 -8 centr e o n th e drunkennes s o f th e leader s o f th e people : the rulers an d their fading majest y an d pride, togethe r wit h the priest s and prophet s an d thei r blurre d visio n (riK- D TO). Verses 9-1 3 begin with the question o f who can be taught the mess age (v . 9a). I n th e ligh t of v . 12 , this messag e concern s wherei n th e true sourc e o f safet y an d securit y lies . Th e meanin g o f vv . 9b-10 i s obscured b y th e enigmati c an d repeate d Dt u m m ip b i p ix 1? \x. Thi s may b e a n allusio n t o th e teachin g o f th e alphabet , i n whic h cas e the referenc e ma y b e t o th e people' s ridiculin g of th e messag e a s

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'elementary' an d beneat h them. 1 However , i n v . 1 3 the sam e expres sion ha s i n vie w the unintelligibl e sound s o f a foreig n languag e (cf. 33.19). Th e allusio n in vv . 9b-10 migh t therefore b e t o 'bab y talk', 2 the sense bein g that the message appeare d t o be no more intelligible to the peopl e tha n that . A t al l events , vv . 9-10 appea r t o impl y th e teaching of the message i n clear terms , togethe r wit h the failure of the people t o understan d it, an d therefor e t o presuppos e th e for m o f th e motif 'hear-no t understand'. Set agains t this , vv . 11-1 3 affir m tha t Israe l wil l hea r Yahwe h speaking to them in what will indeed be an unintelligible language: no longer a wor d o f securit y (v . 12) , bu t a wor d o f judgmen t spoke n through th e foreig n tongu e o f th e invader . A contras t i s thereb y drawn betwee n Yahweh' s wor d o f appea l i n th e past , an d Yahweh' s word o f judgment for th e future . I n th e retrospect t o th e pas t (v . 12) , the unintelligibilit y o f Yahweh' s wor d (i.e . 'hear-no t understand' , vv. 9-10) i s explained i n terms of Israel's unwillingness to hear i t (i.e . 'not hear-no t understand') . In th e prospec t fo r th e future , 'hear-no t understand' i s the n 're-deployed ' i n a n intensifie d for m throug h th e shift i n it s contex t fro m appea l t o th e announcemen t of judgment: a hearing o f Yahweh' s wor d tha t lead s t o knowledg e (vv . 9a, 12 ) will now b e denie d t o Israel , t o be replace d b y a hearin g tha t harbinger s destruction. Vers e 1 9 reinforce s thi s b y lookin g bac k t o v . 9 an d making th e ironi c commen t tha t thi s i s a messag e tha t Israe l woul d understand (njn&r a pn ; cf. njJVM ? p % v . 9), bu t tha t it woul d conve y nothing bu t shee r terror . This lin k betwee n v . 9 an d v . 1 9 suggests tha t vv . 14-2 2 serv e a s an elaboratio n o f th e judgment announced in vv . 11-13 . I t i s signifi cant, therefore, tha t whereas i n vv. 9-11 th e judgment wa s se t agains t rejection o f th e tru e sourc e o f securit y (v. 12) , her e i t i s se t agains t reliance o n a fals e sourc e o f security , an agreemen t wit h Sheol—an allusion to Judah's alliance with Egypt. Verses 14-2 2 als o lin k up with the them e o f judgment in vv . 2-4, thereb y providin g a thematic con nection between the three units. Through the 'stron g one', like a storm of hai l (~ns) an d lik e a stor m o f overwhelmin g water s (n''SOtt?...D < '&, v. 2), Yahwe h wil l spea k t o Israe l (v . 11 ) a messag e o f shee r terro r 1. Cf . O. Kaiser , Isaiah 13-39: A Commentary (London : SC M Press , 1974) , pp. 244-46. 2. Cf . J. Lindblom, Prophecy i n Ancient Israel (Oxford : Basi l Blackwell , 1962) , p. 201 .

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(v. 19) , an d th e hai l (TO ) an d water s (D^ ) wil l overwhel m and swee p awa y the people's fals e source o f security and them wit h i t (vv. 17b-19) . Appropriately , therefore , correspondin g t o th e foreig n tongue o f th e invade r throug h whic h Yahwe h wil l no w spea k i s th e strange wor k tha t h e wil l no w perfor m (v . 21) The chapte r concludes wit h th e parabl e abou t th e farme r (vv . 2329). I t contain s tw o appraisals , th e first of which echoes v . 9 and th e other v . 22, tha t is , th e beginnin g an d th e en d o f th e tw o centra l sections in the chapter respectively . Th e first appraisal (v . 26) observes that th e farme r derive s hi s agricultura l skill s fro m divin e instructio n (mv vnb«) . This echoe s the question who can be taught (mv) knowl edge in v. 9. Israel's refusal t o listen t o divine instruction thu s stand s in marke d contras t wit h th e farmer , whos e knowledg e o f agricultur e demonstrates hi s acceptanc e o f divin e instruction. The firs t appraisa l thus serve s a s a commen t o n th e perversit y o f Israe l i n refusin g t o accept divine instructio n alon g muc h the sam e line s a s the parable o f the ox and the ass in 1.2 . In th e secon d appraisa l (v . 29), th e word s 'als o thi s come s fro m Yahweh o f hosts ' i s generall y take n t o refe r t o th e agricultura l pro cesses outlined i n vv. 27-28, bu t tha t is to make i t a weak restatemen t of v . 26 an d t o depriv e i t o f much o f it s eviden t climacti c force . Th e echo betwee n m*o x mr r DJJ B in v . 29 an d mios mr r TI N n« Q i n v . 2 2 suggests rathe r tha t n«rD) looks back t o the decree of utter destructio n that th e prophe t ha s heard . Strang e an d foreig n thoug h Yahweh' s work o f judgment wil l b e (v . 21), i t i s n o les s a n expressio n o f th e marvellousness o f his pla n an d th e greatnes s o f his wisdo m tha n that reflected i n th e skill s o f th e farme r — much a s a perverse Israe l migh t scoff (v . 22a) . The formulatio n o f the moti f i n vv. 9-13 contains several expression s which recal l th e cal l an d commissio n o f Isaia h i n 6.1-13 . Thus , (a) • > Q~nKi... 1> Q"n« concernin g th e understandin g of the messag e (v . 9) echoes ^i...vrnK concernin g its deliver y i n 6.8 ; (b ) ninfct i p- 1 (v . 9) echoes irarr^N i rvat i w&r c i n 6.9 ; (c ) th e designatio n o f Israe l a s m n Dim (v . 11 ; cf. 6.9) ; (d ) a contrast is perhaps als o implie d betwee n th e foreign 'lip ' (nato ) o f th e invade r throug h who m Yahwe h wil l no w speak t o 'thi s people ' (v . 11 ) an d th e cleanse d 'lips ' (DTise? ) o f th e prophet (6.5 , 7) . In addition , vv . 9-13 ar e juxtapose d t o a passag e (vv . 1-8 ) tha t

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stands in stark contrast to the context for Isaiah's commission i n 6.1-7. Juxtaposed against the glory and exaltation of the divine king stand the fading majest y an d prid e o f th e drunkard s o f Ephrai m (vv . 1-4) ; against th e templ e an d eart h fille d wit h Yahweh's glor y (K^E , a ke y word, 6.1 , 3 , 4) , stan d tables fille d (N^B ) wit h vomit an d filt h (v . 8); and agains t Isaia h wh o 'saw ' (n*n , 6.1, 5 ) Yahweh, stan d priests an d prophets wh o err 'i n seeing ' (nton) . Ther e ar e probabl y als o echoe s of 6.1-1 3 i n th e decre e o f destructio n whic h th e prophe t ha s hear d Onrntti, v . 22; cf . r&ciN , 6.8 ) an d i n th e us e o f th e ver b ~IE O o f th e annulment o f th e people' s agreemen t wit h Sheo l upo n whic h the y falsely rel y (v . 18 [cf. 'this iniquity', 30.13]; 6.7) . 3. Isaiah 29.9-16 This passag e i s comprise d o f thre e mai n units : vv . 9-12, 13-1 4 an d 15-16. Verses 9-1 2 centre on the inability of the prophets an d seers to discern Yahweh' s work. There i s indeed a 'seeing ' Ow n mm , v . 11) , but wha t i s see n i s lik e a seale d boo k t o on e wh o can rea d an d an unsealed boo k t o on e wh o canno t read—it bring s n o knowledg e o r understanding. Th e explanatio n give n fo r thi s i s tha t Yahwe h ha s blinded thei r eye s an d poure d ou t a spiri t of dee p slee p upo n them . These verse s thu s likewis e impl y th e moti f i n th e for m 'see-no t understand'. The nex t two units seem t o be more closel y related t o on e anothe r than t o vv . 9-12. I n the firs t (vv . 13-14), judgment i s pronounced o n the wisdom of the wise. In the second, a woe saying against those wh o make plans without reference t o Yahweh is elaborated b y a parable o f the potter an d the clay . The unit s are linke d together by repetition o f the root s nn o (vv . 14, 15) , an d y n (vv . 14, 16) . O n th e othe r hand , the positio n o f vv . 13-1 6 followin g vv . 9-12 i s closel y parallele d b y the movement in the preceding passage fro m reflectio n on hearing and understanding th e message (28.9-13 ) to an announcement of judgment (28.14-22) an d a concluding parable (28.23-29) . Thi s correspondenc e is reinforce d b y th e repetitio n o f nfajjfc , nsj ; an d the root »bs a s ke y words (vv . 14-16; cf . 28.21 , 29) . Th e thre e unit s are thu s evidentl y held togethe r b y th e sam e themati c association s whic h manifes t themselves i n 28.9-29 . A further indicatio n of thi s is th e reference t o Israel a s m n ow n i n 29.13 , 1 4 (cf. 28.11, 14) . In vv. 13-16 a wisdom and understanding which disregard Yahweh' s word (cf . D^J K msn , v . 13 ) and his wor k (cf . v . 16 ) are condemne d

AITKEN Hearing an d Seeing 2

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as the root both of the people's false worship and of their self-relianc e in pursui t o f thei r plans . The proverbia l sayin g on the potte r an d th e clay emphasizes th e utter perversity an d absurdity of this. This passage als o contains a number of close links wit h th e formula tion o f the motif i n 6.9-10: (a) the repetition in tandem o f imperatives of differen t verba l form s o f the roots nan 1 and uuti (29.9a ) recalls th e collocation o f th e imperativ e an d infinitiv e absolut e o f th e verb s iJEtt i and ntn i n 6.9; (b ) this link is reinforced b y the use of the root vvti i n 6.10; (c ) the sequence 'be 2 drunk but not // totter but not' (« X v . 9b) recalls 'hea r + but do not // see + but do not' (^NI ) in 6.9, wit h a similar negatio n o f norma l expectations : hearin g an d seein g normall y result i n knowledge an d understanding; drunkenness and unsteadines s are normall y th e result of drinkin g wine and beer; (d ) wrirri K OSJT I (v. 10 ) echoes iron vn n in 6.10. These thre e passage s therefor e likewis e contai n closel y relate d expression o f the moti f i n it s positive-negative form. I t i s clea r tha t the relation between the terms i n this form is quite different fro m th e empirical an d didactic relation betwee n the m in the negative-negativ e form. Th e ter m 'no t hear/see ' ha s been transforme d t o 'hear/see'— a transformation alread y contemplated , a s w e hav e seen , i n 1.1 9 an d 5.19. On the other hand , according t o the didactic relatio n betwee n th e terms, thi s necessaril y implie s a correspondin g transformatio n fro m 'not know/understand ' t o 'know/understand' , wherea s thi s ter m ha s remained unchanged . Th e relation betwee n th e terms i n the positivenegative for m is essentially theological rathe r than didactic i n charac ter, insofa r a s i t rest s o n Yahweh' s declare d intention s and actions . Like the negative-negative form, however, i t too finds its place within the context of Israel's judgment. The First Transformation The firs t transformatio n therefor e centre s o n th e shif t fro m 'no t hear/see' i n th e 'A ' for m o f th e moti f t o 'hear/see ' i n th e 'B ' for m without a correspondin g transformatio n i n 'no t know/understand' . The relation betwee n thes e form s o f the motif must now be examined . 1. CLBHS.

2. Cf . BHS.

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The passage s whic h expres s th e 'A ' for m fal l int o tw o closel y related pairs , th e on e primaril y focuse d o n Israel' s failur e t o hea r (1.2-20; 30.8-17) , and the other on their failure to see (5.8-24; 22.8b 14). Ther e i s als o a paralle l movemen t withi n eac h pai r fro m tha t failure withi n the context of Israel's moral, socia l an d religious lif e i n general (1.2-20 ; 5.8-24) , t o it s failur e withi n the contex t o f politica l life durin g th e Assyria n crisi s (22.8b-14 ; 30.8-17 ; cf . als o 31.1-3) . The passage s whic h expres s th e 'B ' for m reflec t muc h th e sam e pattern. Thus , 6.1-1 3 combines hearin g an d seeing, whereas 28.1-29 is primarily concerne d wit h hearing and 29.9-1 6 wit h seeing . Similarly , in 6.1-1 3 th e moti f i s connecte d i n a genera l o r programmati c wa y with Isaiah' s propheti c ministr y a s a whole , wherea s i n 28.1-2 9 and 29.9-16 it is applied to the Assyrian crisis. Taking both forms together , therefore, i t is clear tha t 6.1-13 occupies a central and pivotal position, since i t i s th e onl y passag e whic h explicitly correlate s hearin g an d seeing, an d sinc e i t form s the clima x of the mor e comprehensiv e an d programmatic formulation s o f th e moti f i n th e firs t sectio n o f th e book. I n th e ligh t o f thes e considerations , th e relatio n betwee n th e forms ma y be examined a t two levels: (1 ) the relation between 6.1-1 3 and 1.2-20 , 5.8-2 4 a s formin g a paradigm ; (2 ) th e relatio n betwee n 28.1-29, 29.9-16 an d 1.2-2 0 + 30.8-17 , wit h 5.8-24 + 22.8b-1 4 a s an application of this paradigm to the circumstances of the Assyrian crisis. 1. The Paradigm I hav e alread y remarke d tha t Isaiah's experienc e i n 6.1- 7 serve s a s a model o f wha t is t o b e denie d t o th e peopl e throug h his preaching , namely a 'seeing' an d 'hearing ' whic h leads t o knowledge an d understanding (6.9-13). There ar e a number of verbal and thematic links between 6.1-13 and 1.2-20,5.8-24 that serve t o complemen t an d enhanc e this paradigmati c aspec t o f th e accoun t by drawin g a correspondin g contrast between the prophet's experience and Israel's condition. The settin g of Isaiah's vision (ron, 6.1, 5 ) of Yahweh in the templ e already evoke s a contras t wit h Israel' s tramplin g o f Yahweh' s cour t when the y com e 't o see' 1 Yahweh' s fac e (1.12) . Thi s i s strengthened by th e echo between mir a (6.6 ) and WTQT (1.11) , and by the use of th e language of 'un/cleanness ' (KM , 6.5; ror [hithp.] , 1.16) . Most significan t in thi s regard , however , are the closel y relate d 1. Reading nitn 1? for niio1?; cf. BHS.

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themes of the sinfulnes s o f Isaiah/Israel and the holiness of Yahweh in association with hearing/seeing, which ar e found i n all three passages . In 1.2-2 0 an d 5.8-24 , Israel' s sinfulnes s Cp u //«an , 1.4 ; rmo n //-pi) , 5.18) i s manifeste d i n thei r unwillingnes s to hea r (yrati ; cf . 1.19 ) th e word an d t o se e (run, 5.12 , 19 ) the wor k of th e Hol y On e (tinp) of Israel (1.4 ; 5.19 , 24) ; in 6.1-7 Isaia h sees (n«n) Yahweh and hears (cf . !?&&«, v . 8) th e proclamatio n o f his holines s (tartp) , an d hi s si n (y w / / nNon) is forgiven (HED) . Isaiah' s explici t identification o f himsel f with Israel a s alik e havin g 'unclea n lips ' (6.5) , togethe r wit h th e ech o between ^ 'M H (6.5 ) an d the repeated •'in (1.4 ; 5.8 ; etc.) , helps t o bring into focus an d to heighten the contrast which these thematic element s draw between a sinfu l bu t responsive prophet ('hear/see') and a sinfu l but unresponsiv e Israe l ('no t hear/see') . I t i s als o reflecte d i n th e condemnation o f Israel' s refusa l t o 'look ' (rm- i ^//cra n N 1?) t o Yahweh durin g the Assyrian crisis i n 22.8b-14 through th e summar y statement that 'thi s iniquity' (m n yu?n ) would not b e forgiven (~IEO). Isaiah's experienc e in 6.1-7 thu s serves no t only as a model o f what will b e denie d t o Israe l throug h his preachin g (6.9-13), but als o a s a model o f the kind of responsiveness to Yahweh which Israel s o singularly lacke d (1.2-20 ; 5.8-24), an d thereb y serve s t o connec t th e 'B ' form o f th e motif i n 6.9-1 3 wit h th e 'A ' for m i n 1.2-2 0 an d 5.8-24 . These passages therefor e serve as an exposition o f the sinfu l conditio n of Israe l upon which 6.9-13 is predicated. Appropriately, therefore, th e announcement o f judgment i n 6.9-1 3 recalls an d confirm s th e judgment announce d in 1.2-2 0 an d 5.8-24. Th e healin g (»s~i ) denied t o Israel in 6.10 look s bac k t o the description o f Israel's chastisement i n terms o f sicknes s an d wounding s in 1.5b- 6 (cf . 30.26) , while 6.11-12 picks u p 1. 7 through repetition o f the key words n s ny, nmx , pN an d nD&ra, an d 5. 9 throug h the repetitio n of DTD, nw v y^ n an d noti . In 1.2-2 0 and 5.8-24, Israel's condition i s described fro m th e com plementary viewpoint s of a failure to hear an d a failure t o see . A t th e same time , ther e ar e importan t differences o f emphasi s betwee n th e two passages. First , although both adumbrate the possibility that Israe l might hear/see, i n the first it is adumbrate d by Yahwe h by way o f an appeal t o Israe l (1.19) , an d i n th e secon d b y Israe l b y wa y o f a challenge t o Yahwe h (5.19). I n 1.2-2 0 i t i s therefor e a genuin e pos sibility, wherea s i n 5.8-2 4 i t simpl y reinforces the depth s o f Israel' s failure. Secondly , i n 5.8-24 muc h greater emphasi s is lai d o n Israel's perversity. Th e homely parable of the ox and ass (1.3) give s way t o a

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vivid characterizatio n o f th e complet e inversio n o f th e mora l orde r (5.20). Thirdly , whil e in 1.2-2 0 judgmen t and reconciliation are pre sented a s alternative s (vv . 19-20), i n 5.8-2 4 judgmen t appear s t o b e irrevocable: Israe l ar e heading for exile for lac k of knowledge (5.13) . These shifts in emphasis betwee n 1.2-2 0 and 5.8-24 reflect a certai n 'hardening' in Israel's perverse attitud e and a diminution in the potential o f their responsivenes s t o Yahweh resulting i n the inevitability of judgment. The 'B ' for m o f th e motif i n 6.1-1 3 take s thi s a ste p fur ther. Throug h a n increasingl y stubbor n an d pervers e attitude , Israe l have severed themselve s fro m hearing and seeing. Yahweh will there fore seve r Israe l fro m th e knowledg e an d understandin g t o whic h hearing and seeing should lead, so that even the most attentive hearing of Yahweh' s wor d an d carefu l seein g o f Yahweh' s wor k wil l no t result i n knowledg e an d understanding . Hearing, n o mor e tha n no t hearing, an d seeing , n o mor e tha n not seeing , ar e path s fo r Israe l t o knowledge and understanding. The transformation of 'no t hear/see' t o 'hear/see ' i n 6.1-13 is there fore predicate d o n the sinfu l conditio n of Israel's as described i n 1.2 20 an d 5.8-24—on thei r perverse refusa l t o hear Yahweh' s wor d and to see Yahweh's work , nurtured b y drunkennes s an d concei t (5.21 ) and manifeste d i n thei r moral , socia l an d religiou s life . I t consist s essentially i n th e exclusion o f the possibility o f th e alternativ e trans formation o f th e motif t o 'hear/see-know/understand' , thereb y con firming th e peopl e i n th e blindnes s an d ignoranc e o f thei r ow n perversion, an d making judgment certain. 2. The Application o f th e Paradigm to the Assyrian Crisis \.Isaiah28.1-29 There ar e a numbe r o f clos e connection s betwee n 28.1-2 9 an d th e passages whic h expres s th e 'A ' for m o f th e motif . The y ca n b e grouped under three headings : (a) Hearing. JJT&B J mn n xb in 28.12 is connected wit h orwfcwi •Q«n-o « in 1.19 , mnt i UK-H* ? i n 30. 9 an d DrraK vh in 30.15. In th e ligh t of mv in 28.9 , 26 , what Israel hav e refuse d t o hear i s Yahweh's instructio n (cf. 28.12) , a s explicitly in 30.9 (mm ) and implicitly in 1.1 9 (cf. mm , 1.10; 5.24) . Further , it s applicatio n t o instructio n on th e tru e sourc e of securit y and rest (nmm , mn , 28.12) i s also reflected in 30.15 (rim) . In bot h thes e passage s th e divin e wor d o f instructio n (ia», 28.12 ;

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7

30.15) i s contraste d wit h Israel' s ow n word s (omn« , 28.15 ; no»m , 30.16) i n whic h the y affir m relianc e o n a fals e sourc e o f security . Finally, th e parabl e o f th e farme r i n 28.23-2 9 recall s th e parabl e o f the o x an d th e as s i n 1.3 . Both underlin e the unnatura l perversity o f Israel's refusal to hear Yahweh's instruction. (b) Seeing. Th e descriptio n of the drunkenness of the rulers, priest s and prophet s i n 28.1- 8 complement s th e descriptio n o f th e drunkenness o f Israe l i n 5.11-12 , 2 2 an d 22.13 , wit h a repetitio n o f th e ke y words )" //-otti (28.1 [natf], 7) . It too is introduced by in (28.1 ; 5.11 , 22). I n 28.7- 8 drunkennes s i s associate d wit h th e prophet s errin g i n 'seeing' (riN- n uo) , while in 5.11-12 and 22.13 i t is similarl y associa ted wit h Israel's failur e t o se e (nt n «b ) Yahweh' s work . Thi s connection wit h Yahweh' s wor k (nfow a //^rs , 5.12; nxj? //ntoi?o , 5.19; mir //rrfcu , 22.11 ) i s picke d u p in 28.1-2 9 throug h th e referenc e t o Yahweh's wor k (rror //nforo , 28.21 ) a s a manifestation of his counse l (nxa, 28.29) . (c) Judgment. Th e reference t o Isaiah's hearin g (cf. 6.8) a decree o f total judgmen t upo n Israe l i n 28.2 2 recall s <> r«D i n 22.1 4 (cf. 5.9), where i t likewis e conclude s a condemnatio n of relianc e o n a fals e security. Further, th e announcement that Israel's covenant with Death (mo) wil l be broke n (-132 , 28.18 ) i s a n ironi c ech o o f th e statemen t that 'thi s iniquity will not b e forgive n (is:> ) unti l yo u di e CjinorniO ' in 22.14. The expression n^m DV3...ip3 3 (28.19) recalls *]ti» // np 33 in 5.11—th e on e emphasizing the relentlessness o f Israel' s pursuit of drunkenness an d revelry , th e othe r emphasizin g th e relentlessnes s o f Yahweh's judgment. The verba l an d themati c link s centred o n 'hearing ' connec t 28.1-2 9 with 1.2-2 0 an d 30.8-17 . Her e to o Israe l hav e been unwillin g t o hea r Yahweh's instruction , specifically now o n the tru e source o f security , an unwillingnes s whic h i s likewis e show n t o b e quit e perverse . Moreover, thi s is stated withi n th e context of an appeal mad e t o Israel in th e past whic h has been rejected b y them (v. 12). This presuppose s that Israe l ha d th e opportunit y to hea r (cf . 1.19). A t th e sam e time , since tha t appeal i s no w past , i t i s clea r tha t throug h thei r unrespon siveness Israe l hav e demonstrate d it s futilit y an d have deprive d them selves o f th e opportunit y to hea r i t (cf . 30.15). Thi s seem s t o reflec t much th e sam e kin d of 'hardening ' i n Israel's unresponsive condition found betwee n th e invitatio n to respon d i n 1.2-2 0 an d th e confirma -

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tion o f Israel' s tota l lac k o f response an d the consequen t inevitability of thei r judgment in 5.8-24 . Th e 'B ' for m o f th e moti f i n 28.11 , 1 3 likewise take s thi s a stage furthe r i n that Yahweh no w remove s fro m Israel th e possibilit y o f th e knowledg e an d understandin g of th e tru e source o f securit y t o whic h hearin g woul d hav e led , b y hencefort h speaking to them through the foreign tongue of the invader. The correspondences centre d o n 'seeing' connec t 28.1-2 9 with 5.8 24 and 22.8b-14, thoug h it i s no w Israel's leader s wh o are expressl y in view . W e hav e alread y see n tha t th e descriptio n o f th e drunke n leaders o f Israel, particularl y of their priests an d prophets wh o 'er r in vision', stand s i n marke d contras t wit h th e descriptio n o f Isaiah' s vision o f Yahwe h i n th e templ e (6.1-7) . Equally , however , the y ar e described i n term s whic h identify the m wit h th e sinfu l conditio n of Israel a s foun d i n 5.11-12 , 22 and 22.13. Hence , th e contras t betwee n a responsiv e prophe t (6.1-7 ) an d a n unresponsive peopl e (5.8-24 ) is now extende d t o embrace Israel' s leader s i n genera l an d thei r priest s and prophet s i n particular . I n 30.9-1 1 Israel' s unwillingnes s to hea r Yahweh's word is elaborated i n terms of their command t o their seer s and prophet s no t t o se e (n m N 1? / / n« n «•?) , bu t t o prophes y fals e things. Accordingly , the drunke n prophets wh o 'er r i n vision ' (n«~D , v. 7) stan d together wit h a drunken people wh o do not 'see ' (ru n K^ ) as thei r preferre d spokesme n o f propheti c 'vision' , an d i n particula r as the exponents o f the agreement wit h Sheol (vv. 15, 18) upon which Israel an d their political leader s hav e chosen t o rely. 2. Isaiah 29.9-16 These verses are also closely relate d t o passages i n which the 'A' form of the motif is expressed . (a) In 29.9-12 th e language of drunkenness in 5.11-12, 22 and 22.13 is agai n picked u p and applie d t o Israel's prophet s an d seers . In com parison wit h 28.7-8, however, i t i s no w develope d i n tw o directions . First, th e condition of 'drunkenness ' result s not simply in the prophet s 'erring i n seeing' , bu t mor e deepl y i n thei r inabilit y t o understan d what the y ca n se e (cf . bo n mm , v . 11) . Secondly , the y ar e i n thi s condition no t becaus e the y hav e drun k win e an d beer , bu t becaus e Yahweh ha s shu t thei r eye s an d veile d thei r minds . Thes e develop ments reflec t th e relatio n betwee n Israel' s failur e t o se e becaus e o f drunkenness i n 5.11-1 2 an d thei r inabilit y t o se e throug h Yahweh' s sealing o f thei r eye s an d mind s i n 6.9-10 . Yahweh' s shuttin g of th e

AITKEN Hearing and Seeing 29 eyes o f th e prophet s an d seer s i s thu s similarl y predicate d o n a drunken conditio n tha t ha d alread y diminishe d thei r abilit y to se e (28.7-8). (b) Th e condemnatio n of Israel' s worshi p in 29.1 3 recall s it s con demnation i n 1.11-15 . W e have alread y note d ma t Israel' s tramplin g of Yahweh's courts when they come 't o see' Yahweh's face in 1.11-1 5 stands in contrast with Isaiah's visio n of Yahweh in the temple i n 6.17. Ther e ar e reminiscence s o f thi s contras t i n th e referenc e t o th e people's 'mouth ' and 'lips' (DTiBt o //ns; cf. 6.7) . (c) The saying against the wisdom of the wise (va3 nrn //VDD H rrasn ) in 29.1 4 recall s th e woe saying against those wh o are wise (o^a n / / n^aj) in their ow n eyes i n 5.21 . (d) The 'woe ' sayin g in 29.15 condemnin g Israel's pursui t of their plans (nfaij n //niijj ) i s closel y echoe d i n 30.1 , wher e Israel' s polic y (nuiJ mfoj; 1?) o f allianc e wit h Egypt is a manifestation of rebellio n an d sinfulness agains t Yahweh. But whereas in 30.9-16 this is developed i n terms o f Israel' s unwillingnes s to hear , lookin g bac k t o 1.2-20 , i n 29.15-16 it is elaborate d i n terms o f Israel's perversity , lookin g bac k to 5.8-24 . Israel' s pursui t of thei r ow n plan s (ntoy o //nsi?) , togethe r with thei r assertio n tha t Yahwe h i s blin d (UN I •*& ) an d ignoran t O B umv) of their actions, goe s togethe r wit h their failure to see Yahweh' s work (nfai?n , njji? , 5.12 , 19 ) an d thei r consequen t lac k o f knowledg e (run, 5.13 ; cf . JT P //mn , 5.19) . Israel' s words , 'wh o see s us ' an d 'who know s us' , ar e the ultimat e commen t o n thei r pervers e turning of thing s upside dow n (cf. Diosn, v. 16, and 5.20): the rightfu l objec t (Yahweh) o f th e verb s 'see ' an d 'know ' ha s bee n turne d int o th e subject, and the rightful subjec t (Israel) has been turne d into the object . The ver y languag e o f response t o Yahwe h ha s bee n s o twiste d a s t o eliminate i t altogether . (e) I n 29.1 6 th e absurdit y of Israel' s pervers e pursui t of thei r ow n plans an d activities is emphasized throug h the sayin g about the potte r and the clay. Israel's conduct is as absurd as a clay pot denying that it is th e wor k of the potte r (~\v I I nfoi?). Th e poin t could b e tha t Yahweh is the creator o f Israel, an d therefore Israe l canno t hid e anythin g from him. O n the other hand, in 22.11 the same participles refe r to Yahweh as th e creato r o f events , event s tha t Israe l hav e i n effec t denie d a s being th e wor k o f Yahwe h b y pursuin g their ow n cours e o f actio n instead o f lookin g (nto ) t o Yahweh . Th e poin t o f th e sayin g ma y therefore b e tha t Israel's pervers e self-relianc e i s a n absurd denia l o f

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and challenge to Yahweh's sovereignty in matters o f nsr an d niaj?« . In 28.1-2 9 an d 29.9-1 6 th e drunke n prophets (literall y an d meta phorically) ar e placed alongsid e an unresponsive and perverse peopl e as equal partner s t o the failur e of knowledge an d understanding manifested throug h reliance on a false sourc e o f security (28.15 ; 29.15). In 28.1-29 Israel' s unresponsivenes s i s describe d i n term s recallin g th e expression o f th e 'A ' for m of the moti f i n 1.2-2 0 an d 30.8-17 , whil e in 29.9-1 6 Israel' s perversit y i s describe d i n term s whic h recal l it s expression i n 5.8-24 an d 22.8b-14. Further , in 28.1-29 the 'B ' for m is applied to Israe l in term s of 'hearing' , wherea s in 29.9-1 6 it is the n applied t o the prophets i n terms o f 'seeing' . In these respect s 28.1-2 9 and 29.9-16 stand together an d complement one another as an application t o th e Assyria n crisis of th e paradigm constituted by th e relation between 6.1-1 3 and 1.2-2 0 an d 5.8-24, firs t t o the people themselve s and then to their false prophets . Taken together , therefore , th e transformatio n of th e motif i n thes e passages i s similarl y predicate d o n Israel' s pervers e refusa l t o hear , together wit h th e erroneou s 'seeing ' o f prophet s an d seers—onc e again fuelle d by concei t (29.14 ) and manifested i n their religiou s lif e (29.13), bu t no w mos t especiall y i n thei r politica l life . Her e to o th e transformation consist s essentially i n th e severin g of Israe l an d thei r false prophet s from the possibility of knowledge and understanding to make judgmen t certain , no w throug h Yahweh' s 'blinding ' o f th e prophets an d his speaking to the people i n an unintelligible language. C. Hear/See —Know/Understand This for m of th e moti f finds more o r les s explici t expression i n thre e passages: (1) Isaia h 17.7-8 : Israe l wil l 'look ' (ru n //rmj ) t o the Holy On e of Israel an d wil l n o longe r 'look ' (m o K 4? / / n»ti «*? ) to th e altar s an d idols their hands have made. (2) Isaia h 29.22-24 : Israe l wil l never again be pu t t o shame . The y will 'see ' (nto ) the redemptive work of Yahweh's hand in their midst. They wil l the n acknowledg e Yahweh' s holiness , th e erring wil l gai n understanding (nra ) and murmurers wil l lear n what is taught. (3) Isaia h 30.18-26 : Yahwe h wil l b e graciou s t o his people . Thei r eyes wil l se e (ntn ) thei r teacher , an d thei r ear s wil l hea r (j?&tt? ) hi s word which directs them along the right path. They wil l rid themselves

AlTKEN Hearing an d Seeing 3

1

of their idols and Yahweh wil l bless thei r land wit h fertility . Th e light of th e su n an d moon wil l b e increased i n the day whe n Yahweh heal s his people . These expressions o f the motif ar e also closel y connected . Th e first two centre o n 'seeing' . In 17.7- 8 Israel 'look ' (n* n //nuti ) to Yahwe h as thei r Make r (infojj ) an d no t t o th e wor k o f it s thei r hand s (niBi? & VT), while in 29.22-24 Israe l 'see ' (n«-i ) the work of Yahweh's hand s (•>-r nfcttJfc) . Further , i n 29.22-2 4 th e redemptiv e contex t (cf . ms , v. 22) o f Israel' s 'seeing ' i s now made explicit , an d it s consequence s for th e attainment of knowledge and understanding are spelled out . The third passag e (30.18-26 ) bring s togethe r 'seeing ' an d 'hearing' , bu t 'seeing' no w has its object Yahweh as mm 'teacher' , so that its emphasis falls on hearing Yahweh's teaching . This picks up and develops th e reference t o th e acceptanc e o f teachin g (npVn&'r ) i n 29.24 . It s redemptive contex t is als o further elaborated , bot h in th e more imme diate an d emotiv e term s o f divin e respons e t o th e people' s lamen t (vv. 18-19 ) an d i n term s o f th e attendan t transformation o f natur e (vv. 23-26) . The attainmen t o f knowledg e an d understandin g expresse d o r implied in these passages i s the result of looking to Yahweh, seeing hi s work an d hearin g hi s words . Hence , a s i n th e 'A ' for m o f th e moti f connected wit h Israel's judgment, the relation between th e terms i n the positive-positive for m is also empirical an d didactic in character. Thi s form, however , belong s rathe r within the context of Israel's salvation . The Second Transformation The didacti c characte r o f the 'C for m o f th e motif i n 17.7-8 , 29.22 24 and 30.18-26 suggests tha t it is a transformation of the 'A ' for m in 1.2-20 + 30.8-17 an d 5.8-24 + 22.8b-1 4 an d tha t it i s bound up wit h the large r transformatio n from judgment to salvation. I . Isaiah 17.7-8 In thei r structur e an d language , thes e verse s ru n closel y paralle l t o 22.8b-14. The y hav e i n common : (a ) a n introductor y 'i n tha t day ' («inn ovD , 17.7 ; 22.8b); (b ) a contrast between 'looking ' t o X and 'no t looking' t o Y (n* n [«^ ] // ni?t i [K 1?], 17.7-8 ; n* n [«b ] //con [n 1?], 22.8b, lib) ; (c ) looking/no t lookin g t o Yahwe h a s a 'maker ' (new , v. 7 [o f Israel]; 22.1 1 [o f events]), se t agains t wha t Israe l themselve s

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have 'made ' (V P rrayra , v. 8; arrfai?, 22.11) ; (d ) th e theme s o f depen dence on military strength (22.8b-14 ) and idolatry (17.7-8) are closel y connected a s complementar y expression s o f Israel's self-relianc e (cf . 2.7-8). Thes e correspondences hel p to underline the critical differenc e between th e tw o passages , namel y th e inversio n betwee n militar y strength/idols an d Yahwe h a s th e objec t o f 'looking' , an d betwee n Yahweh an d militar y strength/idol s a s th e objec t o f 'no t looking' . Hence, th e 'C' form of the motif in 17.7-8 is expressly formulate d a s a reversal o f the 'A ' for m in 22.8b-14 . 2. Isaiah 29.22-24 These verses ar e closely linke d with 5.8-24. Most notably, 'whe n they see th e wor k o f m y hands ' O T nfoiJ B imna , v . 23) 1 stand s i n direct contrast wit h Israel's failur e to se e (n«" i K 1?) th e wor k o f Yahweh' s hand (V~ P ntzjiJD ) i n 5.1 2 (cf . 5.19) . A correspondin g contras t i s als o drawn wit h regard t o th e holines s o f Yahweh . Thus , i n concer t wit h the recurrenc e o f th e epithe t th e Hol y One o f Israel/Jaco b (5.19 , 24 ; 29.23), i n 5.1 6 Yahwe h demonstrates hi s holines s (tthp j onp n *7«n ) through his judgment o f a people wh o have faile d t o se e the work of his hand ; havin g see n th e wor k o f hi s han d i n thei r redemption , i n 29.23 the people wil l acknowledge Yahweh's holiness CKtfnpm... as a gloss; cf. BHS. 2. Cf . Deut. 1.26-2 7 (with mn / / nan &); Ps. 106.2 5 (// votf *•?) .

AlTKEN Hearing an d Seeing 3

3

their faces/before them ' th e Hol y One o f Israel . Thi s i s mor e o r les s directly picke d up and reverse d throug h the formulatio n of the moti f in 30.20-21 : Israel's eyes wil l see their 'teacher ' (mia ) and they wil l hear a wor d (behin d them! ) guidin g them alon g th e righ t way (~p"i) . Moreover, it s introductio n a s a respons e t o a lamen t (vv . 18-19 ) i s reminiscent o f 1.15 . Ther e Yahwe h declare s tha t he will shut his eye s and no t liste n (iJ&tt i ^rw ) t o Israel ; bu t no w Yahwe h wil l hea r (J?E&? ) and answe r them . Possibl y th e expressio n 'n o longe r hid e himsel f (TUJ "p-'-N 1?, v . 20) ha s 1.1 5 partl y in vie w (cf . als o 8.17) . Th e occa sion fo r Israel' s responsivenes s t o Yahweh' s teaching , an d fo r th e renunciation o f idolatr y an d th e transformatio n o f nature , i s als o described i n term s whic h recall th e judgment brought about b y thei r failure t o hea r i n 1.2-2 0 an d 30.8-17 ; i t i s th e da y whe n Yahwe h 'binds up ' (cnn ; cf. ittb n N 1?, 1.6 ) th e 'shattering ' (-120 ; cf . 30.14 ) o f his people , an d heal s (HS~I ; cf . 6.10 ) th e bruising caused b y hi s blo w (ma; cf . 1.6) . In 17.7-8 , Kin n av s serve s t o define th e contex t o f the reversa l a s th e judgment describe d i n vv . 4-5. Her e th e emphasi s o n th e decimation of th e peopl e an d th e solitarines s o f thos e wh o remai n (3...iKtttt ) echoes 1. 8 (3...mrm), an d 30.1 7 Cj...ammj) . I n 30.18-2 6 th e sam e connection i s equall y reflected i n it s positio n immediatel y followin g v. 17 . Hence, th e contexts o f 17.7- 8 and 30.18-26, as well a s the con clusion o f th e latte r (v . 26), serv e t o connec t th e transformatio n o f the moti f wit h th e judgment brought about by Israel' s failur e to hea r in 1.2-2 0 and 30.8-17 . Although 29.22-24 follows another promise o f salvation, v . 22 likewis e set s th e reversa l agains t Israel' s judgment through a reference to their earlier sham e (spy oh:r) . Thi s may wel l be an echo of the consequences of Israel's unresponsivenes s to Yahweh by seekin g allianc e wit h Egypt in 30.3- 5 (nan , vv. 3, 5; ra^n, 1 v . 5). The expression s o f the 'C ' for m o f the motif in these passage s there fore stan d togethe r almos t a s a poin t b y poin t reversa l o f Israel' s unresponsiveness as set out by the variou s expression s of the 'A ' motif, wit h 17.7- 8 reversin g 22.8b-14 , 29.22-2 4 reversin g 5.8-24 , and 30.18-2 6 reversin g 1.2-2 0 an d especiall y 30.8-17 . Th e trans formation i s primaril y predicated o n th e realizatio n o f th e judgmen t 1. Readin g th e qere.

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visited upon Israel in all its severity a s the consequence o f their failure to see and to hear, togethe r wit h the change in Israel's attitude that this brings about and to which Yahweh responds (30.18-19) .

D. Not Hear/See —Know/Understand Although thi s for m o f th e moti f i s no t clearl y articulated , i t ma y b e seen t o be presupposed b y a number of passages. The passages whic h fall int o this categor y ar e as follows: (1) Isaia h 29.17-21 . A n increas e i n fertilit y (v . 17), together wit h the judgmen t o f th e wicke d (vv . 20-21), wil l creat e condition s i n which th e dea f wil l hear (i>&2? ) an d th e blin d wil l se e (n«i) , an d th e humble an d poor wil l rejoice i n the Holy One of Israel (vv . 18-19). (2) Isaia h 32.1-8 . Unde r th e just rul e o f a futur e kin g an d roya l princes (vv. 1-2), the eyes o f those wh o see (D'«-I ) will not be coated, 1 and th e ear s o f thos e wh o hear (o^ati ) wil l hearke n (v . 3), th e ras h will discer n knowledg e an d th e stammere r wil l spea k clearly , whil e fools wil l no longe r b e calle d honourabl e (vv. 4-8). (3) Isaia h 33.17-24 . Israe l wil l see (n«- i / / nm) th e divin e king an d the lan d i n al l it s exten t an d wil l no t se e (n« n «b ) a peopl e whos e obscure speec h the y canno t understan d (nrs •pn , vv . 17-19) . Thei r eyes wil l also se e (n«n) Jerusalem, whos e foundations will be foreve r secure (vv . 20-21), fo r Yahwe h i s thei r kin g an d wil l sav e the m (v. 22). At that time , non e will be sic k an d the iniquit y o f th e people will b e forgive n (v . 24). (4) Isaia h 35.5-6 . Th e transformatio n o f th e deser t int o a fruitfu l garden lan d (vv. 1-2, 6b-7) and th e comin g o f Yahwe h i n vengeanc e to delive r hi s peopl e (vv . 3-4) will lea d t o th e eye s o f th e blin d an d the ear s o f th e dea f bein g opened , th e lam e jumpin g an d th e dum b singing fo r jo y (vv . 5-6a) , an d t o th e retur n o f th e peopl e t o Zio n (vv. 8-10) . A negative-positiv e polarit y i s mos t clearl y expresse d throug h th e contrast 'no t see-see' i n 33.17-24 . The statemen t tha t Israel wil l 'no t see' th e invade r speakin g i n a n unintelligibl e language (nst o ""pa r o r nro •p N ]^ in? 1?] uiatia , v . 19 ) seems clearl y intende d t o revers e th e statement i n 28.1 1 that Yahwe h wil l spea k t o Israe l a messag e o f 1. Cf.BHS.

AITKEN Hearing an d Seeing 3

5

judgment throug h the unintelligible speech (mn N p^r n nst o ^D) of the invader , whic h presupposed th e contras t 'hear-no t understand' . Further, her e Israel' s 'seeing ' i s les s a matte r o f responsivenes s t o Yahweh than of their understanding and appropriation o f the salvatio n and securit y brough t about by Yahweh —an understanding fostered b y reflection (rwr r -p 1?, v. 18 ) on what they can n o longer see . In relatio n to 28.1-29 , therefore , 'no t see-see ' i n thes e verse s appear s t o b e equivalent t o 'not see-understand'. In 6.9-10 , th e failur e o f hearin g an d seein g t o lea d t o knowledg e and understandin g (v. 9) was interpreted a s the failur e of ears t o hea r and o f eye s t o se e throug h a conditio n equatin g wit h deafnes s an d blindness (v . 10). It is, of course, no t surprising tha t the deaf an d blind are unabl e t o hea r an d se e (v . 10), but i t i s anomalou s tha t hearin g and seein g shoul d no t resul t i n knowledg e an d understandin g (v. 9). Hence, thoug h the statement in 29.18 that the deaf wil l hear an d blind eyes se e recalls the imagery o f 6.10 (cf. also 29.10) , its collocatio n o f contradictory term s directl y evokes th e anomaly of 6.9. In relation t o 6.9-10, therefore , th e underlyin g form i n thi s passag e i s likewis e equivalent to 'not hear/see-know/understand'. The description of the rash an d stammerers i n 32.4 and of the lame and dum b i n 35. 6 have th e sam e anomalou s characte r a s th e blin d seeing an d th e dea f hearin g in 29.18 . Indeed , thi s formulation would have fitte d wel l into both thes e passages . However , i n 32. 3 and 35.5 the anomal y betwee n th e performance (hear/see ) of what one is inca pable o f performin g (deaf/blind ) ha s bee n resolve d i n term s o f th e removal o f th e disabilit y tha t th e dea f hearin g an d th e blin d seein g implies — 35.5 stressin g it s remova l an d 32. 3 stressing tha t i t wil l never agai n afflic t th e people . I n 32. 3 the disabilit y i s referre d t o i n terms tha t recal l th e 'B ' for m o f th e moti f i n 6.1-1 3 an d 29.9-1 6 (nno TV nrrffl n «b , v. 3; cf . j?ti n TB , 6.10; ii?tt h wtirnffln , 29.9) . The clos e relatio n betwee n th e three passage s dealin g wit h Israel's 'blindness' is further strengthene d b y a number o f othe r links . Thus , 29.17-21 an d 32.1- 8 shar e a concer n fo r th e pligh t of th e poo r a t th e hands of their oppressors, especiall y throug h the perversion o f justice. This is reinforced b y the repetition o f D^VD N / / D^U an d o f ]i«, an d by the ech o betwee n -012 and ~ip5£r
36 Among

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32.4), th e roo t nu n i n connectio n wit h 'fool(s) ' (cr'riK , v . 8; 32. 6 Oaj]), an d through the echo betwee n rmm o^m // D^D i3if2 3 (v . 6) and frca o" 0 tf? s (32.2) . All fou r passage s presuppos e th e removal of a debilitating circumstance o r condition—th e presenc e o f th e invade r i n th e land , o r th e people's deafness and blindness. The foreign invader is clearly removed as th e resul t o f Yahweh' s savin g activit y (cf . 33.22) . Tha t Israel' s condition of blindness and deafness is also removed throug h Yahweh's saving action is implied b y the use of »»< D i n 32.3 (cf . 6.9-10; 29.9-10) and by the close association betwee n th e motif an d the transformatio n of th e natura l orde r i n 35.1- 7 an d 29.17-18 . Hence , th e relatio n between 'hear/see ' and 'know/understand ' underlying these passages is theological rathe r tha n didacti c i n character . I n thi s respec t i t con forms t o 'B ' for m o f th e motif . Lik e th e 'C ' motif , however , i t belongs withi n the context o f Israel's salvation . The Third Transformation Once again, the theological characte r of the relation between the term s in th e 'D ' for m of the motif in 29.17-21, 32.1-8 , 33.17-24 an d 35.5-6 suggests that it is a transformation of the 'B' form in 6.1-13, 28.1-29 and 29.9-16 , an d tha t onc e agai n i t form s par t o f th e large r trans formation fro m judgmen t t o salvation . Th e parallel s tha t hav e jus t been observe d betwee n these forms of the motif serve t o confirm this , in particula r th e reversal o f the motif i n 6.9-10 (cf . 29.9-11 ) through the removal o f Israel's deafness and blindness, and in 28.9-13 through the removal o f the foreig n invade r from th e land. Alongside an d reinforcin g these reversals , ther e ar e a numbe r of verbal and thematic element s in these passages that reflect th e predi cation of the 'B' for m of the motif on the 'A' form, both as a paradigm (6.1-13) and as a n application o f thi s paradigm t o th e Assyrian crisi s (28.1-29; 29.9-16) . A. Reversal of the Paradigm (1) The statemen t i n 33.1 7 tha t Israel's eye s wil l se e (n« n //mn ) th e king echoe s Isaiah' s visio n (ntn) of the divin e king in 6.1-7. Just as Isaiah's vision le d to the forgiveness (IEO ) of his iniquity (pi?) , so too Israel's iniquity (pi?) will now b e forgiven (KJBJ , v . 24). Thi s referenc e to Israel's iniquity, however, also directly recalls th e statements o f the

AITKEN Hearing and Seeing 3

7

people's sinfulnes s (}w) i n 1. 4 an d 5.18 . Similarly, th e paralle l expression TP^n..."IEN^ D i n v . 24 recalls th e afflictio n C^n ) of Israe l in 1.5- 6 as a consequence o f thei r iniquity , togethe r wit h the healin g («D~I) denie d t o Israe l i n 6.10 . Verses 1 7 an d 2 4 therefor e for m something o f a thematic inclusio, together evoking th e earlier contrast between a sinful an d unresponsive people (1.2-20 ; 5.8-24 ) an d a sinfu l but responsiv e prophe t (6.1-7) , but as one which wil l no longer exist . Thereby Isaiah' s visio n also becomes th e model of what Israel wil l no longer lac k an d what will therefore n o longer be denied t o them. (2) This paradigmatic aspect o f Isaiah's visio n in relation to Israel's salvation i s furthe r reflecte d i n th e descriptio n o f th e wa y t o Zio n (35.8) a s a 'wa y of holiness' (tonp ) along which none who are unclean (KSE) will pass.1 As we have seen, Isaiah' s confessio n o f his own an d Israel's uncleannes s (KM ) i n 6. 5 i n respons e t o th e declaratio n o f Yahweh's holiness (ffinp , 6.3 ) serves t o reinforce th e contrast betwee n the prophet wh o see s an d hears an d i s cleansed fro m hi s sin , and th e people wh o refus e t o se e an d hea r th e wor d an d wor k o f th e Hol y (wnp) On e of Israe l (1.4 ; 5.19, 24), and wh o remai n unclea n (cf. 1.16). Thi s contras t too will exist no longer . (3) A reversa l o f Israel' s sinfu l conditio n a s manifeste d i n thei r religious lif e i s implie d throug h th e descriptio n o f Zio n i n 33.2 0 a s the cit y of 'ou r appointe d feasts' (ininQ) . This recall s th e condemnation o f Israel's worship in 1.11-1 5 (cf. oaniJio, v. 14). 2 (4) Similarly, a reversal i n the sinfu l characte r o f Israel's socia l lif e is implie d throug h th e annihilatio n of thos e wh o perver t justic e i n 29.21 (cf . 33.7). Thi s echoe s th e condemnatio n o f th e perversio n o f justice i n 5.23 (cf. 1.17) through the repetition o f pnx an d the ech o between m« nocDnf a (29.21 ) an d iron 'p'-re a (5.23) . B. Reversal o f it s Application t o the Assyrian Crisis (1) The expectation o f a king and princes who would rale justly (32.18) stands i n contras t to th e condemnatio n of Israel's rulers i n 28.1-4 , 14-22. Thi s contras t i s alread y anticipate d b y 28.5 , which momen tarily look s forwar d to the tim e whe n Yahweh woul d be a 'spiri t of justice' t o those responsibl e for discharging it . As against the present 1. Withi n chs . 1-39 th e root Kno is otherwise found only in 30.22, where it is used of Israel defiling their idols. 2. Withi n chs . 1-3 9 th e word i s found onl y i n 14.13 , referring t o the divine assembly.

38

Among the Prophets

rulers wh o falsely claimed t o have a protective shelte r (ino ) from the destructive stor m water s (D't a //ma , 28.17 ; cf . T O DIT , v . 2), th e future kin g an d prince s wil l b e a shelte r fro m th e stor m (D~I T ~ino) , and wil l be lik e life-givin g waters (ova , v . 2). Henc e th e reversa l o f the motif i n 32. 3 goe s togethe r wit h a reversal in th e corrupt charac ter o f Israel' s leaders , an d a reversal i n th e prospects fo r th e securit y of th e people . (2) Th e reversa l i n th e prospect s fo r Zion' s securit y i s als o se t alongside th e reversa l o f th e moti f i n 33.17-2 4 i n term s whic h recal l the fat e o f Zio n unde r Israel' s ruler s i n 28.17b-18 . Thus , i n 33.2 1 Zion's securit y is described throug h the metaphorica l expressio n tha t no galle y shi p (^ / / C^UT^N ) woul d pas s ove r (nai ? / / -j^n) it s broa d rivers, whic h contrasts wit h the 'overwhelmin g whip ' (epir c aira ) that would pas s ove r ("Oi O th e natio n in judgment, and tha t would swee p away thei r false refuge (28.15, 17b-18) . (3) Th e characterizatio n o f th e wicke d foo l i n 32.6- 8 reflect s th e dual concern o f vv. 1- 2 with the establishment of socia l justice an d of national securit y unde r th e ne w rulers . Th e firs t o f thes e theme s i s dealt wit h i n vv . 7-8 (cf . above ) an d th e secon d i n v . 6. Her e th e expressions 'd o what is ungodly' (*p n mfoi? 1?) an d 'spea k error (nmn ) concerning Yahweh ' ech o th e implementation of th e pla n (nxv mfcr 1?) of allianc e wit h Egypt without reference to Go d (30.1) , togethe r wit h the drunke n priests an d prophet s (-lOtarr p ii?n ) who 'er r in vision ' (1)0 nico, 28.7) , an d who were spokesmen fo r the alliance. That th e fool s will be recognized fo r what they are implies that they will be punished accordingly. Similarly , althoug h primaril y concerne d wit h th e per version o f justice, the parallel referenc e i n 29.20 to the annihilation of scoffers ( ^ n 1^) recalls th e description of Israel's rulers a s yiJr t ^N in 28.1 4 an d th e correspondin g threa t nb:r <>:)...i^iit?nrr'7« i n 28.22 . Taken together , thes e passage s impl y in their differen t way s that thos e who promot e suc h politica l course s o f actio n a s thos e pursue d b y Israel's ruler s an d encourage d b y thei r priest s an d prophet s wil l b e rooted out . Thu s no t onl y is th e wa y i n 35. 8 a 'hol y way ' whic h th e unclean wil l not pas s over , bu t i t i s als o on e i n whic h fools wil l no t err (liJrr) . (4) Finally, as against the abandonmen t of the people t o the revelr y (nnraiai poto ) o f thei r drunke n feasts instea d o f th e lamen t t o whic h Yahweh ha d bee n summonin g the m throug h th e Assyria n threa t (22.12-13), those wh o pass ove r t o Zion wil l do so with 'gladnes s and

AITKEN Hearing an d Seeing 3

9

joy' (nnnio i pfafo , 35.9), 1 fear and sighin g having passed away. With th e exceptio n o f 29.17-21 , thes e reversal s ar e se t withi n th e context of Yahweh' s vindication of Zion throug h his judgment o n th e foreign nation(s) . Thus , 32.1- 8 follow s a n oracl e o f doo m upo n th e Assyrians (31.8-9) ; 33.17-2 4 centre s o n th e absenc e o f th e invade r from th e land, and falls within the general contex t o f Yahweh's salva tion o f Zio n throug h th e destructio n o f th e destroyer , whil e ch . 3 5 follows a n oracle o f doom agains t the nations in general an d Edom in particular (ch . 34) , describe d a s the day of Yahweh's vengeanc e (opi , v. 8 ) fo r th e caus e o f Zion . Thi s connectio n i s reinforce d b y th e reference t o Yahwe h comin g wit h vengeanc e (op3 ) i n 35.4 , whic h forms th e immediate contex t for the removal o f the people's blindness and deafnes s i n v . 5. I n 29.17-2 1 th e transformatio n of Lebano n pro vides th e occasion fo r th e removal o f Israel's disabilities. I n th e light of th e witherin g o f Lebano n i n 33.9 , however , thi s to o ma y pre suppose Yahweh's vindication of Zion. These expression s o f th e 'D ' for m o f th e moti f therefor e stan d together no t only as a reversal o f the 'B ' form , but also a s a reversa l of th e sinfu l conditio n o f Israe l an d it s politica l an d religious leader ship through which Israel's failure t o hear and see was manifested and encouraged. The *D ' an d th e 'C ' form s of th e motif therefore vie w Israel' s res ponsiveness t o Yahwe h fro m tw o different , bu t largel y complemen tary, perspectives . A s a transformatio n o f th e 'A ' for m wit h it s didactic character , th e passages whic h express th e 'C' for m appropri ately centr e o n th e chang e i n Israel' s attitud e which results fro m th e extremity o f th e judgmen t an d whic h lead s th e peopl e t o tur n t o Yahweh an d t o accept instruction . In these passages the emphasis fall s on the fact o f Israel's responsiveness, wit h th e motif formin g the main subject matte r o f th e passage. 2 B y contrast, as a transformation of th e 'B' for m wit h it s theologica l characte r an d it s sealin g o f Israel' s judgment, th e passage s whic h expres s th e 5 D' for m appropriatel y centre o n th e chang e i n th e condition s which ha d i n par t manifested and i n part encourage d Israel' s failur e to hear an d see , togethe r wit h 1. Thes e ar e the only two occurrences of the phrase in chs. 1-39 . 2. Eve n in 30.18-26, where its redemptive context is most elaborated, the motif itself is detailed at some length.

40 Among

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the consequences of these changes for the futur e prospect s o f Zion. In these passages th e motif invariably appears as one among a variety of thematic element s tha t describ e th e transformatio n of Zio n an d it s inhabitants, with the emphasis no w falling on the miracle of the transformation o f which Israel's responsiveness is part. Conclusion This examination o f the motif took as its starting-point th e assumptio n that th e various forms of the motif in Isaia h 1-3 9 togethe r forme d an integrated structur e centred on the se t of four possibl e relation s when positive and negative values are given to the terms hearing/seeing an d knowing/understanding. The rhetorical an d thematic interconnections that hav e been observe d betwee n passage s whic h express th e sam e form o f th e motif , an d betwee n passage s whic h expres s differen t forms o f th e motif , serv e t o realiz e thi s structur e an d t o specif y th e relations an d th e transformation s between th e differen t form s of th e motif. Thus: 1. Th

e forms fall int o two contrasting pairs, one concerned wit h Israel's lack of knowledge within the context of judgment (A, B), an d th e othe r concerne d wit h Israel' s attainmen t o f knowledge within the context of salvation (C, D). 2. Withi n th e firs t pair , a didacti c for m o f th e moti f (A ) presents Israel' s lac k o f knowledg e a s th e consequenc e o f their pervers e failur e t o hea r (1.2-20 ; 30.8-17 ) an d t o se e (5.8-24; 22.8b-14) , a failure manifested in the people's moral , social an d religious lif e (1.2-20 ; 5.8-24 ) a s wel l a s i n thei r political lif e durin g the period o f the Assyrian crisis (22.8b 14; 30.8-17). 3. Predicate d on this failure an d its manifestations, this didactic form i s transformed int o a theological form (B) whereby, i n accordance wit h the divine purpose of securing Israel's judgment, hearing and seeing wil l now no longer result in knowledge. Thi s transformatio n is likewis e expressed a t a mor e programmatic leve l (6.1-13 ) an d i n relation t o th e Assyrian crisis (28.1-29 ; 29.9-16). 4. Withi n the second pair , Israel's lack of responsiveness (A ) is transformed throug h a corresponding didactic for m (C ) with respect bot h t o thei r failur e to hea r (30.18-26 ) an d t o thei r

AlTKEN Hearing and Seeing 4

1

failure t o se e (17.7-8 ; 29.22-24) , thereb y resultin g i n th e attainment of understanding. 5. Israel' s inabilit y t o attai n knowledg e an d understanding through hearin g an d seein g (B ) i s likewis e transforme d b y means o f a corresponding theologica l for m (D ) whereby , in accordance no w wit h th e divin e purpos e fo r Israel' s salva tion, th e disabilitie s whic h had prevente d knowledg e an d sealed Israel's judgment are removed, and the sinful conditio n of Israel and its political an d religious leadershi p upo n which these disabilitie s were predicated is reversed (29.17-21 ; 32.18; 33.17-24; 35.5-6).

ON um esdsiN ISAIA H 8.6* Marvin A. Sweeney

ABSTRACT Based o n a discussio n o f its grammatica l problems , its textua l witnesse s an d it s relationship t o Isa. 66.10-14, this pape r argues tha t unfsos i n Isa. 8.6 must no t be emended. Whe n rea d i n th e contex t o f th e sexua l imager y of Isa. 8.5-8, um esos expresses Judah's willingnes s t o submi t to the Syro-Ephraimiti c coalition . I t also establishes a link between Proto - and Trito-Isaiah. I

The appearanc e o f th e Hebre w ter m um esos i n Isa . 8.6 ha s lon g constituted a difficul t exegetica l crux . In its present form, the ter m is a combinatio n of a conjunctiv e waw wit h th e construc t form o f th e mem-preformative nou n masos, which means 'exultation' or 'rejoicing' . Unfortunately, a nou n makes little sense in th e present context in tha t the following clause , 'et-i^sin uben-^malydhu, 'Rezi n and th e so n of Remaliah', begins with th e direct object particl e 'et-, whic h normally requires a n anteceden t verb . Th e fac t tha t masos appears i n it s construct for m onl y complicates the issue, since a genitive noun does no t appear afte r um esos. Consequently , a verba l for m paralle l t o ma'as ha'am hazzeh, 'thi s people ha s rejected', woul d bes t fi t thi s passage . Because o f th e problem s pose d b y th e vers e i n it s presen t form , umesos i s frequentl y understoo d a s a verba l nou n an d 'et- a s th e preposition 'with ' s o that the verse literally means 'and rejoicin g wit h Rezin an d th e so n o f Remaliah ' (cf . Irvine 1990 : 185). But thi s * Thi s is a slightly revised versio n o f a paper rea d at the Southeastern Regiona l Meeting o f the Society of Biblical Literature , Atlanta , March 15-17,1991. 1 would like to thank the Yad Hanadiv/Barecha Foundation which provided th e funds for my 1989-90 sabbatical a t the Hebrew Universit y of Jerusalem wher e th e research fo r this paper was completed.

SWEENEY O n um eso^ in Isaiah 8.6 4

3

rendering is awkward and continues to provoke attempts to explain or emend the unusual form of the verse. On th e othe r hand , prio r attempt s t o resolv e th e proble m b y explaining th e grammatica l form of um esos a s a verba l nou n o r b y emending th e passage have hardly proved satisfactory. Afte r surveyin g these attempts and the readings of the ancien t versions, this paper wil l propose a new solutio n t o the problem base d o n th e results o f recen t research concernin g th e emergenc e o f th e fina l for m o f th e boo k o f Isaiah i n th e lat e fift h century . It wil l argue tha t Isa . 8. 6 originally contained th e reading unfsos 'et-, on the basis of the interpretation o f the passag e presuppose d i n Isa . 66.10-14 , whic h employs simila r vocabulary an d theme s t o describe th e rejoicing of Jerusalem and th e inflowing glory of the nations following the defeat of YHWH's enemies . II

An attemp t to interpret unfsos a s a verbal noun appears as early as the late thirteenth/earl y fourteent h centur y i n th e commentar y o f R. David Kimhi . Commenting on the phrase um esos 'et-r^sin, he say s that 'the y (i.e . man y i n Juda h an d Jerusalem ) wil l b e exultin g an d rejoicing wit h the m (i.e . Rezi n an d be n Remaliah ) i f the y wil l b e ruling i n Jerusalem ' (Finkelstei n 1926 : 55) . H e furthe r state s tha t nfsos i s in th e construct state wit h 'et-, but h e does no t explai n ho w 'et- i s t o b e understood . Kimh i was followe d by W . Gesenius, wh o argues tha t m esos i s a verba l nou n use d poeticall y a s a finit e ver b (1821: 332) . Geseniu s claim s tha t th e ver b su s stand s her e wit h th e accusative as in Isa. 35.1. He further say s that m'sos i s in the construct state becaus e o f the following prepositio n and cites tfsimha t baqqasir in Isa. 9. 2 as a supporting example (1821: 333). Bu t this interpretation must be rejected. Althoug h the verb sus is commonly followe d b y th e preposition 'al (Deut . 28.63 ; 30.9 ; Isa . 62.5 ; Jer . 32.41 ; Zeph . 3.17 ; Ps. 119.162 ) o r be (Isa . 61.10 ; 65.19 ; Pss . 19.6 ; 35.9 ; 40.17 ; 68.4 ; 70.5; 119.14 ; Jo b 39.21) , i t neve r appear s wit h th e direc t objec t preposition 'et. The onl y other exampl e o f a construct for m followe d by a direct objec t pronou n appear s i n Jer. 33.22 , m esarete 'oti, 'those who minister t o me', but this reading is problematic an d frequently is emended (cf . BBS note; Rudolph 1968: 218 ; Holladay 1989: 227) . Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar attempts a different approac h by identifying this phrase as an example of the use of the construct state before

44 Among

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the preposition 'et, 'with ' (1983 : §130a), but such a construction doe s not appear elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. Barthelemy et al. (1986: 50) attempt to revive this understanding by pointing to the use of the sam e root wit h the preposition 'et, 'with' , in Isa. 66.10. Unfortunately, the phrase reads , sisu 'ittah masos, 'exul t wit h her (in ) exultation' . Thi s indicates the use o f th e preposition following the verba l form , bu t i t also indicate s tha t a nomina l constructio n woul d b e unusual . Furthermore, th e us e o f th e direc t objec t prepositio n 'et i n paralle l statements in Isa. 8.6 a an d twice in Isa. 8.7 a suggest s tha t 'et shoul d not be understood as 'with' in Isa. 8.6b, but as the direct objec t marker . The most commonly accepted solutio n to this problem is t o emend the tex t fro m um esos t o umasds (cf . Procksc h 1930 : 131 , 133 ; Wildberger 1972 : 321 ; Clement s 1980 : 96 ; Kaise r 1983 : 183) . Thi s proposal wa s originally made by Hitzig (1833: 98-99), who notes th e difficulties pertainin g to the phrase um esds 'et and argues that a scriba l misreading o f si n fo r samek resulte d i n th e chang e o f um esos t o umesos, 'and dissolving'. This emendation presupposes th e appearanc e of the term kimsos in Isa. 10.1 8 and combines a conjunctive waw with the infinitive absolut e form of the verb mss, 'to dissolve, melt'. Hitzig argues that the accusative 'et appears i n place of the expected mipp ene, 'because of, and cites the use of 'rs in Job 31.34 as an example o f this implicit us e o f an accusative construction. In th e present context , th e phrase i s interprete d a s a referenc e t o th e people' s 'dissolving ' o r 'melting' i n fear o f Rezin and the so n of Remaliah as in the RS V translation, 'Becaus e thi s peopl e hav e refuse d th e water s o f Shiloa h tha t flow gently and melt in fear before Rezin and the son of Remaliah'. Bredenkamp (1887:49) likewise emends unfsos t o umesds, but maintains tha t the infinitiv e absolut e form function s i n a n adverbia l sens e (e.g. 'an d gently' ) tha t modifie s 'th e water s tha t flo w slowl y (and gently)'. He argues that 'et means 'coram,praesente\ indicatin g that 'thispeople rejected th e waters...in th e face of (i.e . becaus e of ) Rezin and ben Remaliah'. Giesebrecht (1888: 225-29) follow s Bredenkamp's infinitive absolut e rendering but retains the consonantal text as umasds (i.e. 'th e water s tha t flo w slowl y and exultantly') . H e consequently deletes th e las t fou r word s of v. 6b as a gloss. Finally, Duh m (1892; cf. 1914 : 57 ) combine s th e solution s of Hitzi g and Bredenkam p b y emending um esos to the perfect verbal form masas and arguing that 'et entered th e tex t i n place o f the original min a s a result o f the scriba l

SWEENEY O n um cs'6s in Isaiah 8.6 4

5

error tha t produced unfsos (cf . Marti 1900 : 84). l But the emendation of unfsos t o various forms of ms s als o present s problems (Fullerto n 1924 : 265-67) . Chief amon g the m i s tha t i t does not properl y account for the following 'et. The ver b masos in the sense of 'despair ' commonl y requires the cause o f despair t o be introduced by millipne (Ps . 97.5), mipp ene (Josh . 5.1; Mic. 1.4 ; Ps. 68.3) o r mm (Isa. 34.3). Attempts to emend 'et- to mipp ene or millipne (Mart i 1900 : 84), min (Duh m 1914: 57 ) or miss'et (Budd e 1926 : 65-67 ; Wildberger 1972: 321 ) lac k a firm textual basi s an d mus t be rejected . Likewise , Hitzig's an d Bredenkamp' s attempt s t o rende r 'et- i n thi s sens e ar e somewhat forced . Furthermore , th e suggestio n tha t umasos ca n be understood in an adverbial sense parallel to le'at and that the clause 'etr*sin uben-^malyahu i s a glos s (Giesebrech t 1888 : 227-29 ; cf . BHS note; Procksc h 1930 : 131 , 133 ; Clement s 1980 : 96 ) i s als o unsatis factory fo r a numbe r o f reasons . Thes e includ e th e grammatica l difficulties o f reading th e infinitiv e umasos i n a n adverbia l sens e an d the unlikel y hypothesi s tha t th e glossato r woul d hav e equate d th e waters of Shiloah with Rezin and the son of Remaliah (Fullerton 1924 : 267-68). Likewise , Fullerton' s suggestion to rejec t al l o f v . 6b a s a gloss doe s no t satisfactoril y accoun t fo r th e suppose d glossator' s choice o f th e peculia r for m um es'os o r eve n th e emende d umasos (Fullerton 1924 : 269-70) . Finally, Schroeder's attempt to claim that um esos is a gloss o n fsm merely avoid s th e issu e (Schroede r 1912 : 301-302 ) an d result s i n a statement that condemns the people fo r rejecting Rezin and the so n of Remaliah, which makes little sense in vie w o f Isaiah' s condemnation of thes e ruler s (Isa. 7.1-9 ; cf . 17.1-6) . Likewise , Klein's explanation that the grammatica l difficultie s o f this verse represent Isaiah' s poeti c license sidestep s th e problem , despit e hi s attractiv e interpretatio n o f the vers e i n relatio n t o v . 7 an d hi s cogen t observation s abou t th e parallel o f m a 'as e t and unfsos 'et (Klei n 1980) .

1. Cf . Lindblom (1958: 44), wh o emends utrfsos t o umasos an d renders 'et a s the prepositio n 'with' , so tha t the passage refer s to 'thi s people ' whic h 'dissolves together wit h Rezi n an d th e so n o f Remaliah' . Althoug h Lindblom' s suggestio n accounts fo r 'et, the emendation of unfsos t o umasos present s problem s i n that textual evidence for the emendation is entirely lacking. For an analysis of the textual versions, see below.

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Among the Prophets III

Any attemp t t o resolv e th e problem s pose d b y Isa . 8. 6 mus t tak e account o f th e ancien t textual versions o f thi s passage. A surve y of these text s indicate s tha t ther e i s n o suppor t fo r a n emendatio n o f umesos to umdsos o r any other expression base d o n the roo t mss. Nor is there evidenc e for th e deletion o f v. 6b as a gloss. It does indicate , however, that each versio n employs a verbal for m in place o f unfsos. The fac t tha t each ver b i s based o n the Hebre w roo t sws/sys an d tha t the verba l form s var y amon g th e translation s suggest s tha t eac h version presuppose s th e reading um esos an d attempt s t o rende r i t i n a verbal sense . The text of IQIsa 3 reads Isa. 8.6 as y'n ky' m's h'm hzh ' t my hswlh hhwlkym I'wt wmsys 't rsyn w't bn (rm)l(y)h (Treve r 1972 : 28-29) , 'Because this people ha s rejected th e waters of the one who sends (i.e . YHWH) which run gently and causes Rezin and the son of Remaliah t o rejoice'. Althoug h the original editors o f this manuscript read wmsws (Burrows, Treve r an d Brownle e 1950 : pi . vii) , a close r examinatio n of th e photograph indicates that the correct reading is wmsys, a hiphi l masculine singula r participle based o n th e ver b roo t s'ws, 't o exult , rejoice', combine d with conjunctiv e waw. 1 The use of the hiphil form of this verb accords well with the following 'et. In the present context, it refer s t o th e people' s rejectio n o f th e water s o f Shiloa h (o r i n accordance wit h lQIsa a, hassoleah, 'the one who sends', i.e YHWH) as the cause for Rezin's and the son of Remaliah's rejoicing. Nevertheless , this reading does no t appear t o reflect th e 'original ' tex t of Isa. 8. 6 but the Qumran scribe' s attemp t to interpret the passage. Th e introduction of th e extr a direc t objec t particl e w' t befor e b n (rm}l(y}h (cf . MT : uben-^malyahu) suggest s th e scribe' s attemp t to suppor t th e verba l rendering o f a n original wmsws as wmsys. That the scribe wa s willing to take liberties wit h this text is evident from th e rendering of 'et m e hassildah, 'th e waters o f Shiloah', a s 't my hswlh, 'th e water s o f th e one who sends'. This is a reference t o YHWH who elsewhere i n Isaia h 1. Thi s is indicated by the sharply angled hook shape of the letter in question, similar to the yotfs o f my, hhwlkym, an d rsyn fro m th e same line in the manuscript. Like these yocTs, the letter is much shorter than the waw that appears at the beginning of the word as well as those of hswlh, hhwlkym, I'wt, and w 't (cf . Barthdlemy etal. 1986:49).

SWEENEY O n um esos in Isaiah 8.6 4

7

is portrayed a s the one who sends ' a word' against Jacob (Isa, 9.7) and sends Assyri a against Israel (Isa . 10.6) . Targum Jonatha n read s h e lap degas 'ama' haden b emalkuta' d*bet dawid dimdab era' l ehon bindh k eme siloha' d enagedm binah yf'itfi'u birsin ubar fmalja (Sperbe r 1962 : 16) , 'Becaus e this people loathed the kingdo m o f th e hous e o f Davi d whic h le d the m gentl y lik e th e waters o f Shiloa h whic h flow gently and preferred Rezi n an d th e so n of Remaliah' . Again, the choice o f the verb w e'itre'i'u, 'and they pre ferred', demonstrate s tha t um esos stands behind this text. The Aramaic verb r' y mean s 't o desire, tak e deligh t in' . I n its present ithpea l per fect form , it means 'an d they delighted in ' o r 'an d the y chose', which demonstrates th e translator's attemp t to render th e disputed expressio n as a verba l for m i n reference t o th e people's preferenc e o f Rezin and the son of Remaliah ove r th e Davidic dynasty. The LX X reads di a t o m e boulesthai to n laon touton t o hudor tou siloam to poreuomenon hesuchei alia boulesthai echein ton Raasson kai ton huion Romeliou basilea eph' humon (Ziegle r 1967 : 150) , 'Becaus e this peopl e di d no t wan t th e wate r o f Siloa m whic h goe s gentl y bu t wanted t o have Rezin and the son of Remaliah as king over you' . Th e use of the expression boulesthai echein... basilea eph' humon, 'wante d to have...as king over you', corresponds t o a verbal understanding of umesos, bu t th e translator' s understandin g o f th e conjugatio n i s ambiguous. I t could be hiphil in that the people's choice o f Rezin and the so n o f Remalia h a s thei r ruler s woul d certainl y caus e Rezi n an d the so n o f Remalia h t o rejoice . Afte r all , thei r attac k agains t Juda h during th e Syro-Ephraimiti c Wa r wa s designe d t o gai n the m contro l of th e Davidi c throne , insofa r a s i t wa s a n attemp t t o remov e th e ruling Davidi c monarc h an d replac e hi m wit h a certai n be n Tabee l (Isa. 7.1-6) . O n th e othe r hand , the Gree k expression ma y reflec t a n understanding o f um esos as 'deligh t in' o r 'choose ' a s represented b y Targum Jonathan . Unfortunately, th e us e o f th e infinitiv e boulesthai gives n o indicatio n o f th e conjugatio n o f th e verb s i n th e Hebre w Vorlage, bu t th e us e o f m e boulesthai/boulesthai, 'di d no t want / wanted', indicate s th e translator' s attemp t t o associat e ma'as and umesds a s paralle l verba l form s tha t wer e relate d b y assonance . Th e appearance o f eph' humon, 'over you' , merely reflect s th e translator' s attempt t o harmoniz e th e third-perso n pronoun s referrin g t o th e people in the Hebrew tex t o f vv. 6- 8 with the second-person pronou n applied t o Emmanuel a t the end o f v. 8.

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The Vulgat e read s pr o e o quod abiecit populus iste aquas Siloae quae vadunt cum silentio et adsumpsit magis Rasin etfilium Romeliae (Weber 1975 : 1104) , 'i n vie w o f th e fac t tha t thi s peopl e lef t th e waters of Shiloah which run silently and stood by Resin and the son of Remaliah instead'. Like LXX , the use of adsumpsit magis, 'stoo d by... instead', indicate s the translator' s attemp t to render a verba l expres sion based o n um esos, but i t give s n o clu e a s t o ho w th e translato r would have conceived the conjugation of this expression. Finally, th e Peshitta read s 7 d'slyw 'm' hn ' my' dsylwh' drdyn bsly' whdyw brsn wbbr rwmly' (Broc k 1987 : 14) , 'Becaus e thi s people rejecte d th e water s o f Shiloa h whic h ru n securel y an d hav e rejoiced i n Rezi n and th e so n o f Remaliah'. The us e o f whdyw indi cates a n attemp t t o rende r th e dispute d expression as a verba l state ment, bu t th e us e o f th e pea l perfec t for m o f th e ver b instea d o f th e aphal participle indicate s that the translator had unfsds'm th e Vorlage. IV

The preceding survey s of prior scholarship on Isa. 8.6 and the ancient textual version s establis h tw o basi c points . First , th e presenc e o f umesos i n thi s vers e present s difficul t grammatica l an d syntactical problems tha t prior attempts to explain the form or t o emen d i t hav e failed t o resolve. Secondly , the ancient textual versions uniformly pre suppose th e term um esos, but render it as a verbal expression base d o n the roo t s'ws/sys fro m whic h um esos i s derived . Obviously , thes e points indicat e the need t o present a new solutio n for th e problem o f the appearance o f um esos i n Isa . 8.6 . Furthermore , the y demonstrat e that any proposed solution must explain th e presence o f um esos i n th e present for m o f the verse . The versions poin t t o a potential solutio n by positing a hiphil form of th e ver b s'ws/sys. Thi s i s especiall y clea r i n lQIsa a, whic h read s umesis, and Targum Jonathan and Peshitta which employ reading s tha t would bes t b e rendere d i n Hebre w b y th e waw-consecutiv e hiphil imperfect wayyasisu (cf . LXX and Vulgate) . Nevertheless , althoug h each o f thes e reading s offer s certai n advantages , neithe r i s entirel y satisfactory. The readin g um esos take s ha'dm hazieh, 'thi s people' , fro m th e beginning of the verse a s its subject and provides a parallel base d on assonance fo r th e initia l ver b m's, 'reject' . I t als o form s a n appro -

SWEENEY O n um esos in Isaiah 8.6 4

9

priate antecedent fo r the following direct objec t particl e an d provide s a syntactica l parallel wit h v . 7, whic h employs th e participia l for m ma'aleh, 'raise s up' , a s th e anteceden t fo r tw o objec t clause s intro duced by 'et. But the participial form of umesis presents a problem i n that i t i s a n unlikel y syntactica l parallel fo r th e perfec t ver b ma'as, which introduce s the verse . Rather , the participia l for m o f umesis i n IQIsa3 appears t o be derived fro m th e following ma' aleh i n v . 7 an d the preceding hahol ekim i n v . 6a. The reading s w e'itr£'i'u i n Targu m Jonatha n an d whdyw i n th e Peshitta both appear t o presuppose th e waw-consecutive hiphil imper fect plura l form wayyasisu, althoug h the verb does no t appear t o be in the Vorlage o f either version . Suc h a form would provide a n appro priate antecedent for the direct object particle in v . 6b, but th e change in numbe r conflict s with the singula r formation of th e ver b ma'as in v. 6a an d it s grammaticall y singular subject ha'dm. Th e proble m could b e solve d by positing th e singula r for m wayyasis fo r Isa . 8.6 , but th e form yasis appears elsewher e in th e Hebrew Bible only in th e qal conjugatio n (Deut . 28.63 ; Isa . 62.5; Zeph. 3.17 ; Ps. 19.6 ; Job 39.21). Th e 3m s imperfec t hiphil form o f s'ws/sys i s identica l t o th e 3ms imperfec t qa l form , bu t th e hiphi l form o f th e ver b i s atteste d only i n Rabbini c and Qumra n Hebrew , and ther e onl y occasionally (cf. Jastrow 1967:1542-43). Consequently, wayyasis woul d be the only hiphil for m o f th e ver b in th e entir e Hebrew Bible . Althoug h such a solution is not impossible, the absence o f other hiphil forms of sws/sys undermines its credibility. This mean s that there i s no secure alternativ e to the reading um esos in Isa . 8.6. But a solutio n to th e proble m ma y appea r i n relatio n t o recent researc h concernin g the emergence of the final form of the boo k of Isaiah , especiall y insofa r a s man y text s i n Trito-Isaia h appea r t o develop theme s and readings that are present in First or Second Isaia h (Odeberg 1931 : 62-74, 94 ; Lac k 1973 ; Childs 1979 ; Brueggemann 1984; Rendtorf f 1984 ; Rendtorff 1989 ; Beuken 1986 ; Beuken 1989; Sweeney 1988 ; Vermeylen 1989 ; Steck 1989 ; cf. Clement s 1982; Clements 1985) . Isa . 66.10-14 is particularly significant in this regar d in tha t it contain s several importan t lexical an d thematic association s with Isa . 8.6-8. Isa . 66.10-11 call s fo r rejoicin g wit h th e restore d Jerusalem, her e portraye d a s a mothe r wit h sucklin g infant s a t he r breast. Verse s 12-1 4 convey YHWH's promise t o extend the 'glor y of the nations ' (If bo d goyim; cf. w e'et-kol-kebodo i n Isa . 8.7) over he r

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'like a river of peace and like an overflowing stream' (Jfnahar salom ulfnahal sotep', cf . Isa. 8.8 on satap). I t woul d appea r tha t th e autho r of Isa . 66.10-14 intended t o present thi s text a s the ultimate fulfilmen t for YHWH' s pledge t o inundate th e people wit h the 'river ' (nahar) o f the king of Assyria 'an d all his glory' (w e'et-kol-ffbodd) i n Isa. 8.6-8 . Not onl y doe s Isa . 66.10-1 4 present a thematic an d lexica l corres pondence t o Isa. 8.6-8 , it also ha s a bearing o n the reading um esos in Isa. 8.6 . Isa . 66.10b a read s sisu 'ittah masos, 'rejoic e wit h he r (in ) exultation'. Thi s readin g i s especiall y significan t fo r understandin g unfsos i n Isa. 8.6 . No t onl y does Isa. 66. 1 Ob contain th e noun masos, but i t als o include s th e phras e sisu 'ittah, 'rejoic e wit h her' . Thi s phrase represent s th e onl y text in the Hebrew Bibl e in whic h the ver b sws/sys take s 'et, 'with' , indicatin g an indirec t object. Th e readin g i s all th e more remarkabl e i n tha t the preceding phras e i n v. lOa , simhu 'et-yerusalayim w egilu bah, 'rejoic e wit h Jerusalem an d celebrate with her', likewise contains the only instance in the Hebrew Bibl e in which the qa l for m o f th e ver b smh i s followe d b y 'et. Inasmuc h a s Isa . 66.10-14 appears t o be derived fro m Isa . 8.6-8 , this indicate s tha t the author o f Isa . 66.10-1 4 rea d um esds i n Isa . 8.6 . I t furthe r indicate s that thi s autho r understood um esos 'et-fsm uben-i^malyahu t o mean , 'and rejoicing with Rezin and ben Remaliah' , in that masos is associ ated wit h th e unusua l form s sisu 'et an d s'imhu 'et i n Isa . 66.10 , thereby clarifyin g the meaning of um esds 'et in Isa. 8.6 . The reading ma y appear awkward , but it must stand. Th e reason fo r its awkwar d natur e becomes clear, however, whe n i t is considere d i n relation t o th e sexua l imager y tha t stand s behin d bot h Isa . 66.10-1 4 and Isa . 8.6-8 . Isa. 66.7- 9 presents th e imagery o f Zion's givin g birth to childre n prio r t o th e command s t o rejoic e wit h Jerusale m i n Isa . 66.10-14. Isa . 8.6-8 , o n th e othe r hand , ends wit h a referenc e t o th e Assyrian king' s 'stretchin g ou t his wings ' (w ehaya muttot kfnapayw, 'and the extending of his wings'), thereb y filling the land of Emmanue l (i.e. Judah ) with the overflowing waters o f the great an d mighty rive r mentioned in vv. 7-8. The spreading of wings or skirts frequently serves as an idiomatic referenc e t o marriage o r sexual relation s (Ezek . 16.8 ; Ruth 3.9; cf . Deut. 23.1 ; 27.20), a s does th e imagery o f flowing waters (Song 4.15; Prov. 5.15-20; 9.13-18). Although the sexua l imager y i s not explici t unti l v . 8, i t i s clea r tha t i n rejectin g th e water s o f Shiloah, Judah opens itsel f t o another lover, o r rapist a s the case ma y

SWEENEY O n um esos in Isaiah 8.6 5

1

be, i n th e for m o f th e Assyria n king. 1 Certainly , thi s associate s Isa. 8.5- 8 wit h Isa . 8.1-4 , wher e Isaia h report s hi s sexua l relation s with th e prophetes s tha t resulte d i n th e birt h o f Maher-Shalal-Hash Baz.2 I n this respect, th e awkwar d nature of the reading o f um esos 'et in Isa . 8. 6 become s significant . Althoug h masos usuall y refer s t o general rejoicing , it s appearanc e i n th e contex t o f Jerusalem's giving birth i n Isa. 66.1 0 and the rejoicing o f a bridegroom over his bride in Isa. 62. 5 indicate s tha t the ter m ca n be used i n reference t o marriage . Like th e general imager y o f water in Isa. 8.6-7 , the lexical meaning of masos i n v . 6 i s non-specific , bu t th e awkwar d natur e o f th e readin g disrupts th e synta x of vv. 6-7 and calls attentio n t o itself. Inasmuc h a s the ter m masos an d th e imager y o f water s suggests the possibilit y of sexual connotations , th e ter m convey s a double entendre tha t is only realized i n v . 8 when th e extende d skirts of th e Assyria n monarch fill the land . I n thi s respect , th e awkwar d phrasin g o f um esos 'et-^sin 1. Scholar s frequently argue tha t 'thi s people' i n v. 6a refers t o the norther n kingdom of Israel in that they rejected th e Davidic dynasty by following Rezin and Pekah (e.g. Rignell 1957: 41-42) . But there are several reason s for maintaining th 'this people' refer s t o Judah: (1) the northern kingdo m ha d rejected th e house of David lon g before thei r decisio n t o follow Rezin and Pekah ; (2 ) th e referenc e t o Emmanuel i n v . 8 indicates tha t Judah is threatene d i n this passage ; an d (3 ) th e 'waters of Shiloah' ar e frequently take n a s a reference t o the Davidic dynasty (s o Kimhi an d Targu m Jonathan) or as a symbol of YHWH' s guarantee o f security t o Jerusalem. Not e that Isa. 7.3 locates Isaiah's encounter with Ahaz at 'the end of the conduit of the upper pool o n the highway to the Fuller's Field' (RSV) . Inasmuch as Ahaz appears t o be inspecting his water system in anticipation o f a siege by Israel and Aram, Isaiah's reference to the people's rejection of 'the waters of Shiloah' suggest s their lac k o f confidenc e i n th e city' s defenses . Th e fac t tha t Aha z eventuall y summoned Assyrian assistanc e i n the Syro-Ephraimitic War (2 Kgs 16.7-9) indicates that he likewise lacke d confidence in the city's ability to resist a siege. Insofar as the Syro-Ephraimitic coalition woul d be concerned t o augment their forces by bringing Judah inio its camp against the Assyrians, their attack would be designed t o remove Ahaz and convince the Judaean population to join the coalition rathe r than destroy the country. Isa. 8.6 suggests tha t such a strategy wa s working. Cf. Irvine (1990: 18991), wh o relates the imagery o f 'th e waters o f Shiloah' t o the role tha t th e Giho n spring plays in guaranteeing the security of the Davidic dynasty. 2. I t also has implications for understanding qeser, 'conspiracy' , in Isa . 8.12 and th e genera l concern with the people's need to fear YHW H in Isa. 8.11-15. The root o f qeser literall y mean s 't o bind, join', which may suggest a further sexua l double entendre insofar as the people ha d rejected YHWH' s promises o f security in favor of an alliance wit h the Syro-Ephraimitic coalition.

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uben-^malyahu i s a deliberat e attemp t t o prepar e th e unsuspecting reader fo r th e sexua l metaphor of v . 8. Just as the book of Isaiah as a whole sees the Assyrian invasions and later th e Babylonian captivity a s divine punishments that precede th e restoration o f th e people , s o als o th e associate d sexua l an d rive r imagery o f Isa . 8.6- 7 an d 66.10-1 4 presen t paralle l bu t contrasting descriptions o f th e circumstance s that le d t o th e punishmen t and th e results o f th e restoration . I n conclusion , it shoul d b e note d tha t inasmuch a s Isa. 66.10-14 appears as part of the climax of the book of Isaiah, it corresponds to the imagery at the beginning of the book (Isa. 2.2-4) o f the nations 'flowing ' (w enaharu, Isa . 2.2 ) to Zio n to receiv e YHWH's Torah. By basing the description of rejoicing i n Isa. 66.10-14 on th e language and imagery of Isa. 8.6-8, th e author of Isa . 66.10-14 presents evidence that umesos appears in the text of Isa. 8.6 in the time of Trito-Isaiah , generall y ascribed to th e fifth century, an d establishes a majo r lin k in the overall structure of the final form o f the book.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Barthc'lcmy, D. , et al. 1986 Critique textuelle de I'ancien testament. II. Isdie, Jeremie, Lamentations (Freiburg: Editions Universitaires; Gottingen: Vandenhoec k & Ruprecht) . Beuken, W.A.M . 1986 'Isa . 56.9-57.13—A n Exampl e o f th e Isaiani c Legac y o f Trito-Isaiah 1, in J.W . Va n Henten , e t al . (eds.) . Tradition an d Re-Interpretation i n Jewish and Early Christian Literature: Essays in Honour of Jiirgen C.H. Lebram (Leiden : Brill) : 48-64. Beuken, W.A.M. 1989 'Servan t an d Heral d o f Goo d Tidings : Isaia h 6 1 a s a n Interpretatio n of Isaiah 40-55' , i n Vermeyle n 1989a : 411-42 . Bredenkamp, C.J . 1887 De r Prophet Jesaia (Erlangen : Deichert) . Brueggemann, W . 1984 'Unit y an d Dynamic i n the Isaia h Tradition' , JSOT 29 : 89-107. Brock, S . (ed. ) 1987 Th e Ol d Testament i n Syriac according t o th e Peshitta Version. Par t HI/1 . Isaiah (Leiden : Brill). Budde, K . 1926 'Je s 8 , 6b', ZAW 44 : 65-67 . Burrows, M. , J.C. Treve r an d W.H. Brownlee 1950 Th e Dead Se a Scrolls o f S t Mark's Monastery. I . Th e Isaiah Manuscript and th e Habakkuk Commentary (Ne w Haven : America n School s o f Oriental Research) .

SWEENEY O n um cs'6s in Isaiah 8. 6 5 Childs, B.S.

3

1979 Introduction t o th e Ol d Testament a s Scripture (Philadelphia : Fortres s Press). Clements, R.E. 1980 Isaiah 1-39 (NCB ; Gran d Rapids : Eerdmans ; London : Marshall , Morga n & Scott). 1982 'Th e Unit y of the Boo k o f Isaiah' , Int 36 : 117-29 . 1985 'Beyon d Traditio n History : Deutero-Isaiani c Developmen t o f Firs t Isaiah's Themes' , JSOT 31 : 95-113. Duhm, B. 1914 Da s Buch Jesaia (Go'ttingen : Vandenhoec k & Ruprecht , 3r d edn) . Finkelstein, L. (ed. ) 1926 Th e Commentary of David Kimhi on Isaiah (Columbi a University Oriental Series, 19 ; New York: Columbia University). Fullerton, K . 1924 "Th e Interpretatio n o f Isaia h 8 , 5-10', JBL 43 : 253-89 . Gesenius, W. 1821 Philologisch-kritischer und historiker Commentar iiber de n Jesaia (Leipzig: F.C.W . Vogel) . Gesenius, W., E. Kautzsch and A.E. Cowley 1983 Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar (Oxford: Clarendon Press ; 2nd English edn) . Giesebrecht, F . 1888 'Di e Immanuelweissagung' , TSK 61 : 217-64. Hitzig, F. 1833 De r Prophet Jesaja (Heidelberg : C.F . Winter) . Holladay, W.L. 1989 Jeremiah, I I (Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress Press) , Irvine, S. 1990 Isaiah, Ahaz, an d th e Syro-Ephraimitic Crisis (SBLDS , 123 ; Atlanta: Scholars Press). Jastrow, M. 1967 A Dictionary o f th e Targumim, th e Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, an d th e Midrashic Literature (Brooklyn : P. Shalom). Kaiser, O. 1983 Isaiah 1-12: A Commentary (trans. J. Bowden; Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 2nd edn) . Klein, H. 1980 'Freud e a n Rezin' , V T 30 : 229-34. Lack, R. 1973 L a Symbolique du livre d'lsate: Essai sur I'image litteraire comme element d e stmctitration (AnBib, 59; Rome: Biblical Institut e Press). Lindblom, J . 1958 A Study o n th e Immanuel Section i n Isaiah: Isa. vii,l-ix, 6 (Lund : Gleerup). Marti, K. 1900 Da s Buch Jesaja (Tubingen : Mohr) .

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Odeberg, H . 1931 Trito-Isaiah (Isaiah 56-66): A Literary an d Linguistic Analysis (UUA , Theologi, 1 ; Uppsala: Almqvis t & Wiksell). Rendtorff, R . 1984 'Zu r Kompositio n des Buche s Jesaja', VT 34 : 295-320. 1989 'Jesaj a 6 i m Rahme n de r Kompositio n de s Jesajabuches' , i n Vermeyle n 1989a: 73-82 . Rignell, L.C. 1957 'Da s Orake l "Maher-sala l Has-bas" . Jesaj a 8' , ST 10 : 40-52. Rudolph, W. 1968 Jeremia (HAT , 12 ; Tubingen: Moh r [Pau l Siebeck] , 3r d edn) . Schrocder, O . 1912 "umesoS eine Glosse zu rason', ZA W 32 : 301-302 . Sperber, A . 1962 Th e Bible i n Aramaic. III. Th e Latter Prophets according t o Targum Jonathan (Leiden : Brill) . Steck, O.H . 1989 Trito-Jesaj a i m Jesajabuch" , i n Vermeyle n 1989a: 361-406 . Sweeney, M.A . 1988 Isaiah 1-4 an d th e Post-Exilic Understanding o f th e Isaianic Tradition (BZAW, 171 ; Berlin: de Gruyter). Trever, J.C . 1972 Scrolls from Qnmran Cave 1 : The Great Isaiah Scroll; Th e Order o f th e Community; Th e Pesher t o Hahakknk (Jerusalem : Th e Albrigh t Institut e of Archaeologica l Research an d the Shrin e o f th e Book) . Vermeylen, J . 1989 'L'unit g d u livr e d'Isai'e* , i n Vermeyle n 1989a : 11-53 . Vermeylen, J . (ed. ) 1989a Th e Book oflsaiali/Le Livre d'lsaie: Les oracles et leurs relectures. Unite et complexite d e I'ouvrage (BETL , 81 ; Leuven : Universit y Pres s an d Uitgeverij Peelers). Weber, R . (ed. ) 1975 Biblia Sacra inxta Vtilgatum Versionem (Stuttgart : Wiirttembergisch e Bibelanstalt). Wildbergcr, H, 1972 Jesaja 1-12 (Neukirchen-Vluyn : Neukirchene r Verlag) . Ziegler, J. (ed. ) 1967 Septuaginta: Veins Testamentum Graecum Aitctoritate Academiae Litterarum Gottingensis Editum. XIV. Isaias (Gottingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht).

OF LIONS AND BIRDS: A NOTE ON ISAIAH 31.4-5 Michael L . Barre

ABSTRACT Isa. 31.4-5 is a problematic text: it is difficult t o decide whether it is an oracle of doom or salvation with regard to Jerusalem. The lion simile appears to be negative, the birds simile positive. There is some evidence to indicate that the passage is a unity and thu s tha t th e tw o simile s belon g together . I n thei r origina l inten t bot h ar e negative, a fact obscure d by the standard mistranslatio n ofyagen.., 'al i n v . 5 a s 'protect'. But by the addition of four words at the end of v. 5 later editors have given a positive cast to the oracle as a whole.

In his commentary o n Isaiah R.E. Clements makes th e observation that Isa. 31.4- 5 ha s 'occasione d no t a littl e difficult y t o commentators'. 1 This oracle consists of two similes: on e relating t o a lion (v. 4) and the other t o bird s (v . 5) . Th e mai n poin t of controvers y has t o d o wit h whether th e oracl e i s positiv e o r negativ e vis-a-vi s Zion . A t firs t glance, at least, th e first simile (v. 4) strikes one as negative, whil e the second (v . 5 ) give s ever y indicatio n o f bein g positive . Anothe r disputed issu e i s tha t o f interpolation: to wha t extent hav e thes e verse s undergone editorial expansion? In thi s pape r I shal l argu e tha t th e correc t understandin g o f th e earliest for m o f this passage ha s been hampered both by th e failur e to recognize th e OT parallels t o the 'lion...birds ' imager y i n th e oracle , and by the erroneous interpretation of one word by virtually all translations an d commentator s u p t o th e present . Onc e thes e thing s ar e recognized, th e harmon y betwee n th e simile s (i n th e origina l text ) becomes evident, and determining the editorial addition s to the passag e becomes a simple matter. It is obvious that at least i n v. 5b and the subsequent verses th e tone becomes mor e positive , i n contras t to th e oracl e i n vv . 1-3 . Fo r thi s 1. R.E . Clements, Isaiah 1-39 (NCB; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), p. 256.

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reason som e wh o tak e v . 4 i n a negativ e sens e understan d v. 5 a s a later addition. 1 But a strong case can be made for the unity of the two similes. First , there is the repetition o f the preposition 'al between th e two; the poe t is evidently playin g on its ambiguity. 2 Another bit of evidence i s the distribution of the formulaic pair 'Zion ' // 'Jerusalem ' between them. 3 This pai r i s foun d 4 4 time s i n th e MT , mos t frequentl y i n thi s sequence.4 Ove r a thir d of th e occurrence s (16x ) are in th e Boo k of Isaiah, more than in any other OT book. More significantly , th e term s '(wild ) beasts ' an d 'birds ' occu r together about 35 times in the MT ('lion'... 'birds' woul d appear t o be a variatio n o n thi s topos). 5 I n 1 6 of thes e occurrence s th e imag e i s neutral.5 Bu t in th e majority o f cases (19x ) i t appear s i n a negative context, concerned wit h human bodies (usuall y of God's people) given to the birds and beasts a s prey. 7 A number of these 1 9 passages sho w similarities to Isa. 31.4-5 . Lik e th e two simile s i n Isa. 31.4-5 , five of them hav e th e prepositio n 'al wit h th e prey upo n who m the animal s act ( 2 Sam . 21.10 ; Isa . 18.6 ; Jer . 12.9 ; Ezek . 31.13 ; 32.4) . Thre e (2 Sam. 21.10 ; Deut. 28.26 ; Jer . 7.33) mentio n the attempt to chase off or frighten awa y the predators. On e of the most enlightening passages 1. S o B.S. Childs, Isaiah an d th e Assyrian Crisis (SET , 2/3 ; London : SCM Press, 1967) , p . 59. Hi s positio n seem s somewha t inconsistent , however . H e states, '[v. 5] could hardly be an independent oracl e which was only latter attached', but on the same page goes on to remark, 'v . 5 is of younger origin tha n v. 4' (ibid.). 2. Se e J.C. Exum , 'Of Broken Pots , Fluttering Birds, an d Visions in the Night : Extended Simil e an d Poetic Technique i n Isaiah', CBQ 43 (1981), p. 338 . 3. Occasionall y 'Moun t Zion' replace s 'Zion ' i n th e pair , a s in our passage: 2 Kgs 19.31 ; Isa. 10.12 , 32; 24.23; 37.32; Joel 3.5 [Eng. 2.32] ; 4.17 [Eng . 3.17] . 4. 'Zion. . .Jerusalem': 2 Kgs 19.21; Isa. 2.3 ; 4.3 , 4 ; 10.12 , 32; 24.23; 30.19; 31.9; 33.20 ; 37.22; 40.9; 41.27 ; 52.1; 64. 9 [Eng . 10] ; Jer. 26.18 ; 51.35; Joel 3. 5 [Eng. 2.32] ; 4.16,17 [Eng. 3.16 , 17] ; Amos 1.2 ; Mic . 3.10 , 12 ; 4.2, 8 ; Zeph. 3.14 ; Zech. 1.17 ; 8.3 ; 9.9 ; Pss . 51.2 0 [Eng . 18] ; 102.2 2 [Eng . 21] ; 128.5 ; 135.21 ; Lam. 1.17 ; 2.10 ; 'Jerusalem...Zion' : 2 Kgs 19.31 ; Ps. 147.12 ; Isa . 37.32 ; 52.2 ; Zech. 1.14 ; Lam. 2.13 . 5. Lion s and birds ar e mentioned togethe r in the followin g passages : 2 Sam . 1.23; Isa . 38.13-14 ; Jer. 12.8-9 ; Amos 3.4-5 ; Job 28.7-8; 38.39-41. 6. 1 Kgs 5.13 [Eng . 4.33] ; Jer. 9. 9 [Eng . 10] ; 12.4 ; Ezek . 17.2 3 [LXX] ; 31.6 , 13; 38.20; Hos . 2.18 ; 4.3 ; Ps . 148.10 ; Jo b 12.7 ; 35.11 ; Dan . 2.38 ; 4.12 , 14 , 21 [Eng. 9 , 11 , 18] . 7. Deut . 28.26 ; 1 Sam. 17.44 , 46; 2 Sam . 21.10 ; Isa . 18. 6 [2x] ; Jer . 7.33 ; 12.9; 15.3 ; 16.4 ; 19.7 ; 34.20 ; Ezek. 29.5; 31.13 ; 32.4; 39.4 , 17 ; Ps. 79.2 .

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in this connection is 2 Sarn. 21.10. David too k the two sons of Rizpah, Saul's concubine, an d had them hanged o n a mountain. Sh e statione d herself ther e t o guar d he r sons ' bodie s fro m th e predations o f wil d animals an d 'di d no t allow th e birds o f the air t o light upon them by day or the beasts of the field by night'. These last thre e text s provid e the setting fro m whic h to explain th e detail abou t th e shepherd s i n th e lio n simile . Lik e Rizpah , the y ar e attempting t o scare the wild beast awa y fro m hi s prey . Bu t when th e lion roar s ove r ('a/ ) hi s victim , no on e ca n distrac t hi m fro m con suming it. By the use of simile th e poet is saying that Yahweh canno t be distracte d o r dissuade d fro m hi s fatefu l purpos e b y th e action s of human beings. The image does no t portray th e lion as 'protecting ' hi s kill.1 Nor i s the identity of the shepherds significan t here . They serv e merely t o flesh out the expression i n Deut. 28.2 6 and Jer . 7.33 : 'An d there shall be no one [able] to drive them [the birds and beasts] away'.2 Clearly, the lion simil e i s negative. 3 The point of the simile a s a whole is that Yahweh will come down to fight against ('a/ ) Mount Zion. Here the prepositio n bear s tw o meanings , eac h connecte d t o a precedin g verb: (1 ) i t complete s th e meanin g of yerjed, 'h e wil l com e down' ; (2) i t complete s th e meanin g of lisbo', 'urfight , war' ; outsid e thi s passage^' 'al alway s mean s 'to fight against' (Num . 31.7; Isa . 29.7 , 8; Zech. 14.12) . But i f th e lio n an d th e birds simile s ar e connected , ho w doe s on e explain th e fact tha t th e former i s negativ e an d the latter is positiv e vis-a-vis Zion ? The question is , is v. 5 really positive? Mor e than one commentator ha s observe d tha t 'flyin g birds ' i s hardl y a transparen t figure of protection. 4 As originally written, this simile is also negative . This ha s been obscure d by the mistranslation of the expression yagen 1. So , for example, O. Kaiser, Isaiah 13-39: A Commentary (OTL ; Philadelphia: Westminster Press , 1974) , p . 316; H . Wildberger, Jesaja 28-39 (BKAT , 10/3 ; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchene r Verlag , 1982) , pp . 1240-42; G . Fohrer, Da s Buck Jesaja ( 3 vols.; Zurich: Zwingli Verlag, 2nd edn, 1974), pp. 120-21; A. Schoors, Jesaja (Roermond : Romen & Zonen, 1972) , pp . 188-89; R. Fey, Amos un d Jesaja (WMANT, 12; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1963) , pp. 134-36 . 2. Cf . Isa. 5.29-3 0 in a similar context. 3. Se e Childs, Isaiah and the Assyrian Crisis, pp. 58-59: 'The evidence point s conclusively t o taking v. 4 as a threat against Jerusalem'. 4. E.g . Kaiser , Isaiah 13-39, p. 317; Exum , 'Broke n Pots' , p . 338. Kaise r (ibid.) cite s as a parallel t o the protective interpretatio n o f the flying birds image Deut. 32.11, but the verb in this case is rhp, not 'wp.

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...'al i n v. 5. Now Hebrew lexica give only one meaning for gnn 'al, namely, 't o protect' . However , th e sam e ver b als o occur s i n th e Aramaic dialects. I n Syriac (where it is attested i n the aphel) it has at least thre e meanings: (1 ) 'to protect' (wit h 'al), (2 ) 'to descend, com e to rest upon ' (wit h 'al), an d (3) 't o res t upon , reside in ' (wit h b e- or 'al).1 I f the verb is multivalent in another West Semitic language, it is possible tha t th e semanti c fiel d o f it s Hebre w cognat e ma y no t b e restricted to one meaning. Given yered.,. 'al i n th e lion simile, th e meaning o f yagen... 'al in Isa. 31.5 i s evident. It means 't o (descend and ) light upon'. The idiom resembles nwh and sk n wit h 'al, whic h can likewis e denote 't o ligh t upon'.2 nwh 'al ca n also have a hostile sense, a s in 2 Sam. 17.1 2 and 21.10. The latter passage, a s we have seen, tells how Rizpah would not let the birds 'ligh t on' [lanuah 'al-] th e corpse s o f her sons . Fa r fro m being an image of protection, then , the 'flyin g birds' simil e evokes th e picture of carrio n birds swooping down and lighting upon their prey. Although Yahweh is elsewhere likened to a marauding lion,3 only here is he presented i n the bold and gruesome image of a predatory bird. 4 In ligh t o f th e foregoin g considerations , the earlies t for m o f th e oracle ma y be translated as follows: Thus says Yahweh my God: As a lion or a young lion roars over his prey— (And) when a band of shepherds is called out against him He is not afraid o f their sound nor daunted by their noise— So will Yahweh of Hosts come down upon Mount Zion to fight against it and its hill. Like flying birds (of prey), so will Yahweh of Hosts (descen d and ) light upon Jerusalem . 1. R.P . Smith , A Compendious Syriac Dictionary (Oxford : Clarendon Press , 1903), p . 73. 2. nwh: 2 Sam. 21.10; skn: Ezek. 31.13; 32.4 . 3. Isa . 38.13; Jer. 25.38 ; 49.19; 50.44; Hos. 5.14 ; 11.10 ; 13.7 , 8 ; Job 10.16 ; Lam. 3.10 . 4. I n this connectio n w e might recall tha t in the OT Yahweh i s occasionally pictured a s winged, like certain deities of the ancient Near East, although such language may be merely figurativ e (Exod . 19.4 ; Deut . 32.1 1 [ a simile]; Pss. 17.8 ; 36. 8 [Eng. 7]; 57.2 [Eng . 1] ; 61.5 [Eng . 4]; 63.8 [Eng . 7]; 91.4; Rut h 2.12). But in these cases the image is always positive.

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The las t fou r word s o f v . 5 (gdnon w ehissil pasoah rfhimlif ) ar e a n editorial addition . One of the meanings o f gnn is 'protect' , as we have seen. B y repeatin g thi s ver b an d associatin g i t wit h three word s tha t mean 'deliver ' o r th e like , th e editor s hav e reinterprete d yagen... 'al so that i t migh t b e read i n a positive light. 1 Thei r effort s hav e been eminently successful , sinc e unti l now no one has questioned th e positive meaning of th e verb . Thu s onl y th e en d o f v . 5 show s editoria l activity, whic h B.S . Child s aptl y term s ' a correctiv e commentary'. 2 One is reminded o f Babylonian sata-commentaries o n literar y works , in whic h the wor d excerpte d fo r commen t i s followed by on e o r mor e synonyms.3 Oddly enough , then , both school s o f though t about Isa. 31.4-5 turn out t o b e correc t t o on e exten t o r another . I n it s original form , a s I have attempte d t o demonstrate , th e two simile s withi n the oracle are negative an d constitut e a prophec y o f doo m agains t Jerusalem . However, i n the present o r canonical for m (i.e. th e MT), the oracl e as a whole—includin g the lion simile—i s mean t t o be read in a positive light. Thi s n o doub t present s a proble m fo r th e moder n translator : should thes e verses be rendered s o as to reflect thei r origina l inten t or according to their 'corrected' meaning? Undoubtedl y bot h stages of the history of this passage shoul d somehow be represented i n translation . 1. On e see s thi s process elsewher e i n th e propheti c books—for example , i n Amos 9. Vers e 7 marks the end o f a clearly negativ e oracle ('Behold, the eyes of Yahweh God arc upon the sinful kingdom // And I will destroy it from th e surface of the ground'). There can be little doubt that the next line (v. 8) is a prosaic, editorial addition that seeks to undo this negative judgment: 'Except that I will not utterly destroy the house of Jacob'. 2. Isaiah and the Assyrian Crisis, p. 59. However, he applies this label to the entirety of v. 5. 3. Se e E . Leichty , Th e Omen Series Summa Izbu (Text s fro m Cuneifor m Sources, 4 ; Locust Valley , NY: JJ. Augustin, 1970) , pp. 22-23. 'Commentaries ' of this type are generally lexical in nature, giving synonyms for rare, poetic terms. In the case of verbs, the infinitive for m i s usually given (as in Isa. 31.5), regardless o f the verba l form i n th e tex t (se e W.G . Lambert , Babylonian Wisdom Literature [Oxford: Clarendo n Press , 1960] , pp . 32-54, 70-88) . Wer e i t no t fo r th e waw before hissil, v. 5b might be interpreted as a lexical comment on the infrequent verb gnn (8 x i n the MT) which woul d b e simila r t o wha t i s foun d i n th e Babylonia n commentaries ('ganon [here means] "to deliver", "skip over", "rescue"'), which later became incorporated into the text. However, the poetic balance of v. 5b—qal inf. + w* + hiphil inf. // qal inf. + we + hiphil inf.—may suggest rather that the four word s were a deliberate insertion from th e beginning.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUBJECT AND THE SYMBOLIC ORDER: A READING OF THE LAST THREE SUFFERING SERVANT SONGS* Francis Land y

ABSTRACT After a brief sectio n settin g the so-called servan t songs i n the context o f JewishChristian dialogue , the bulk of this article consists of a close reading of Isa. 49.1-6 and 50.4-9, with a summary fora y into Isa. 53. The focus is on the different way s the subject is constructed i n these poems, th e disjunction between extrem e symbolization and disintegration, th e impossibility of attaining any quiddity in the swirl of conflicting personae and explicative paradigms . Betwee n th e polarities of utter negation and theophanous vindication, between unbearable pain and unflinching resistance , the subjec t trie s differen t strategie s fo r achievin g coherence an d a n adequat e relationship wit h the maternal/paternal symbolic order. B y the last poem, all we are left with is insistent contradiction and the sense of tragedy, as, with pity and fear, we watch the subject going to his death on our behalf, and beyond death . 1. The Suffering Servant Songs in Jewish-Christian Dialogue Let u s begi n wit h Davi d Clines' s stud y o f Isaia h 53 , /, He, We , and They.1 Th e grea t virtu e o f Clines' s wor k i s tha t i t move s u s awa y from 'th e poem a s problem' t o 'the poem a s language event', an event in whic h 'th e silenc e become s painful , almos t unbearable', 2 in which there i s a complete absenc e o f action, dialogue , o r even, strangel y fo r Isaiah, affectiv e language. 3 I t is a n event, a n experience, of a worl d Lecture given at the 22nd Jewish-Christian Bible Week in Bendorf, Germany, 25th July , 1990 . I a m gratefu l t o m y audienc e an d thei r comments , t o a ver y stimulating study circle, and to my colleague, E . Ben-Zvi, for invaluable discussion. 1. / , He , We, an d They. A Literary Approach t o Isaiah 5 3 (JSOTSup , 1 ; Sheffield: JSO T Press, 1976), p. 59. 2. L . Alonso SchSkel, 'Isaiah', in R. Alter and F. Kermode (eds.), The Literary Guide t o the Bible (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), p. 180. 3. / , He , We , and They, pp . 44-46.

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that i s 'topsy-turvy', 1 ye t recognizably our own, that fascinates us, as the 'they ' o f th e tex t interpret s us , insofa r a s w e identif y wit h th e servant, and reproaches us for 'ou r easy activisms', from a silence that is simpl y 'the silenc e of suffering', 2 tha t is nevertheless the service of God. My proble m wit h th e text , however , i s no t simpl y tha t I a m involved i n th e event, but tha t I experience a visceral recoi l fro m th e notion o f vicariou s suffering , o r simpl e fright . Th e silence , passivit y and emotiona l vacuit y that Cline s find s i n th e tex t correspond s t o critical paralysis . Repressio n o f tha t which dies wit h each person , a s well as self-preservation, separatio n fro m tha t person—the complex o f survivor guilt , reparation, anaesthesia. Our text is, centrally, mourning the mournin g seeks its comfort (the great them e o f Second Isaiah) , i s framed b y it , yet discontinous with it. German and anglophone scholarship sharply divide over the so-called servant songs , a s the y d o ove r everythin g else. Germa n scholarshi p tends t o isolat e th e servan t songs fro m th e res t o f Deutero-Isaiah , t o see them as a separate collection , to ascribe them to the circle of Trito Isaiah, t o se e i n the m th e influence s of Jeremiah an d Ezekiel , an d t o determine text-criticall y th e growt h of th e text , rathe r a s a dendro logist determine s th e ag e o f a tree . I n 49.1-6 , R.P . Merendino, fo r example, trace s th e transformatio n of a poe m originall y about Cyru s to one abou t the servant and then about Israel. 3 In English scholarship, in contrast, we encounter increasing scepticism about the very existence of th e servan t songs , a refusa l t o isolat e the m fro m thei r Deutero Isaianic contex t and th e Isaiani c tradition a s a whole , an d a n aware ness—-at leas t i n a recent articl e b y John Sawyer—of th e sexis m tha t has focused on the servant rather tha n on his complement, th e daughter of Zion. 4 But thi s i s overshadowe d b y th e deepe r problem , th e Jewish 1. / , He , We , and They, p. 61. 2. / , He, We , and They, p. 65, for both these expressions. 3. 'Je s 4 9 1-6 : Bi n Gottesknechtslied?' , ZAW 92 (1980), pp . 236-48. 4. J.F.A . Sawyer , 'Daughte r o f Zio n an d Servan t o f th e Lor d i n Isaiah : A Comparison', JSOT 4 4 (1989), pp. 89-107 . Cf . als o R.E . Clements , 'Beyon d Tradition-History: Deutero-Isaianic Developmen t of First Isaiah's Themes' , JSOT31 (1985), pp. 95-113. Fo r a contrar y view , however, cf . C. Stuhlmueller , 'DeuteroIsaiah: Majo r Transition s i n th e Prophet' s Theolog y an d i n Contemporar y Scholarship', CBQ 42 (1980), pp. 1-29 .

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Christian one . Isaia h 5 3 has been a witness to the truth of the Gospel , and a snar e an d a thor n to Jews. The Jewish response ha s bee n taci t decanonization; Isaia h 5 3 i s no t recited i n th e synagogu e amon g th e readings fro m the prophets, ther e ar e no Midrashim abou t Isaia h 53 . Only wit h the developmen t o f sequential commentarie s i n th e Middle Ages wer e Jews force d t o confront the problem o f Isaiah 53 ; this was exacerbated b y th e frequenc y of disputatio n an d th e intellectua l an d emotional crisi s i n th e wak e o f th e Crusade s an d th e challeng e o f philosophy. Fo r many commentators, suc h as Rashi and Ibn Ezra , th e servant i s Israel; fo r the latter, thi s is linked with Judah Halevi's ide a that Israel is the heart o f the world, and suffers fo r its diseases. 1 Now th e proble m i s not the equivocal surviva l of the christologica l interpretation i n moder n Christia n commentaries , bu t tha t i t i s ver y hard t o read Isaia h 5 3 except throug h th e len s o f its histor y o f inter pretation an d it s traumatic consequences: th e vindication of th e New, and the theodicy o f substitutionary atonement. Ho w can we innocently read Isaia h 5 3 as Christians and Jews, withou t or across th e appalling memories o f dialogue as persecution? Ho w can we come to terms with the notio n o f vicariou s suffering ? Perhaps I , a s a biblical critic , ca n avoid thi s history . Bu t I woul d d o s o onl y i n th e fac e o f m y responsibility a s a person an d as a Jew. But ther e i s a deeper problem still : tha t th e tex t resist s interpreta tion, that one is lef t wit h a sense o f incomprehensibility that cannot be accommodated i n our respective theologies . Th e text cut s throug h it s history; every attemp t to identify th e servant, to use Isaiah 5 3 in interfaith polemics , falsifie s th e experience o f the text as something present in and beyond our faiths, traditions and languages. Clines compare s it s silence to Abraham's journey to Mt Moriah; 2 it is the same journey. 2. Isaiah 49.1-6 How di d w e ge t there ? Go d calle d m e fro m m y mother' s womb , reciting my name (49.1). Ther e i n the womb something wa s speaking , language wa s forming ; i t wa s no t m e speaking , bu t i t give s m e m y name an d destiny; I come t o be in hearing that name and hearing that 1. Fo r a recent treatmen t o f mediaeva l Jewis h interpretatio n o f Isa . 53 , se e I.E. Rembaum, 'The Development of a Jewish Exegetical Tradition regardin g Isaia h 53', HTR 7 5 (1982), pp . 289-311. 2. / , He , We , and They, p. 46.

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voice. Perhap s i t i s a ghostl y father i n th e womb , summonin g me t o the worl d an d t o m y death; s o a Lacania n migh t say ; bu t i t does no t sound lik e that . Fo r th e voic e i s a strange r t o th e matrix , an d ye t i t sounds deeper, eve n more innate. The phras e "•&» TDtn , 'mad e mention o f m y name' , comes from th e language of sacrifice , and refers t o the invocation of YHW H that accompanies th e offering. Th e imagery i s reversed; YHW H come s dow n into the womb, and invokes my name there. 1 Is he worshipping, celebratin g my existence ? o r i s th e plac e o f m y coming-to-b e tha t o f YHWH' s sacrifice? And h e made me , and my mouth in which he and I speak th e word s that remember thi s precipitation of self fro m language , the word s that fructify th e eart h an d las t fo r eve r (40.8 ; 55.10-11) , an d tha t ar e also thos e o f th e prophec y o f redemptio n an d consolation . Bu t m y mouth is 'lik e a sharp sword' (v . 2), an instrument of death; it s language i s ambiguous , huma n an d divine , vita l an d fatal , expressiv e an d mysterious. Thu s th e sharp, discriminator y swor d i s hidden i n God's hand; th e polished , brigh t arro w i s conceale d i n hi s quiver. 2 God' s calling me and my language into existence i n the womb is then also an undoing, a creation o f death. No t onl y am I invoked by YHWH , but I embody th e transformatio n of deat h into life tha t is o f th e essenc e o f sacrifice. Something else encloses me : YHWH's hand, his quiver. The womb is displaced, perpetuated, b y YHWH' s shadow, o n the trajectory throug h life; thi s i s combined , however , wit h the imminenc e o f violen t ejec tion. Phallic , militaristi c imager y replace s materna l address; languag e turns to warfare , which releases the subject from th e divine enfolding. 3 Between th e two sets of images ther e seems to be no continuity. 1. R.P . Merendin o ('Jes . 49 1-6' , p . 243), find s i t inconceivabl e tha t suc h a restrained (zuriickhahender) prophe t as Deutero-Isaiah should use such languag e about himself, and therefore attributes the reference to Cyrus. Quite apart fro m th e question o f Deutero-Isaiah's restraint, on e wonders whethe r i t would b e rendered less outrageous with reference to a foreign king. 2. Bot h adjective s hav e their linguisti c correlates; mn, 'sharp* , is paradigmatically linked to rrrn, 'riddle'; ira, 'polished', is likewise use d of speech (e.g . Zeph . 3.9). 3. Ther e is a clear parallel in the Aqhat legend, in which Anat encloses her agent Yatpan, transformed into an eagle, in her pouch in order to murder Aqhat. For text , translation and commentary, se e most recentl y B . Margalit, The Ugaritic Poem of Aqht (Berlin: d e Gruyter, 1989) , pp. 129, 156 , 340 .

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Then ther e i s anothe r transformation . Go d says , 'Yo u ar e m y servant, Israel , in whom I will be glorified ' (v . 3). The servan t i n th e divine gras p become s th e containe r o f God . Th e wom b imager y i s inverted. An d a s YHW H entered th e womb t o invoke his name , s o he enters the prophet an d radiates fro m him. The prophet i s identified with Israel. Muc h has been mad e o f this as evidence o f early interpretation . Bu t in fac t i t is a commonplace—the prophet speak s fo r Israel , just a s he speak s fo r God. 1 Fro m th e pre natal commission t o its fulfilment i n the flight of the arrow fro m God , we com e t o a thir d phase : th e brillian t deadlines s o f th e arro w a s theophany. The prophe t i s identifie d wit h Israel, a s servan t o f God , emissary , transmitter o f divine glory. But he has failed , he says , precisely i n hi s relation to Israel . TP^ a TO ^am inn b Tiu r pn 1? THE N ^KI , 'An d I said : I have exhausted mysel f for nothing; for chaos an d illusion I have consumed my strength' (v . 4). Instead of theophany we have inn, 'chaos' , interposed betwee n th e prophet an d his mission, an d corresponding t o it psychi c an d physica l prostration— a familia r propheti c a s wel l a s shamanistic motif . The threshol d of despair an d death ove r whic h on e passes i s an initiation into new life; it has its correlates i n the blindness and deafnes s o f th e servan t an d Israe l i n 42.7 , 18-2 0 an d 43.8. 2 Bu t here i t is upstaged b y a new commission: t o be a light to the nations. The transitio n betwee n th e faile d tas k o f reclaimin g Israe l an d thi s ultimate horizo n i s equivalen t t o th e doubl e origi n an d th e passag e from deat h t o lif e i n th e firs t verses . Go d speaks , invokes , i n th e mother's womb ; i n v. 5 he form s me there, t o restore the integrity of Mother Israel; bu t his speec h goe s beyon d that. I see myself reflecte d in hi s eyes , hi s languag e an d values ; his fortitud e (ni?)—or YHW H a s fortitude—relieves m y failed strength. But this is facile, a cliche; 'I t is too easy to be a servant...' (v . 6). Th e materna l enclosur e o f history , so nostalgicall y repeate d i n vv . 5 an d 6 , t o retur n thos e wh o hav e 1. Se e especiall y th e argumen t of P . Wilco x an d D . Paton-Williams, 'Th e Servant Song s in Deutero-Isaiah', J'SOT 42 (1988), esp . pp . 88-92. A very ful l an d sensitive accoun t of this ambiguity in relation to Jeremiah is to be found i n T. Polk , The Prophetic Persona: Jeremiah an d th e Language o f th e Self (JSOTSup , 32 ; Sheffield: JSO T Press, 1984) . 2. R.E . Clement s ('Beyon d Traditio n History' , pp . 101-104 ) argue s tha t Deutero-Isaiah her e develop s a theme notably present i n First Isaiah (e.g . 6.9-10 ; 29.18).

LANDY Th e Construction of th e Subject 6

5

been preserved 1 of Israel t o their origins, is supersede d b y this other voice, that makes him a light to the nations. Structurally, the enclosure is reversed; th e outer ring, formed by the address to the 'islands ' an d 'peoples afar' i n v. 1 and the task of bringing salvation to the ends of the earth in v, 6, envelopes the ingathering of Israel and the immanenc e of YHWH in th e womb, and at the centre, negating YHWH's presence, the prophet's emptiness and failure. 2 Is this the answer to the prophet's ple a for justice an d recognition of his labour in v. 4? To add to his troubles? Or is YHWH also the plaintiff, hi s failure and weariness correspondin g to that of the prophet?3 Is the prophet' s complain t against the people, as 50.6-9 would suggest, or agains t YHWH , wh o se t hi m o n thi s thankles s venture? Is God' s unfairness the n compounded, the complaint unanswered? But in some strange wa y i t doe s see m t o be a response—not onl y suggestin g the absolute valu e YHW H place s o n th e prophet , bu t som e connectio n between success an d failure, som e sense that the prophet's exhaustion and despai r ar e necessar y for th e furthe r mission . This i s typica l of any limina l stage , of an y endeavour that takes u s beyond the know n circle. What is it to be a light to the nations? Light brings us back to creation, as well as to Abraham's brief to bring blessing to the families of the eart h (Gen . 12.3) ; throug h parallelism, it i s equivalen t her e t o rtinsr, 'salvation' , an d thus consummation; geographical extensio n i s thereby correlate d wit h historica l totality. Bu t i t als o focuse s ou r attention o n th e perso n a s theophany , a s God's salvatio n and light. 4 1 . Whybra y propose s a derivation fro m nsi , 'shoot' , reading n'S 3 (K) or •••ma (Q) as •>!$?, 'offshoots , descendants' , o n th e ground s o f th e improbabilit y o f th e meaning 'preserved ' (Isaiah 40-66, p. 139) . Th e latter, as well a s being more common, woul d also be less bland; 'TIXJ/TS J a s 'preserved ' i s not only mor e emotiv e than 'descendants' , but also perhaps lends support to the ketib of ^OK' i 1? in v. 5 a s

ns

*)OK', 'that has not been gathere d up' , i.e. perished . 2 .Th e contrast is strengthened by alliteration between th e strategically importan t words pirn, 'afar', on the periphery o f the passage (v.l), and p'i, 'emptiness', at its centre (v. 4). pn lacks the central consonan t o f pirn; it is, as it were, emptied a t the centre of those distances . 3. Cf . HJ. Hermisson, 'De r Loh n de s Knecht', in J. Jeremia s an d L. Perlitt (eds.), Die Botschaft und di e Boten (Neukirchen-Vluyn : Neukirchene r Verlag , 1981), p. 276. Fo r YHWH' s exhaustion, cf . 43.24. 4. Ther e is a certain ambiguity here : is the light the salvation itself, and are the

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The sharpness of the individual is juxtaposed with extreme symbolization. Thi s i s th e sourc e o f th e fascinatio n an d th e difficult y o f thes e passages; I am called i n the womb as myself, in a language that is not mine; bu t tha t whic h names, fashions , offer s itsel f u p i n my invoca tion, transmits itself an d finds its home in me, is both my very sel f an d other tha n me. On the one hand, the so-called Suffering Servan t Songs offered a romantic biblica l scholarship 1 th e possibility o f reality; th e actual individua l talking for himself i n hi s haeccitas', a biographica l delusion tha t coul d b e translate d i n terms o f a realist novel. 2 On the other hand , thi s person , whe n probed , disappeare d i n theologica l abstractions an d formulai c language ; hi s sufferings , fo r example , shaped accordin g t o the psalms o f lament. This, however, i s the cen tral problem : th e wis h t o identif y mysel f wit h th e symboli c order , flesh with word , to hous e and b e containe d by God—an d ou r diver gence, the collapse inward s when the effort fails . 3. Isaiah 50.4-9 God speaks ; mornin g by morning I listen, my ear opened , awakene d by God , the tongue given by God (50.4-5). My speech and that which I hear is divine language; I teach and learn repetitively, a s one learns the tools and canonical texts of a culture. The imager y of the originating speec h an d international luminary i s transposed to th e everyday; God speak s wit h th e dawn , th e comin g t o b e o f th e da y coincidin g with th e light and consciousness. Ye t if education is conservative , a n parallel clauses thus equivalent, or is it that which brings salvation, th e second claus e thus being consequent to the first? If the former, then the prophet a s light embodie s salvation; i f the latter, then the illumination is ideological, to be understood i n terms of justice o r whatever. It is not clear whether there is a necessary distinctio n betwee n the two possibilities. Illumination =prophet might be experienced a s salvation an d provide a vision o f ethical o r politica l truth . The proble m i s complicated b y th e coupling of rim 1? i n 'to be for me a servant' and 'to be my salvation'. These could either be equivalent (i.e. prophet is salvation) or TOW11 rim1? could simply mean 'that my salvation should be...' 1. I t is noteworthy that the hypothesis o f a collection o f servant songs develope d in the heyday of late German romanticism, wit h B. Duhm's commentary, Das Buck Jesaia (GSttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1892). 2. I am grateful fo r an observation by G. Josipovici, in the question period afte r the lecture , contrastin g th e identificatio n mandated by th e realis t nove l wit h th e empathy whose precondition is distance.

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induction int o the old symboli c order, this speec h i s novel , heralding the ne w age . It s symboli c languag e i s thu s in a sens e anti-symbolic , that which overturns old symbols or even all symbols. I suffer , quit e traditionally, for my sedition: m y back lacerated , my beard torn... I become a victim, my body a symbo l fo r th e rejectio n of God , th e coercio n o f the powers tha t be. Sacrific e is then inverted; instead o f God invoking my name in the womb, in me God's speech i s repressed. A s i n 49.1-6 , th e ordea l i s i n th e centra l position . Bu t whereas ther e i t resulte d i n exhaustio n an d failure , her e m y fac e i s transformed int o flint , obdurat e an d unflinchin g (50.7) . Moreover , this i s because 'm y lor d YHW H help s me ' (50.7 , 9); inn, 'chaos' , i s replaced b y divin e infusion . Th e paradoxes an d the duple x structure 1 of 49.1 -6—with it s juxtaposition of death an d life , divin e immanenc e and alienation , crisi s a s dissolutio n o f th e brillian t weapo n an d it s reforging a s immateria l light—thes e ar e no t s o muc h reverse d a s negated. Th e flint masks ove r o r is without relation t o the experienc e of emptiness ; petrificatio n a s symbo l fo r th e prophet/God' s passiv e resistance activate s a propheti c agend a differen t fro m tha t o f th e power o f word , ligh t an d arrow ; th e continuit y of divin e speech an d aid i n persecutio n occlude s th e narrativ e intensity, even absurdity , of the forme r passage . I s there an y contiguity between th e two interpre tations? O r simpl y disjunctio n i n th e prophet' s self-construction ? I s there continuit y between th e ways in which we accommodate intoler able experience—pain , exposure , humiliation—an d th e experienc e itself? The n th e biographical quest meets th e resistance o f the body t o meaning, an d correspondingly a crisis arise s i n the transition from it s kinesis to the symbolic structure of the stable, formed, understood self. The phras e "h ntir , 'H e helps/will help me', is ambiguous. Is God's help presen t o r future ? I t seem s t o b e both ; th e hel p i s trus t tha t h e will help, taking vengeance on the prophet's enemie s (50.9 , 11) . Ther e is a hiatus then between hel p as confidence and the absence o f help a s rescue. I n thi s indeterminacy the smoothnes s of the passage founders. We d o no t kno w whethe r th e prophet' s assuranc e wil l b e justified. This opennes s affect s i n tur n th e closur e o f th e embryoni c myt h o f 1. Isa . 49.1-3 is recapitulated in vv. 5-6; thu s the summons in the womb is recollected i n v. 5, the appointment as servant in v. 6, the mission to/as Israel in vv. 5-6 , and God's manifestation i n the servant, 'i n yo u I will b e glorified' (v . 3), in v. 6. Cf. Merendino , 'Jes . 49.1-6' , p . 238, an d Hermisson , 'De r Loh n de s Knechts' , p. 273, wh o speaks of it as a 'Reprise'.

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creation i n 49.1-6 . I n th e in n o f th e prophe t YHW H forms , name s light. But we do not know what this light means, ho w i t will spread , and in what way the prophet embodies it. This ligh t is 'm y justice' (51.4; cf. 42.1), parallelisticall y equivalen t to my mm (51.4) , th e words tha t I hear da y by day and presumabl y comprising Deutero-Isaiah. But it is this justice that is left i n question by th e indeterminacy of ^ nw , 'helps/wil l help me'. In 50.8, th e litigant, •'ODB D ^jn , i s dare d t o appear ; i n 49.4 , a s w e hav e seen , thi s judgment is referre d t o YHWH . There a certain ambiguit y surround s the complaint , directed a t YHW H a s well as the people; thi s is com pounded—to anticipate—by the assumption that the persecution come s from YHW H (53.4) . A community persecutes a dissident i n the nam e of socia l an d sacre d order . I f th e dissiden t is a prophet , persecution may become part of his or her calling, a proof o f authenticity. I t is an essential component of the prophet's self-construction. Then the judgment bot h stand s agains t th e communit y that reject s th e wor d o f YHWH, an d raise s th e questio n o f th e complicit y o f YHW H (an d prophet?) in th e ordeal. What can one say about the personality of the prophet/servant? He is blind an d deaf , accordin g t o 42.19 ; h e walk s i n darknes s (50.10) , while his persecutor s us e th e light of their own torches—an d wil l b e burnt by the m (50.11). Yet he is t o free other s fro m blindness , dark ness an d imprisonment , a s th e ligh t t o th e nation s (42.7) ; h e i s t o restore th e devastate d estate s t o thei r owner s (49.8) , a s par t o f hi s expanded mission , to raise u p th e earth (p N a^prf? ) a s well as Israe l (spy •'Mt i n« D'pnb) . In each case this is what it is to be a Di? rvo, ' a covenant of people' (42.6 ; 49.8), the intermediary between humanity and God . Yet he is concealed by God's hand (49.2; 51.16) , th e sharp sword an d polishe d arro w a s ye t veiled . I n 51.16 , h e i s obscure d by th e shado w o f God' s han d 'to plan t heaven s an d t o foun d earth ' (p« -iD^-i o^a o P03 1?),1 just as God stretche s fort h (nou ) th e heaven s and found s the earth (51.13) , a clear echo of the imagery o f creation in 49.6 . Ye t the context is the destruction of creation in 51.6, in which God's salvation , spread by the prophetic divine light in 49.6, continue s 1. Th e metapho r 't o plant' , which Whybray finds unusual an d consequently emends t o moib, 'to stretch' (Isaiah 40-66, p. 162) , clearl y echoe s and amplifie s Jeremiah's commissio n t o th e nation s i n Jer . 1.1 0 (cf . als o 18.7-9) . A furthe r connection i s formed betwee n Jer . 1. 5 (10), i n which Jeremiah i s appointe d a s a prophet to the nations, an d Isa. 49.6 .

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forever. Destructio n an d recreation , theophan y an d concealment , blindness an d brilliance , ar e thu s paired; th e contrarie s converg e o n the last and most famous of the 'Servant' passages, Isaia h 53. 4. Isaiah 52.13-53.12 Isaiah 5 3 evokes pre-eminently th e tragi c dimensio n o f the Bible: an audience, spectators , watc h with pity and fear someon e goin g on thei r behalf t o death and beyond death. We see the collapse o f his hopes fo r vindication, fo r justice; having rested hi s case with YHWH (49.4), and having triumphe d prospectively ove r his opponents, he is now 'take n away fro m justice' (53.8). No one can speak with or for his generation (53.8), except ironicall y thi s silenc e an d death; thereb y h e intercede s for th e sinner s (53.12) . W e watch with horror , or a t least fascination, combined wit h guilt, since he dies 1 for our sins; the mystery is in part that of death —that which we feel whe n anyone dies —in part i t i s the release o f sociall y legitimate d violence, th e complicit y of a crowd a t an execution, 2 an d henc e th e confrontatio n wit h ou r ow n murder ousness; bu t i t i s als o tha t o f growin g identification, from th e non recognition o f th e first verses —we did no t thin k o f him (v . 3), h e had no image —to concentrated if mistaken thought about him as the objec t of God' s wrath , to a sympath y at firs t metaphorical , displaced ont o conventionally patheti c sheep , an d finall y focuse d b y th e insistent evocation of his eiQ], his soul or psych e (vv. 10, 11, 12) . W e thus identify with him and murder him. But even more insidiously, the mystery is formulated through paradox, th e condensatio n and reversa l o f th e imagery o f the whole prophecy. Terror an d violence ar e absurd, sinc e human being s ar e morta l — 'Where i s th e violenc e o f th e destroyer? ' (51.13). Onl y th e servant wil l no t die , no r descen d t o th e pi t (nrrs ) (51 .14).3 Yet here he dies, an d incarnates the pit: inn-i n crno nnsr a 'hi s 1 .I am not concerned a t this point with the question o f what reall y happened , whether the servan t was actuall y executed , or whethe r he merel y had a clos e encounter. What is important is the symbolic enactment of this death. 2. B . Levine ('Rene" Girard on Job: The Question of the Scapegoat', Semeia 33 [1985], pp . 125-33) argue s that , eve n mor e tha n Job , th e servant i n Isa . 5 3 i s a classic scapegoat, though the text differs fro m mos t instances i n that the scapegoat is rescued and recognized as such. 3 .I t is ambiguous whether th e subject i s representative of Israel, as most com mentators suppose , or has a particular reference to the prophet; this is compounded by the ambiguous identit y o f the prophet, as individual and as symbol fo r Israel. In

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visage more waste, more pit-like than any person' (52.14). 1 He was to bring habitatio n t o th e desolat e land s (mnott i mbr u ^ron 1?); bu t h e himself i s desolate , th e desolatio n cas t o n hi m b y others : i&fc2 J iffl« 2 D'31 -p^s (52.14) . His word and salvation were t o outlast heave n an d earth, bu t h e doe s no t speak . King s and prince s wer e t o bo w down before him ; the y wer e t o nurtur e Israel (49.23) , wit h who m h e i s ambigously identified—th e materna l imager y transferre d fro m God , Sarah an d the womb in whic h the prophet wa s called, to the nations . Kings, i n 52.15, are astonished , speechless , becaus e o f seein g some thing beyon d th e narrative s o f th e world , understandin g something beyond articulation. What this is we cannot say; but between i t and the suppression o f seditio n embodie d i n th e servant/prophe t ther e i s a n inexplicable breach. Three furthe r points. The servant , a s wel l a s plantin g heaven an d earth, i s t o say t o Zion nn » ••rsu , 'Yo u ar e m y people', a clear refer ence to Hos. 2.25 . Lik e the servant, Zio n has been rendere d desolate , and subjecte d to judgment, because o f the sin s of he r childre n (50.13); as Sawyer has shown, the passages concernin g Zion and the servant correspond t o eac h othe r throughou t thes e chapters . I n 52.7 , th e herald, an obvious projection or persona o f the prophet himself, come s to Jerusalem announcing its deliverance, to bring about the reunion of God and Zion. 2 There follow s immediately ch. 53, with the servant' s isolation, shame , passag e throug h death , an d apotheosis . Ar e thes e 51.12-16 the ambiguit y i s especially eviden t i n the paralleling of the addressee of vv. 12-13 , which seems to be general, with tha t o f v. 16 , which is more specifically the prophet, as shown by correlations with Jeremiah's commission (Jer. 1.9-10 ) and the metaphor of being covered with God's hand i n 49.2. Th e subject of v. 1 4 mediates between the two addressees. There is, however, a contrast between toriK, 'man , humanity' (v . 12) , wh o doe s die , an d th e subjec t o f v . 14 , who doe s not . This , without closing the ambiguity, makes identification with the prophet more pointed— his immortalit y wil l b e augmente d b y his functio n o f co-creator i n v. 16 . For th e modelling o f the servan t passage s i n Deutero-Isaia h a s commissio n oracles , se e O.H. Steck , 'Aspekte des Gottesknechts in Deuterojesajas "Ebed-Jahwe-Liedem"', ZAW 9 6 (1984) , pp . 372-90, and 'Aspekt e de s Gottesknechts i n Jes . 52 , 13-53 , 12', ZAW 9 7 (1985), pp. 36-58. 1. I adopt here the usual emendatio n o f th e M T nrrao t o nrran. A. Brenne r ha s made the attractive suggestion that nrora is a play o n n«Jo, 'to anoint'. 2. Fo r the parallelism betwee n th e herald, ifoan, i n 52.7, an d Zion as herald, m!23Q, in 40.9 i s note d b y Sawyer, 'Daughte r of Zion an d Servan t o f the Lord' , p. 103 .

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simply ironicall y contrasted, o r i s th e servant' s ordea l i n som e wa y equivalent t o th e romance ? Ar e th e mysticall y vindicate d servan t beyond deat h an d th e joyful mothe r Zion , whos e childre n retur n t o her womb , metaphors fo r each other , or the same ? Secondly, ther e i s the obtrusive overlappin g o f contradictory terms . That whic h is not thought is thought; that which is not heard (52.15 ) is our incredibl e hearin g (53.1); that which is seen (52.15 ) is the servant/ prophet wh o ha s n o appearanc e (53.2) . I n 53. 1 th e ar m o f YHW H i s revealed presumabl y t o the kings who 'see' i n the previous verse , bu t also over th e servant, who is crushed by it. But the arm of YHWH ha s once crushe d Raha b an d torture d th e sea-drago n (51.9) ; i t i s sum moned to awake—to torment its servant. The same verb (n^'nnn/^nn) is used fo r th e agony of serpent an d servan t 'fo r ou r sins' (53.5) . Bu t it i s als o use d fo r th e birthpang s o f Sara h (51.2) . Chao s (inn ) an d creation, deat h an d birth , serpen t an d mother , ar e thu s superimpose d on each other . Thirdly, what is th e point of view of Go d i n th e poem? Go d calle d me i n th e womb , invokin g my name, i n a n evocation o f sacrifice , th e voice comin g fro m beyon d th e womb , ye t entering it, becomin g par t of it . Th e symboli c orde r o n it s ow n strang e trajectory . No w Go d strikes m e (insn) that I may intercede (ins 11). I am a substitute—fo r the man y o r fo r God ? I n 53.10 , Go d set s hi m a s a n oem , a trespas s offering, fo r th e desecratio n o f sancta. Is thi s an DIB N give n by Go d fo r the violatio n of the womb, for the invasion o f death int o life? Wha t is important, however, is th e effect: th e servant sees an d knows, beyond life an d death. Lik e God , he is high an d uplifte d (52.13 ; cf. 6.1). Bu t there is also a transformation in the womb image. God finds him, sees him, growing like a root in a dry land—presumably a comment on the world an d Israel—and he is a prr, a suckling, suckling in the dryness, but also o n God, that voice, vision, beyond the womb...

RADICAL IMAGES OF YAHWEH IN ISAIAH 63 John F.A. Sawyer

ABSTRACT The us e o f th e Hebre w word s hamus (cf . homes 'vinegar' ) an d so'eb (use d elsewhere onl y o f prostitutes , prisoners and gypsies ) suggests a descriptio n of Yahweh as a tired, bloodstained warrior returning from battle , in dirty clothes, not 'crimsoned garments' (RSV), an d 'stooping ' wearily , not 'marching ' triumphantl y (RSV). This remarkable image, which i s developed further i n vv. 5 and 9, i s ofte n removed b y textual emendation, but fits quite well into its context in Isaiah where images of Yahweh als o include a woman in labour (42.14), an apologetic husband (54.7-8) and a midwife (66.9) .

There is a widespread assumption that images ar e in some wa y inferior to abstrac t idea s and concepts. 1 In a recen t discussio n of image s in Biblical poetry , Lui s Alonso Schoke l argue s agains t thi s view : 'whe n we are dealin g wit h poets', he says , 'wha t come s befor e th e image i s not the concept, bu t the formless experience'. 2 A phrase lik e 'th e hand of God', for example, doe s no t mean the sam e thin g as an abstractio n like 'th e powe r o f God' . O f cours e w e ca n analys e th e meanin g o f images b y referenc e t o concepts , bu t th e imager y come s first . I n a passage lik e Isa. 63.1-6, the imagery has first to be taken seriousl y an d examined i n it s ow n righ t a s reflectin g the author' s experienc e an d relating t o our own . Only then are we gettin g near t o the meanin g of the text. There ar e theologian s an d philosopher s wh o ar e takin g image s seriously too . For Sallie McFague, images and metaphors ar e as important i n thei r ow n righ t a s theologica l concept s an d doctrines . I n he r Metaphorical Theology, fo r example , sh e show s ho w influentia l the 1. Thi s is the revised version of a paper read at the IOSOT Congress in Leuven in August, 1989 . 2. A Manual o f Hebrew Poetics (Subsidia Biblica, 11; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1988) , pp . 100-101 .

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traditional mode l o f 'Go d a s Father ' ha s bee n i n Christia n theology , almost t o the point of idolatry, and how closel y boun d up it is with the experience o f die community or institution that developed it. 1 Such an image ha s t o b e scrutinize d ver y carefully , an d eve n treate d wit h a certain scepticism , no t least because it may not have the same relevanc e in ever y age . The searc h fo r ne w metaphor s o r model s tha t migh t reflec t th e experiences o f th e moder n worl d bette r doe s no t restric t itsel f t o th e Bible. Som e theologians find the biblical text s o irredeemably irrele vant o r patriarchal tha t they look elsewher e fo r authority . Others, lik e Sallie McFagu e an d Phylli s Trible, 2 see k t o fin d trace s o f a les s irrelevant o r les s patriarcha l religio n withi n scripture . I t i s the n a matter o f selectio n an d interpretation—'Searching fo r Los t Coins' , t o use th e titl e o f a book b y anothe r recen t theologian, 3 withi n scriptur e and withi n tradition. McFague start s he r discussion o f one new model , her bes t know n one , namely , tha t o f 'Go d a s friend' , b y quotin g scriptural authorit y fo r it : Isa . 41.18, Hos . 2.23, J n 15.1 3 an d s o on. 4 Passages i n which the image of 'Go d as mother' clearl y occur s receiv e a new emphasis i n today's worl d for similar reasons. 5 Against thi s backgroun d I want to look agai n a t Isa . 63.1-6 , wher e unexpected word s and images, implying something quite extraordinary, are apparentl y applie d t o Yahweh. Befor e w e remove the m a s scriba l errors o r resor t t o othe r method s o f weakenin g thei r effec t (whic h i s what is don e i n th e majority of commentaries and , withou t comment , 1. Metaphorical Theology: Models o f Go d in Religious Language (Philadelphia: Fortress Press , 1982) , pp. 145-92. 2. Cf . M . Daly, Beyond Go d th e Father (Boston : Beaco n Press , 1973) ; P. Trible, God and th e Rhetoric of Sexuality (Philadelphia : Fortress Press, 1978); idem, Texts of Terror: Literary Feminist Readings of Biblical Narratives (Philadelphia:Fortress Press, 1984); cf.R.R. Ruether, Sexism andGod-Talk (London: SCM Press, 1983); L.M. Russell (ed.), Feminist Interpretation of th e Bible (Oxford : Blackwell, 1985) ; D.F. Middleton, 'Feminis t Interpretation', in R.J. Coggins and J.L. Houlde n (eds.) , Dictionary o f Biblical Interpretation (London : SC M Press, 1990), pp . 231-34. 3. A . Loades, Searching fo r Lost Coins: Explorations i n Christianity an d Feminism (London: SPCK, 1988). 4. Metaphorical Theology, pp . 177-78. 5. E.g . Deut. 32.18; Ps. 131.2 ; Isa. 31.5 ; 42.14 ; 46.3-4; 49.15; 66.13 . Cf . Trible, Go d an d th e Rhetoric of Sexuality, pp . 2Iff.; McFague , Metaphorical Theology, pp . 169ff. ; Ruether , Sexism an d God-Talk, pp . 54-56.

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in som e o f our Englis h versions),1 w e shoul d look ver y closely a t th e text as it stands to see whether, like the feminine images in some othe r passages, thes e ar e image s tha t have been suppresse d or underplayed for identifiabl e theological reasons . Textual emendation, even when it is supported b y the evidence o f the ancient versions , is not always th e correct solution . Th e dictu m dijficilior lectio potior es t i s ofte n proved correct , an d sometime s i t i s eas y t o se e wh y th e 'difficult ' reading or interpretation has been bypassed . I

Verse 1 . Th e passag e begin s with a question : 'Wh o i s this? ' Man y commentators assum e tha t thi s is a rhetorical question , lik e 'Wh o i s this comin g up fro m th e wilderness? ' i n th e Son g o f Song s (8.5) , o r 'Who is the king of glory?' i n Psalm 24. 2 The speaker know s perfectly well who the approaching person is and the question is just a figure of speech designed t o heighten the effect o f the welcome he receives. But this interpretatio n assume s tha t th e passag e describe s a norma l encounter between tw o people, conversin g with each othe r i n every day speech. This seems to me to be quite unjustified. I n the first place, no encounter between a human being and Yahweh is normal. The very least w e would expect here is a question, not a rhetorical questio n but a genuine one—the speaker does not recognize Yahweh at first. Secondly, ther e i s a questio n i n v . 2 a s well , whic h i s a genuin e question asking for information: 'Why th e red stains on your clothes?' Surely thi s i s anothe r indicatio n that th e firs t questio n is a rea l on e too, no t merel y a rhetorica l one . Both question s reflec t th e actua l emotions o f someone confronte d b y an extraordinary sight, like Moses confronted b y the burning bush (Exod . 3.3) or Gideon by the ange l of the Lor d sittin g under the oa k a t Ophra h (Judg . 6.11-24), o r Danie l 1. E.g . RSV ; B. Duhm, Das Buck Jesaia (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 3rd edn , 1914) , pp . 433-34 ; G.H . Box, Th e Book o f Isaiah (London : Pitma 1908), p . 327; R.J. Jones , 'Isaia h 56-66' , i n Peake's Commentary o n th e Bibl (Edinburgh: Nelson 1962) , p . 533; J.L. McKenzie, Second Isaiah (AB; New York: Doubleday, 1967) , pp. 186-87 ; C. Westermann, Isaiah 40-66 (OTL; London: SCM Press, 1969) , p . 380 ; C. Stuehlmueller , 'Isaia h 40-66' , i n Jerome Biblical Commentary (London : Geoffrey Chapman , 1969), p. 384; R.N. Whybray, Isaiah 40-66 (NCB ; London: Oliphants, 1975) , pp. 253-54. 2. Alons o Schb'ke l describe s the m a s 'question s whic h pretend ignorance ' (Manual o f Hebrew Poetics, p. 152) . Cf. Westermann, Isaiah 40-66, pp. 380-81.

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by the vision o f four great beast s an d the Ancient of Days (Dan . 7.1516). Hi s first reactio n i s t o ask , 'Wh o ca n thi s extraordinar y lookin g person be?' , and then, when the figure introduces himself a s Yahweh, 'In tha t case', he asks, 'wh y d o you look like somebod y wh o has just come from working in a winepress?1 Much depends, o f course, o n the meaning of the rest o f the questio n in v . I . I t consist s o f a descriptio n o f th e approachin g figur e i n tw o exactly paralle l clause s introduce d by th e demonstrativ e zeh: Who is (A) this perso n comin g fro m Edom... and (B ) this person gloriou s i n his apparel... ? Each claus e i s divided int o two halves, an d it seems to me tha t i t i s th e semanti c oppositio n betwee n thes e tw o halve s tha t gives u s th e clu e t o wha t the descriptio n means . I n bot h clause s th e first half draw s o n traditiona l languag e an d imager y an d i s eas y t o understand i n th e contex t o f a n anthropomorphi c descriptio n o f Yahweh. He comes from Edom, a s in the Song of Deborah (Judg . 5.4 ) and elsewhere (Deut . 33.2 ; Hab . 3.3), an d he is 'clothe d with majesty ' as in Ps. 104. 1 (hod Skadar labasta). The othe r hal f o f each clause , i n contrast , i s extremely unexpecte d and unconventional , an d ha s th e effec t o f confusin g an d perhaps frightening th e speaker . I f thi s is th e longed-fo r return of Yahwe h t o Zion, referred t o in 40.10 ('Behold th e Lord God comes wit h might'), 52.8 ('fo r ey e t o ey e the y se e th e retur n o f th e Lor d t o Zion' ) an d elsewhere, then it is not at all what was expected. Ca n this be Yahweh, or is it someon e else ? Like Yahweh, he is coming, as of old, fro m th e direction o f Edom, and, like Yahweh, he is 'clothe d with majesty'. Bu t he is als o h amus tfgadi m an d so'eh. Whatever thes e word s mean , a s applied t o Yahweh , the y mus t surely refe r t o som e un-Yahweh-lik e features o f th e descriptio n i n orde r t o explai n th e speaker' s bewil dered questions—a t first, Who ca n thi s be, an d then, if i t i s Yahweh, Why doe s he look like this? A widesprea d interpretatio n of the verse involve s translatin g h amus e b gadim a s 'i n crimsone d garments ' (RSV ) or th e like , perhap s sug gesting colour s fi t fo r a king , and emendin g the secon d participl e t o so'ed 'marching ' (RSV). 1 The first problem wit h this interpretatio n i s 1. E.g . Symmachus , Vulgate , RSV ; R . Lowth, Isaiah: A Ne w Translation (London, 1779) ; T.K . Cheyne, Th e Prophecies o f Isaiah, I I (London , 1881), p. 100 ; Box , Isaiah, p. 327; G.A. Smith, Th e Book o f Isaiah XL-LXVI (London , 1910), p . 443; McKenzie , Second Isaiah, p . 187 ; Westermann , Isaiah 40-66, p. 380 .

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that it completely remove s th e point of the speaker's two questions. If there i s nothin g od d abou t Yahweh' s appearance , a s h e marche s majestically bac k from Edom , dressed lik e a king in glorious crimso n garments, ther e i s nothin g t o explai n th e speaker' s apparen t bewilderment. Th e other problem concerns the precise meaning o f the two Hebrew words hamus and so 'eh. Verse 2 implies that h amus means somethin g lik e 'red , stained wit h red wine' , for the sam e b egadlm tha t ar e described a s h amus i n v . 1 are described in v . 2 as 're d an d looking as though they had been i n a wine-press'. BOB suggests that Syriac 'ethamas ('to blush, be ashamed') might provid e a possibl e etymology , but i t i s no t a ver y convincing one. In a context where it is associated wit h th e terms gat 'win e vat', purd 'wine-press' , darak 't o tread grapes' an d sakar 't o get drunk', the ordinary everyda y Hebre w wor d homes 'vinegar ' surel y provide s a much bette r explanation . Ther e is als o probabl y a wordpla y i n th e choice of the Edomite place-name bosra, in preference t o the conventional Paran or Se'ir as parallel to Edom in v. 1 , playing on its associa tion wit h baser 'grape-picker' , basir 'vintage ' an d s o on. 1 S o should we not translate hamus 'winestained', if that is what is meant, however incongruous an image of Yahweh it conjures up? The first thing t o say about the other word, so'eh, is that, whatever it means , i t to o i s incongruou s in a descriptio n o f Yahweh . Apar t from thi s passage i t occurs three times in the Hebre w Bible , twic e in the contex t of imprisonmen t and oppressio n (Isa . 51.14 ; Jer . 48.12) , and onc e o f a prostitut e (Jer . 2.20) . I t ha s becom e customar y i n modern times , mainly for etymological reasons, to take it in the sens e of 'stooping , cowed, unresisting': the prisoner is 'bowe d down' (RSV ; cf. NEB 'he that cowers'), an d the prostitut e 'sprawls i n promiscuous vice' (NEB) . With that background it surely cannot mean in Isaiah 63 , as some have suggested, 'wit h his head bent back proudly' o r the like.2 In Jewis h tradition, followed by th e Kin g Jame s Version , th e ver b i s usually glossed a s Ftaltel 't o wander from plac e to place' lik e gypsies or traveller s wit h n o fixe d abode. 3 Agai n i t surel y canno t mea n 1. Cf . Alonso Schokel, Manual of Hebrew Poetics, p. 30. 2. E.g . Gesenius , Delitzsch: see Cheyne , Th e Prophecies o f Isaiah, p . 100 ; P.-E. Bonnard , Le Second Isa'te (Paris : Gabalda, 1972) , p . 436 . 3. E.g . Kimhi , Ib n Ezra, J . Skinner, Isaiah XL-LXVI (Cambridge : Cambridge Universit y Press, 1902) , p . 19 5 ('travelling'): cf . A . Even-Shoshan, Hammillon hehadas (Jerusalem: Kirya t Sefer, 1980) , V, p. 2249.

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'marching' o r 'striding ' (RSV) . Whether we take the sense of 'stooping' or th e traditiona l Jewis h on e o f 'wanderin g fro m place t o place', th e term, lik e h amus, conjure s u p a pictur e o f Yahwe h actin g ou t o f character. H e is wearing the majestic roya l garment s tha t befit him — but the y look a s if they are stained with wine; his grea t strength , as of the Lor d o f heaven an d earth, i s evident (b erob koho) v—but h e look s lost an d weary . Tha t explain s th e speaker' s bewilderment . Wh o ca n this ambiguous figure be? Yahweh's answe r is usuall y understood t o be a n announcemen t of victory an d salvation, taking fdaqa i n the sens e o f 'victory , vindication' (RSV) : 'I t is I , who announce that right has wo n the day, I who am stron g t o save' (NEB) . This follow s logically fro m th e removal o f all th e dir t and wearines s fro m th e descriptio n of Yahwe h in th e pre ceding question, and it is then a quite conventional picture of Yahweh returning t o Zio n bringin g new s o f victory . Bu t i f w e retai n th e ambiguity o f th e descriptio n an d th e bewilderment o f th e questioner , then th e answe r migh t hav e a differen t nuance . Th e firs t par t als o addresses th e speaker' s doubts : 'I t i s I . I a m speakin g bifdaqa 'i n righteousness = truthfully ' (J B 'with integrity' ; cf . 45.23; 48.1). Th e sense would then be: '(D o not be put off by appearances.) Believe me, it is I, Yahweh, mighty to save.' II

Verse 2 . Th e speaker's second question need s littl e furthe r comment , except t o re-emphasiz e th e strikin g incongruit y o f th e imagery . According to this verse Yahwe h looks like a dorek b egat ' a treader o f grapes'. The imag e o f God trampling on his enemie s (includin g 'th e virgin daughte r of Zion', Lam . 1.15 ; cf. Isa. 63.3; Rev . 19.15 ) occur s elsewhere, bu t here he actually looks like ' a treader of grapes', that is to say , lik e someon e wh o ha s bee n workin g in a wine-press , tired , sweaty, his clothes stained with the juice of the grapes . Most o f th e verb s i n th e nex t section (vv . 3-6), afte r th e firs t one , darakti ' I hav e trodden' , appea r t o be moda l (imperfect s wit h w c), corresponding t o th e implie d modalit y i n v . 1 , 'Who coul d thi s be?', and suggesting perhaps th e extraordinary, almost unrea l nature of th e scene described : 'tramplin g o n the m myself.. . m y clothe s spattere d 1. Cf . Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, p. 254 ('victory'); Bonnard, Le Second Isa'ie, p. 436 ('justice') .

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with thei r lifeblood.. . I wa s panic-stricken...' 1 Jewis h traditio n an d KJV consistently translate them as futures. Th e unconventional imager y of thi s passage ma y well be reflected in what seems t o be a quite con sistent an d deliberat e choic e o f ver b forms . The y ar e difficult , i f no t impossible, t o translate , bu t tha t i s n o reaso n t o emen d the m al l t o simple narrative pas t tenses with waw consecutive, as BUS an d others recommend.2 Surel y i t must b e significan t tha t th e onl y normal pas t tenses i n the text as it stands describe the successful completio n o f the task, in traditiona l theologica l languag e (us^nat g e 'ulay ba 'a 'th e year when my people are redeemed had come' and wattosa' li zfro'i 'The n my ow n arm save d me...') , whil e th e other, les s conventiona l verb s are consistently modal . Yahweh's answe r explains why he is looking so weary and bedrag gled. Ther e wa s n o one to help him . H e had t o d o the whol e job b y himself. This i s repeated fou r times , twic e in the first line (l ebaddi an d 'en-'is 'itti) an d twic e i n v . 5, wher e onc e agai n w e fin d radica l anthropomorphism. Th e ide a tha t the one God , creato r o f heaven an d earth, act s alon e an d need s n o on e t o hel p hi m i s a familia r one , especially i n Isaia h 40-66 . Bu t this i s different : here Yahweh i s des cribed a s wantin g help, indee d lookin g roun d desperatel y fo r help . The ver b histomem is used of someone 'crushe d t o the ground' b y his enemies an d 'mad e to sit in darkness like those lon g dead' (Ps . 143.3 4) an d o f a ma n sic k wit h terro r (Dan . 8.17 , 27) . I t i s applie d t o Yahweh twice : here , an d i n a simila r contex t in 59.16 . Unlik e h amus and so 'eh i n v . 1 , its meanin g is well known. I t differ s fro m th e othe r intransitive stem s o f th e roo t samam (qa l an d niphal ) onl y i n bein g restricted t o persona l subjects . Whil e th e qa l an d nipha l form s ar e applied to the devastation and desolation of lands and cities as well, the hithpolel form is used only of human being s an d Yahweh, o f psycho logical or emotional devastation , as it were, not physical. The extrem e anthropomorphis m implie d b y th e applicatio n o f thi s verb t o Go d ha s onc e agai n bee n har d fo r commentator s an d trans lators t o accept. On e wa y o f avoidin g it i s t o reduce th e force o f th e 1. Cf . A.B . Davidson , Hebrew Syntax (Edinburgh : T . & T. Clark , 1894) , pp. 90-95; J.F.A . Sawyer, A Modern Introduction t o Biblical Hebrew (London : Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976) , pp. 86-89. 2. E.g . Duhm , Jesaia, p. 434; Box , Isaiah, p. 327; McKenzie, Second Isaiah, p. 186 ; Bonnard , L e Second Isal'e, p . 434; Whybray , Isaiah 40-66, p . 254 . Skinner tries t o understand MT as it stands (Isaiah XL-LXVI, p . 196) .

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word b y renderin g i t a s 'wondered ' (59.1 6 AV , RSV ; 63.5 AV), suggesting mild surprise, or 'amazed , aghast' (63. 5 NEB) . Jerome goe s farther i n thi s anti-anthropomorphi c directio n wit h quaesivi 'asked , inquired'. As well a s weakening the effect, thi s introduces a new and quite irrelevan t anthropomorphism , namel y th e ide a tha t God di d no t have th e wisdo m t o realize tha t h e had n o allies in hi s figh t agains t evil. Other s introduc e th e notio n o f mora l outrage : '(Yahweh ) wa s outraged (NEB ) or appalle d (RSV ) that n o on e intervened ' (59.16). 1 But thi s moral dimensio n i n the word histomem seem s on the face o f it unlikely. Surely i n this context we need t o understand it i n its ordi nary sens e o f shoc k an d horror , a s o f someon e panic-stricke n an d aware both o f the enormity of the task t o be don e and o f th e fac t tha t there is no one in the world to help him do it. In the second half of the book o f Isaiah, wher e images o f Yahweh include those of a woman in labour, gaspin g and panting (42.14), and of a midwife assisting a t th e birth o f a bab y (66.9) , no t t o mentio n tha t o f Yahwe h wanderin g wearily bac k fro m work , hi s clothe s lookin g a s i f the y ar e staine d with the juice o f grapes, w e have no justification fo r playing down the anthropomorphism expresse d b y this verb, o r any of the other radica l images in this passage. Another important point that has to be made about Yahweh's speec h is that the same ambiguit y or vacillation whic h was identified in vv. 1 and 2 run s throug h thi s also . Alongsid e thos e strikin g glimpse s o f God's staine d garments , hi s lonelines s an d hi s horror , w e fin d con ventional references t o his wrath, his day of vengeance an d the saving power o f his arm . In one verse he is the subjec t o f both histomem 't o be horrified ' an d hosia' 't o save' , just a s in v . 1 he i s both 'comin g forth fro m Edom' , a s i n day s o f old , an d 'wearil y stooping' , bot h 'glorious in his apparel' and 'i n blood-stained clothes' . He suffers, an d at the same time inflicts suffering . There i s als o vacillatio n between th e imag e of th e wear y laboure r returning fro m th e winepres s and th e bloodstaine d warrio r returning from th e scen e o f carnag e on th e da y o f judgment. The figur e i s tha t of a bloodstained warrior , but th e red stain s on his clothe s mak e hi m look lik e someon e wh o ha s bee n workin g in a wine-press ; an d thi s leads t o a comparison betwee n a bloody battl e i n which he crushes his enemies an d the trampling of grapes i n a winepress. 2 But the sense is 1. Cf . Cheyne, Th e Prophecies o f Isaiah, p . 101 . 2. Cf . Joel 4.13 (Englis h 3.13) ; Lam. 1.15 . Westerman n sees an allusion her e

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clear throughout . Th e poe t portray s Yahwe h no t a s a triumphan t gloating warrior , swaggerin g bac k fro m battle , unmove d b y th e enormity o f wha t h e ha s ha d t o do , bu t a s tire d an d bloodstained , barely recognizable, a s someone wh o knows what it is to suffer . One final point about this remarkable passag e concern s it s relation ship to the passages immediately preceding and following it. The phras e Ynat g e'ulay 'th e year o f my redeemed ones ' i n v. 4 (RS V footnote) picks u p th e reference t o 'th e redeemed o f Yahweh ' i n th e pictur e of redemption at the end of the previous chapter (62.11-12) . Redemption , especially i n thes e chapters , involve s th e ruthles s crushin g o f th e forces o f injustice . Th e 'victory ' o r 'salvation ' a t th e climax o f th e picture in v. 5 is made possible b y Yahweh's wrath ('my wrath upheld me')—anger, tha t is , a t th e injustic e don e t o hi s people . I t wa s tha t anger tha t gav e hi m strengt h t o figh t agains t th e oppressor , an d spurred him o n to crush and humiliate them so mercilessly. Those called 'redeeme d o f Yahweh ' featur e just a s prominently i n the followin g passage , whic h contains some othe r important points of continuity a s well . I t i s a hym n i n prais e o f Yahweh' s lov e fo r hi s people: ' I will tell o f Yahweh's lovin g actions (h asadim)... al l tha t h e has done for them in his deep love...' Fou r words for 'love ' ar e used , including rah amim, a ter m o f specia l significanc e i n thes e chapter s (e.g. 49.13-14) . hosia' 't o save' and ga'al 't o redeem' bot h reappear . But mos t extraordinary , almost a s thoug h intended as a comment o n the immediatel y precedin g passag e w e have been considering , i s th e phrase b ekol-saratam Id' sar i n v . 9: 'i n al l thei r affliction , h e wa s afflicted' (KJV , RSV). As one would expect, most commentators cannot take thi s an d emen d th e text : e.g . 'i n al l thei r troubles . I t wa s n o envoy...' (NEB). 1 Kimh i make s sens e of the Hebre w tex t as it stand s and glosse s i t wit h th e sentence wattiqsar napso ba' amal yisra el 'h e [God] coul d no t endur e the sufferin g o f Israel ' (o f course , h e adds , rfhakkol derek masal 'everythin g i s by way of allegory'). I se e no reason wh y w e to o shoul d not tr y t o understand the tex t a s it stands ,

to the Babylonia n myt h of the battle between Mardu k an d Tiamat (Isaiah 40-66, pp. 382-83), an d i n a Ugaritic paralle l th e goddess Ana t return s hom e fro m battl e covered in blood. 1. Cf . LXX, Old Latin; Skinner , Isaiah XLr-LKVI, p . 200; Westermann, Isaiah 40-66, p. 385; Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, p. 257; Bonnard, L e Second Isai'e, p. 443.

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especially since , a s we have seen , ther e seem s t o be a surprising consistency in the language and imagery used here. 1 Ill

To g o back t o Alons o Schokel' s commen t o n image s wit h which w e began, w e might ask the question, What kind of 'formles s experience ' preceded th e extraordinar y imager y o f thi s passage ? I f w e plac e i t alongside a number of similar passage s i n Isaiah 40-66 , it is not har d to recognize behind the poet's images an experience of his God Yahwe h that i s consistent and convincing . Possibly in hi s ow n suffering , o r in that o f th e communit y wher e h e lives , th e poe t ha s encountere d th e human face o f Yahweh in a peculiarly intimate way. Perhaps th e ter m that bes t sum s u p hi s experienc e o f Yahwe h i s rah amim, wit h it s earthy association s with a mother's physiologica l closenes s to the baby in he r wom b (cf . 49.14-15 ; 46.3-4). 2 Thi s experienc e inspire d th e images h e uses : th e mothe r goin g throug h the pain s of childbirt h fo r him (42.14) , th e remorseful husband swearing almost on bended kne e never t o los e hi s tempe r agai n (54.7-10) , th e midwif e attendin g th e birth o f a baby (66.9), 3 and the bloodstained soldier, returning fro m fighting hi s battle (63.1-6) , alone , weary, unrecognized. The commo n theme i n al l thes e image s i s th e deep , close , comfortin g involvement of Yahwe h i n th e struggl e for justice and freedo m i n th e world : 'th e year o f my redeemed one s has come' (63.6) . As we have seen , no t every on e has bee n abl e t o relate to som e of these radica l images, an d elaborate mean s have been sough t to remov e them or reduce thei r effectiveness. But in view of other radica l innovations i n thes e chapters , notabl y th e ne w emphasi s o n explici t mono theism and th e analysis of vicarious suffering i n Isaiah 53 , it is hard t o deny tha t the y ar e ther e i n th e Hebre w text , a s Jewis h traditionalist s like Kimhi , as well as the KJ V and others , hav e acknowledged , an d i t is a sig n of th e time s tha t modern commentator s hav e begu n t o tak e such things seriously again. 1. Cf . Smith , Isaiah XL-LXVI, p . 450; I.W . Slotki, Isaiah (London : Soncino Press, 1949) , p . 307 . 2. Cf . Trible, Go d and th e Rhetoric o f Sexuality, pp . 31-59; Ruether, Sexism and God-Talk, p . 56; McFague, Metaphorical Theology, pp . 169-70 . 3. J.F.A . Sawyer , Th e Daughte r of Zion and the Servant of the Lord in Isaiah : A Comparison', JSOT 4 4 (1989), pp. 89-107.

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What ar e the implication s of this for 'metaphorica l theology' ? The earliest interpretatio n o f th e passag e i n Christia n traditio n come s i n Revelation, where i t i s Christ who is 'cla d i n a robe dippe d i n blood' and who will 'tread the wine-press of the fury o f the wrath of God th e Almighty' (Rev . 19.13-15) . I t was later als o related t o the crucifixion . There is , fo r example, i n Christian art the famous scene derive d fro m Augustine, in which the great woode n frame of a wine-press i s modi fied t o represent a cross, and , instead of grape-juice, i t is the blood o f Christ that flows out into a chalice beneath. 1 Both o f these interpreta tions explain th e extraordinary ambiguity of the passage b y referenc e to the person o f Christ, bot h divin e and human, both glorious, power ful an d life-givin g on th e on e hand, and suffering , tortured , weary, on the other. The y als o voice the problem posed b y a model o f God that has been hard for commentators to accept . But, a s Calvin pointe d out , the passag e i s actuall y abou t Yahweh , not Jesus , an d thu s must provide scriptura l authorit y for a mode l o f God rathe r differen t fro m th e traditiona l ones. 2 To en d a s w e bega n with McFague' s 'metaphorica l theology ' an d he r notio n of 'Go d a s friend', suc h a n imag e shift s th e emphasi s fro m transcendenc e an d once-for-all salvatio n i n a father/chil d mode, a s sh e says , t o a con tinuing adult relationship marked by sacrifice , suffering an d solidarity with others : 'Go d is th e friend wh o makes sacrifice s on ou r behalf.. . co-operates with gifts o f power, perseveranc e an d insight.. . and when we fall...forgive s us'. 3 In Genesis, words containing the root 'sb ar e used bot h o f th e 'pain ' an d 'toil ' o f Ev e an d Adam , and o f th e pai n that Yahweh felt i n his heart when he saw the evil that was being done on the earth he had created. 4 Isa. 63.10 i s another example . Fo r thos e who hav e eye s t o see , th e Hebrew Bibl e contains many 'proof-texts ' for suc h alternativ e models o f God . Isa . 63.1- 6 i s surel y on e o f th e most poignant. 1. Cf . L . Lee, G . Seddon an d F.Stephe n (eds.) , Stained Glass (London : Mitchell Beazley, 1976) , p . 140 . 2. G.A . Smith, quoting Calvin, finds here a descriptio n o f 'th e passion , th e agony, the unshared and unaided effort whic h the Divine Saviour passes through for his people ' (Isaiah XL-LXVI, p . 433). Cf . Skinner , Isaiah XL-LXVI, p . 194 ; Slotki, Isaiah, p . 307; J.F.A . Sawyer , Isaiah, I I (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, Edinburgh: S t Andrews Press, 1986) , pp . 195-96 . 3. McFague , Metaphorical Theology, p . 186. 4. Cf . C . Westermann , Genesis (Philadelphia : Fortres s Press , 1984) , I , pp. 410-11.

Part I I EZEKIEL

EZEKIEL 16: ABANDONED CHILD, BRIDE ADORNED OR UNFAITHFUL WIFE?* M.G. Swanepoel

ABSTRACT Ezekiel 16.1-6 3 uses different metaphor s in bringing its message home . For instance it uses the shocking metaphor of immorality in order to eliminate the false confidence in huma n merit. We find Yahweh in this text as a outraged and exasperated lover . The pendulu m swings i n Ezekiel 16 , metaphorically, from a n abandoned chil d of suspect parentage (judgment) to ceremonies of fetching the bride (restoration); fro m a wedding (restoration) t o a prostitute who pays her lovers (judgment) ; and fro m th e disgraceful conduc t o f he r daughter s (judgment) to a ne w everlastin g covenan t (restoration). This is a mirror image from lif e with a meaning for life. Opposites meet in this text. Here is magnificent mercy, regardless o f filth and vileness; and then the love o f Yahwe h in spite o f the evil o f human beings . The purpose : A ne w understanding and appreciation o f Yahweh. 1. Introduction Surely on e o f the mos t gripping units in the book o f Ezekiel i s ch . 16 . Yet scholars lik e Gowa n (1985: 65) are of the opinion tha t this impor tant par t o f th e boo k o f Ezekiel canno t stand o n its ow n bu t ca n only be discussed i n connection with other texts. The message of Ezekiel 1 6 is als o describe d a s 'shocking ' o r 'unacceptable ' (Gowa n 1985 : 66) . Here w e se e th e Lor d i n hi s lov e mortified by a n abandone d chil d t o whom he had show n compassion . Therefor e Lemk e (1984: 176) justifiably remark s o n Ezekie l 16 : 'Al l th e ro t an d vilenes s o f th e natio n had to be exposed mercilessly ; all the false confidenc e in human merit , all the facile claims o n God's mercy had to be undercut radically onc e

and for all'.

* Thi s articl e i s a translation o f an Afrikaans article that appeared i n Skrifen Kerkl 1(1990): 80-102.

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5

This sectio n ha s als o le d t o widel y differin g interpretations . Lan g (1981: 137 ) quotes som e o f thes e views . H e quotes Koch , who says , 'In al l of world literature, ther e is hardly a document that portrays th e history o f its ow n people in suc h a negative an d guilt-stricken light' . And Jasper s refer s t o 'sexua l metaphor s i n Ezekie l 1 6 and 2 3 which occur with schizophrenia' (Lan g 1981 : 62) . Greenberg (1983 : 299 ) howeve r give s a n interestin g view : 'B y extending th e metaphor i n time, Ezekiel provide d th e adulterous wif e of Hosea and Jeremiah wit h a biography'. It is very clear tha t Ezekie l 16 makes use of metaphors like that of the unfaithful wif e t o say some thing t o th e Jerusale m o f hi s ow n tim e a s wel l a s t o th e childre n o f God today. The content of the metaphor has far-reaching consequences for th e relationship between the Lor d an d his children . Lemke (1984: 176) speak s o f Yahweh a s the 'outrage d and exasperated lover , rathe r than a tender an d forgiving parent... ' when he thinks of Ezekiel 16 . Ezek. 16.1-6 3 forms a neat, well-defined unit . It begins in 16. 1 with the conventiona l Wortereignis-formula whic h introduces mos t of the prophecies i n th e book o f Ezekiel. Th e appropriat e conclusion o f th e unit come s a t th e en d o f 16.6 3 wit h th e conventiona l Gottesspruchformula. Ezek . 16.1-6 3 is in addition the longest prophecy in the book of Ezekie l (Greenber g 1983 : 292) . 2. Text-Critical Notes The aim of this investigation is to establish the theology of Ezekiel 16 . In orde r to achieve this a thorough study o f the Hebrew Masoretic text (BHS) i s necessary. Some text-critical observations are important in this case: 16.6b-b. Th e original LXX and the Syria c translation, together with a few othe r manuscripts , leave thi s part out because o f the possibilit y of dittography . I n m y opinio n th e M T readin g shoul d b e retaine d because th e repetition emphasizes the idea. 76.7 c-c. The reading of the text-critica l not e is DH U ru n or onus. This ma y be translated , 'in th e time of menstruation'. I t makes bette r sense in th e contex t if th e MT , where D"-iu "Hi n ma y b e translate d a s 'finest ornaments', i s followed. 16.15b-b. The M T reading i s 'rr'V? (i t wa s fo r him) . Accordin g t o Fuhs (1984: 83), 'th e end of the verse in H is incomprehensible'. The LXX throw s n o ligh t on th e matter . Zimmerl i (1979 : 325 ) point s ou t

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that 'thi s undoubte d secondary elemen t i n th e tex t i s interprete d b y Halevy (Toy ) as TP V ? (whoeve r he ma y be)'. Here perhap s w e shoul d say tha t w e d o no t know . Fuh s (1984 : 83 ) i s o f th e opinio n tha t perhaps i t shoul d b e lef t untranslated . The M T reading i s therefor e retained fo r wan t of a better alternative . 16.23b-b. Accordin g t o the text-critical not e thi s section i s wanting in th e LXX , namely "p ^ H ^I K (woe , wo e t o you) . I t doe s no t mak e much difference to the meaning, and so the MT can readily b e retained. 16.24a. The text-critical note points out that many other manuscripts vocalize 3 1 and the n translat e i t a s 'platform ' o r 'artificiall y con structed hill', according to Wevers (1969 : 99) . Th e M T vocalizes a s aa (dam, hollow o r bed). I t looks a s if the text-critical not e make s mor e sense in the context. I therefore agree wit h Wevers . 16.29b. Th e text-critica l not e indicate s tha t th e LX X doe s no t include this word. It may perhaps have been added . The M T reading is ]i?)D (lan d of commerce). I agree wit h Wever s (1969 : 99 ) tha t Canaan here ha s th e possibl e meanin g of 'trader ' an d is used a s a n adjective. There is therefore n o reason t o deviate from th e MT. 16.53a. According to the text-critica l not e the reading is "roan (i f I change). The M T reading is Total (captivit y of) - Th e latte r doe s no t make sens e i n th e context . Th e text-critica l chang e i s therefor e preferable. J6.57a. The not e proposes inri y (you r nakedness) instead o f -[run (your wickedness). The note makes better sense in the context. 16.57c. The M T reading is D~I « (Aram/Syria) . Th e text-critica l not e is an« (Edom) , o n th e basi s o f th e Syria c translatio n of th e LX X and many othe r manuscripts . The Edom-moti f appear s i n Ezek. 25.12 and 36.5. Th e Aramaean s ar e als o no t show n elsewher e a s enemie s o f Jerusalem (Greenber g 1983 : 290) . Th e LX X is no t howeve r a goo d external criterion fo r accepting the note. I stand, therefore, b y th e MT. 16.61. The LXX (Latin translation) of th e reading o f papyru s 967 i s in Hebre w ^nnp n ( I take). The text-critica l amendment is preferable t o the MT, because Yahweh is the subject and nobody else. 3. The Structure When w e stud y th e structur e of Ezekie l 1 6 we fin d som e interesting phenomena. Th e structura l analysis of ch . 1 6 is therefor e o f cardina l importance fo r th e understanding of the peri cope.

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7

As ha s alread y bee n said , Ezek . 16. 1 begin s wit h th e conventional Wortereignis-formula whic h we find 45 time s i n th e boo k o f Ezekie l (cf. vo n Rabena u 1955-56 : 681) . Th e fac t tha t th e wor d o f Yahwe h comes t o hi s prophe t i s i n ver y trut h a n event . Thi s even t i s o f decisive importanc e fo r th e whol e o f th e res t o f th e pericope . I t ca n justifiably b e accepted tha t 16. 1 is the matrix in which everything tha t follows is embedded. The waw-consecutiv e an d imperfec t tens e i n 16. 1 i s followe d b y direct speec h in 36.2, wher e the prophet i s addressed a s m«-p (so n of man), and is instructed t o act as an intermediary betwee n Yahwe h an d Jerusalem. 3.1. From Abandoned Child to Beauty Queen It is very clea r that (16.3-14 ) forms sub-pericope A. The sub-pericope begins wit h th e messanger' s formul a i n 16. 3 an d end s wit h th e Gottesspruch-formula a t th e end o f 16.14 . The dominan t role playe d by th e first-perso n subject , Yahweh , i s striking . Yahwe h i s i n contro l of every even t enacted i n this sub-pericope. Jerusalem' s fathe r was an Amorite an d he r mothe r a Hittite , accordin g t o v . 3. I n 16.4 , 5 the treatment o f th e newbor n baby i s discusse d (Greenber g 1983 : 274) . McKeating state s unequivocall y tha t Ezekie l ha s a preferenc e fo r 'metaphors involving filth, dirt and loathsome matter'. The alternatio n o f first-perso n verb s wit h second-perso n verb s shows th e caring activitie s an d persona l relationshi p whic h develo p between Yahwe h and the abandoned child. The Stichwort m (blood ) i s used i n clos e relatio n wit h rr n (life ) i n 16.7 . Wever s (1969 : 96 ) rightly observe s tha t Ezekie l cleverl y play s o n th e ter m 'blood' . A new metapho r i s used in 16.7 , namel y that of ma~i (plan t of the field) , with the aim of placing the emphasis on life, vitality and growth. It is clear tha t the foundling chil d thrives under Yahweh's loving care. It i s therefor e no t strang e tha t Yahweh' s car e an d tende r compas sion result , i n 16.8 , i n a rvn (bond ) wit h the no w youn g and nubil e girl (Greenber g 1983 : 276) . Her e w e fin d th e covenan t formul a (Greenberg 1983 : 278), an d Zimmerli (1979 : 340 ) i s therefor e correc t in hi s opinion tha t thi s mentio n o f a betrotha l i s base d o n Yahweh' s initiative. 'O n he r ow n sh e ha d n o statu s fo r marriage . The n th e second wonde r occurred'. The cleansin g o f menstrua l blood (D~I ) links back t o v. 7 and forward to v. 22 (Greenberg 1983 : 278) . Yahweh's abundant mercy i s depicted furthe r whe n he clothes OBJ3 )

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the girl to cover her nakedness (cf. Gen. 3). Wevers (1969 : 96) shows that th e coverin g of nakednes s is a symbol of marriage. The gir l now belongs t o Yahweh (Greenber g 1983 : 277) . Thi s proces s o f adorning and beautifyin g (16.9 , 10 ) leads th e gir l t o a brida l crow n (Wever s 1969: 96) , an d in 16.1 2 sh e is see n a s a princess (Greenber g 1983 : 278). Th e profusio n o f clothe s an d gift s i s probabl y evidenc e o f Egyptian influence , accordin g t o Fuhs (1984: 82) . Thi s gir l is breathtakingly beautifu l (INB IK M ••STII ) an d i t i s understandabl e tha t sh e goes out (KJPI ) among the nations and wins fame for her 'Lover ' (mm ) (16.14). The nations (n^n) is a term that has a political meaning . The Gottesspruch-formula i n 16.1 4 places th e seal o n the fact tha t Yahweh is th e subjec t o f ever y lov e affair . Sub-pericop e A (16.3-14 ) ca n correctly b e described i n the phrase: From abandoned child t o beauty queen. 3.2. Unfaithful Sub-pericope B begins with a waw-adversative in 16.15 . Thi s i s als o the beginnin g of a succession o f second-perso n singula r verbs i n th e imperfect i n which the reckless misdeeds of Jerusalem are emphasized. The frequen t appearanc e o f th e roo t ^ t (fornication ) i s noticeabl e throughout th e sub-pericope , s o tha t on e ca n sa y tha t *x i s th e con tinous them e o f thi s sub-pericope . Indee d thi s root appear s i n 16.1 5 (2x), 16 , 17 , 20, 21 , 25 , 26 , 2 8 (2x), 29, 30, 31 , 3 3 (2x) and 3 4 (2x). Ezek. 16.3 4 conclude s this peri cope. The dissolute misdeeds have been recorded. Tw o opposin g ~\sn phrase s for m an inclusio i n v . 34. Th e two mai n verbs form a chiasmus (cf. Greenberg 1983 : 293) . Thi s can be regarded a s a summary of the foregoing. The sin s o f Israe l ar e pile d u p hig h i n sub-pericop e B . Wever s (1969: 98) shows convincingly that Tipm (you took) appears in vv. 16, 17, 1 8 and 20 , a s wel l a s Ti m i n v . 19 . I n thi s wa y th e emphasi s i s placed o n th e ide a tha t the gift s tha t Yahweh gave ar e no w misused : v. 16 : the clothe s ar e used for idolatry (sacre d prostitution , accordin g to Greenberg 1983 : 280) ; v . 17: the misuse of cultic objects: gol d an d silver; v . 19: th e misus e o f food ; vv . 20-22: th e sacrific e of childre n (newborn childre n ar e th e resul t o f fornication) . It i s therefor e clea r that the gift ha s superseded the Given (Zimmerli : 1979 : 343). I n v . 2 2 there is a reference bac k t o v . 6 with the repetition o f the same phras e •pin noo'an n (flounderin g i n you r blood) . Th e objec t o f thi s i s t o accentuate the contrast between what Yahweh has done in A (vv. 3-14)

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9

and what Jerusalem is doing now in B (vv. 15-34). The lamen t in v . 2 3 i s strengthene d by th e Gottesspruch-formula which i s a reminder that it is Yahwe h speaking . Notwithstanding this fact, ther e i s a n emphasi s o n th e increas e o f fornicatio n (••Di m -[mwrrm), strengthene d b y th e frequentativ e pie l o f pffl s i n v . 25 (Greenberg 1983 : 282) . Fro m vv . 2 3 t o 2 9 a numbe r o f politica l lovers ar e named : th e Egyptian s (v . 26), th e Philistine s (v . 27), th e Assyrians (v . 28) an d th e Chaldaeans/Babylonian s i n v . 29 (cf . Greenberg 1983 : 282) . Eac h i s representativ e o f a specifi c political period i n Israel' s history . The shockin g image o f immorality is use d to express Yahweh' s aversion to the fact tha t in his love for Jerusale m he ha s bee n forsaken . Verse s 2 3 t o 2 9 i n fac t sa y tha t ever y er a i n Israel's histor y has been characterized by infidelity an d disobedience . We are not even spare d the greatest shock. The shockin g fact i s diat 'you d o no t receiv e a fee, yo u give it ' (v . 34). Maarsing h i s surel y referring, among others , t o thi s sectio n whe n h e say s o f th e boo k Ezekiel, that there are parts that chill one to the bone (Le Roux: 1987: 190). Tha t yo u pay your men instead of them paying you is surel y the summit of immorality. In v. 32 the wife i s described a s adulterous an d unfaithful (pie l of *]«]). It must however be remembere d tha t Zimmerl i (1979: 343 ) is probably correct in asserting tha t the fornication on th e high place s point s rather t o th e metapho r tha n th e dee d itself . Th e book o f Ezekie l wishe s t o expres s i n thi s wa y Israel' s shockin g departure fro m Yahweh . The fornicatio n is a metapho r fo r Israel' s search fo r political securit y apart from Yahweh . 3.3. Judgment Sub-pericope C (16.35-43) i s introduced with th e messenger formul a (v. 35 ) an d a n inferentia l p 1? i n 16.36 . Thi s p 4? is , accordin g t o Fishbane (1984 : 148) , ' a lega l nexu s between th e sin s and the divine decision to punish them'. As a result of th e grea t numbe r of "X verbs , Jerusalem i s no w calle d nn t (whore) . She has don e it s o often tha t it has becam e almos t a prope r name . Th e messenge r formul a (16.36 ) indicates tha t Yahweh is stil l in control of this moral crisis. Vers e 3 6 refers agai n t o "o r an d relate s i t t o v . 2 1 (th e chil d murder) . Th e punishment (pb ) i n v . 37 consist s i n bringin g th e forme r lover s together, an d 'the n I will strip you naked before them so that they can see you r whol e bod y naked' . Nakednes s is a constan t theme i n thi s sub-pericope. The nakedness (-|nnjj) that is revealed i s a symbol of the

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loss of Yahweh's protection (Wever s 1969 : 96) . Fishban e (1984 : 138 ) rightly says , 'Sh e wil l b e strippe d nake d befor e he r lover s (thu s reversing the robing motif of her youth)'. Yahweh is in ful l control of the punishmen t (vv . 36-38)—notice th e large numbe r o f first-perso n verbs. Yahweh gather s the erstwhile lovers (v. 37). He judges (-pncoech) the adulterer s an d th e shedder s o f blood . Th e en d (on ) i s lik e th e beginning (at ) in v. 6 (Greenberg 1983 : 286) . I n v. 39 he hands ove r the bad woman to the lovers. The punishment fits the revolting deeds of the unfaithful wife . God himself send s her to a violent death (Greenber g 1983: 294 ) i n which the adulterous wif e is stoned (vv . 40-41). Yahweh remain s i n contro l of the action o f thi s judgment, but i t i s important t o not e th e fac t tha t i t i s th e erstwhil e lover s wh o gathe r 0>np) agains t th e woma n an d ston e he r (mm ) an d bur n her (v . 41) . Of Yahwe h i t i s sai d onl y that he wil l pu t a n en d t o th e fornication (njiwa -protim) . Within this judgment ther e is yet salvation. Fo r Yahwe h the endin g o f th e fornicatio n is mor e importan t tha n th e violenc e o f the punishment. Al l that happens i s that Yahweh give s th e lover s th e opportunity t o sho w themselve s i n thei r tru e colours . An d no w the y do no t spar e thei r erstwhil e darling. No, the y are responsible fo r he r return t o th e tim e whe n sh e la y defenceles s an d flounderin g i n he r own blood (v . 6) (Fishbane 1984: 138) . It must happen in order t o place Yahweh's gifts onc e again in the right perspective. The Gottesspruchformula i n 16.4 3 ratifie s Yahweh' s fur y an d anger , deserte d b y Jerusalem in his unbounded love. 3.4. Like Mother, Like Daughter? Sub-pericope D begins wit h th e exclamatic run i n 16.44 . It is followed by a ^fflf c (proverb) , 'Lik e mother, lik e daughter', or 'Sh e is a chip off the ol d block' . Vers e 4 5 hark s back t o v . 3 with its referenc e t o th e mother a s a Hittite and the father as an Amorite . The influenc e o f Jerusale m reache s further . Zimmerl i (1979 : 350 ) rightly refer s t o th e second-perso n singula r feminin e suffi x whic h suddenly changes to the plural. Thus the unity of the whole pericope i s maintained by means o f cross references. Th e sam e tun e (message) i s played throughou t i n anothe r ke y (metaphor) . I n v . 46 ther e i s a reference t o a specifi c tradition about Samari a and Sodom . Jerusale m is th e mothe r an d Sodo m an d Samari a ar e he r daughters . Greenber g (1983: 288) i s apparently correct whe n he remarks: 'Sinc e the daughter's depravit y derive s fro m ba d heredity , he r mother' s behavio r i s

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1

wholly assimilate d t o her s (thoug h it i s nowher e described t o hav e been so)' . W e ca n regard vv . 4 4 t o 4 7 a s a sub-uni t (Dl ) unde r th e heading: Like mother, like daughter. Verse 48 is a new sub-unit (D2) on the basis o f the Scfcwr-formul a plus the Gottesspruch-formula. Th e theme of Sub-unit D2 (vv. 48-58 ) is: Jerusalem's ba d sisters look 'good ' i n comparison wit h her shame less behaviour . The sin s of Sodo m ar e named i n v . 49. Her e 'foo d i n plenty' (anbTimfo ) an d 'self-indulgence ' (opaj n mbah ) ar e use d a s synonyms (cf . Greenber g 1983 : 289) . The y stan d in contras t t o ym) , (pride), th e complemen t o f rpri , an d explain it . I t i s thu s at th e sam e time one of the characteristics, but also the cause of pride. Samaria i s use d i n v . 51 to present Jerusale m a s a n activ e subject . 'Your sins ar e so much more abominabl e tha n theirs tha t they appear innocent in comparison with you', according to the NEB translation of v. 52 . Jerusale m gav e he r sister s th e appearanc e o f righteousnes s (•jnp-i^n) (feminin e infinitive construc t of p-re) by pleadin g for them . However, i n v . 53 Yahwe h wil l chang e th e fortune s Omen ) o f Sodom, Samari a an d Jerusalem . Notic e th e pla y o n word s betwee n TOW an d rrott ? (captivity) . Jerusalem's behaviou r was mor e disgraceful than tha t of he r daughters . Yet sh e benefitte d (am ) the m throug h her bad ways (v. 54) . Sh e had boasted of he r superiorit y (v. 56). Zimmerl i (1979: 351 ) describe s th e parado x thus : 'Th e on e wh o sinne d mor e than Sodom or Samaria defends these sisters before God's judgment of the worl d an d effect s thei r rehabilitation' . Greenber g (1983 : 289 ) notes meaningfully : 'Furthermore , the cases o f her sisters bein g bette r than hers , thei r restoratio n wil l take precedenc e ove r her s (not e th e order i n vv . 53 , 55) s o that hers ca n be sai d to b e incidental t o their s ("among them")' . T o understan d the ful l humiliatin g impact o f this , we mus t loo k a t th e negativ e tradition s surroundin g Samaria an d Sodom in tradition criticism . No w it is the arch-nemies Edom and the Philistines who jeer at Jerusalem. The Gottesspruch-formula i n v . 58 set s th e sea l o n the punishment for th e 'lewd and abominable conduct', which Jerusalem now must bear (DTIKC?]). Th e guil t is indicate d by th e indicative/jussiv e third-person perfect o f *m. The guil t (throug h th e punishmen t o f Yahweh ) i s a reproach i n th e eye s o f th e nation s (erstwhile lovers). A recognition of guilt is required, and the acceptance of the accompanying reproach. This i s als o th e conclusio n of sub-pericope s D an d E . Th e bridg e between D and E is n^u "ffii o (v . 59), 'a s you have done', which agrees

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with rrfoj ? no» 3 ^ in v. 54 (cf. vv . 48, 51; and cf. Greenberg 1983 : 297). 3.5. Mercy? Sub-pericope E begin s i n 16.5 9 wit h th e doubl e emphati c " o (cf . Greenberg 1983 : 291 ) followe d b y the messenger s formula . W e find here a reference agai n t o th e rr~ D (covenant ) tha t wa s mad e i n v . 8 (cf. Greenber g 1983 : 291 ) wit h an addition, namel y 'fo r ever ' (nbiy) , as wel l a s a n alternatio n betwee n th e firs t an d secon d person . Thi s alternation o f the subjec t between Yahwe h and Jerusalem emphasize s Jerusalem's responsibilit y for it s ow n hopeles s condition , as wel l a s the actio n Yahweh takes to relieve tha t condition . The second-perso n verbs (Jerusalem) contrast wit h the first-person verbs (Yahweh) . This is a stylistic characteristic of this sub-pericope. The ide a o f ID T (remember ) figure s strongl y in thi s pericop e an d refers bac k t o vv. 43 and 22 . Zimmerli (1979 : 352 ) strongl y empha sises thi s idea: 'Agains t Jerusalem's "no t remembering" v . 60 sets th e gracious "remembering " b y Yahweh , through which Jerusalem i s t o be brought to a right "remembering" (vv . 61, 63 ) wit h a sens e o f it s own shame' . I n thi s connectio n it i s meaningfu l t o notic e th e rol e played by 0^2 (vv . 61, 63). "jrr~o& N^ T (no t according to you r covenant) in v . 61 make s i t clea r that Sodom an d Samaria are not accepted withi n th e same covenant as Jerusalem, bu t sho w a wide r covenan t (cf . Zimmerl i 1979 : 353) . Yahweh in v. 6 2 establishes th e covenant (TP-D) with Jerusalem, an d the basis of this covenant (as well as of the whole pericope) i s found in the conventiona l Erkenntnis-formula, whic h is th e basi c formul a in the book o f Ezekiel. Thi s is followe d in v . 63 by rraa i no m pa b (s o that you will remember an d be ashamed) a s the inevitable result of the first-person actio n o f Yahwe h in v . 62. Th e sub-pericop e a s wel l a s the pericope a s a whole i s seale d wit h nsaa ( I cover/close) , whic h formulates th e ide a o f reconciliatio n as th e culminatio n point . Th e idea of forgiveness stands in the forefront togethe r with the Erkenntnisformula i n v . 62. Th e whol e pericope close s wit h the Gottesspruchformula i n v . 63 . Vo n Rabenau (1955-56: 678 ) correctl y point s ou t that thi s formul a emphasise s th e authorit y o f th e argumen t 'de s gottlichen "Ich"', as coming from Yahweh.

h

3.6. Structural Synthesis Ezekiel 1 6 can be structurall y analysed a s follows: A Yahweh Discourse Wortere/gms-formula oiH-p messenger formula

Gottesspruch-formula.

v. 1 v. 2 v. 3 v. 14 v. 15 v. 19 v. 23 v. 34 v. 35 v. 36 v. 43 v. 44 v. 47 v. 48 v. 58

Erkenntnis-formula Gottesspruch-formula.

v. 5 9 v. 6 2 v. 6 3

Gottesspruch-formula. wow-adversative

Gottesspruch-formulz Gottesspruch-formula.

summary: ~|sn concluding p 1? messenger formula

Gottesspruch-formula

exclamatic n:n double-emphatic '3 + messenger formula

A

B

C

D

E

There are two structures t o be seen i n Ezekiel 16 . One is chiastic : (vv. 3-14 ) (vv. 15-34 ) (vv. 35-43 ) (vv. 44-58) (vv. 59-6 3

A B C D E

Yahweh's merc y Jerusalem's sin Yahweh's judgmen t Jerusalem's sin Yahweh's mercy

Here, o n th e on e hand , Yahweh' s judgmen t i n th e middl e (C ) i s emphasized a s the centr e wit h B and D as the contributor y cause . O n the othe r han d th e whol e pericop e i s frame d b y God' s mercy . Thi s structure is intended to emphasize th e consequences o f Jerusalem's sin . The diamon d structur e i s climactic an d begins an d ends i n a wedge structure wit h A and E as the high points. vv. 3-14 vv. 15-3 4 vv. 35-4 3 vv. 44-58 vv. 59-6 3

A B C D E

Yahweh's mercy Jerusalem's sin Yahweh's judgment Jerusalem's sin Yahweh's mercy

mercy

judgment mercy

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Here Yahweh' s merc y a s th e beginnin g (A ) an d th e endin g (E ) i s emphasized, whil e i t i s show n a s the result o f B and D . I prefer thi s structure becaus e th e Wortereignis-formula (A ) and th e Erkenntnisformula (E ) complemen t eac h othe r a s the high points. Th e merc y o f Yahweh is emphasized her e as incomparable . 4. Gattung The Wortereignis-formula, th e messenge r formul a an d th e Gottesspruch-forrmdas tha t appear throughou t in th e pericope underline th e fac t tha t w e ar e dealin g her e wit h th e Gattung o f th e understanding of Yahweh. Sub-pericope A (vv. 3-14) i s rightly regarded b y Fuhs (1984: 80) as a Bildrede an d no t a n allegory . H e i s o f th e opinio n tha t Marchen motifs ar e associate d wit h th e foundlin g child . Garne r (1980 : 132 ) thinks that this is a case o f personification. Luc (1983: 139 ) speak s o f the metaphor o f the abandoned child . Eichrod t (1970 : 202) als o make s much o f th e folk-tal e motif . I n th e origina l stor y ther e woul d b e a wizard who saves the child by magic (Eichrodt 1970 : 205) . Both Hose a an d Jeremiah hav e simila r motifs. This child , however , is adopted. God not only saves the child, he adopts her. He treats her as his own child and not as a slave. 'I t is not that she is wonderful, but the care and gifts lavished on her by YHWH', says Greenberg (1983 : 301). I think that A is a Bildrede, with vv. 4-6 the picture of the abandoned child, v . 7 tha t o f a plant , an d vv . 8-1 5 tha t o f a bride . Ther e i s a n easy transitio n from one picture t o the other, keepin g i n mind th e one aim of converging different facet s o f the same message . In sub-pericop e B (vv . 15-34 ) w e hav e th e pictur e o f fornication , which i s a metapho r fo r idolatr y (v . 16) , templ e prostitutio n (v . 17) and th e resultan t sacrific e o f childre n (vv . 20-21). I n vv . 26-2 9 th e fornication i s a metapho r fo r Jerusalem' s foreig n politica l relation s with othe r countries . Thi s pictur e o f th e adulterou s woma n carrie s through t o v . 35 . Sub-pericop e C (vv . 35-43 ) i s introduce d b y th e messenger formul a (v. 35) and a concluding p^ (v . 37), an d it conse quently reflect s Yahweh' s judgment and wrat h over Jerusalem' s ba d behaviour whe n the adulterous woman is stoned. In sub-pericop e D (vv . 44-58 ) w e agai n hav e a Bildrede tha t i s developed aroun d a prover b (btflfc ) i n v . 44: 'Lik e mother , lik e daughter'. Thi s famil y o r househol d them e i s foun d throughou t th e

SWANEPOEL Ezekiel 1 6 9

5

whole pericope, fo r example , i n v . 20 , wher e w e fin d children , i n v. 46 , an d i n v . 61 , wher e th e sister s underg o a surprisin g trans formation (Greenber g 1983 : 295) . In conclusion , sub-pericop e E (vv . 59-63 ) i s th e clima x o f th e divine argument. I t begins wit h the messenger formul a an d conclude s with th e Gottespruch-formula. Th e Erkenntnis-formula i n v . 6 2 i s meaningful, an d it confirms that it is possible t o talk of the Gattung of Erweiswort. The Erweiswort i s abou t th e divin e evidenc e o f self revelation (cf . Zimmerl i 1965 : 52 6 an d Swanepoe l 1987 : 33) . Thu s Yahweh throug h th e Erweiswort brings abou t a personal relationshi p with him . To sum up, we can therefore sa y that the Gattung o f the pericope is a Yahweh argumen t consistin g o f variou s Bildreden, a wor d o f judgment and an Erweiswort a s a word of salvation. 5. Sitz im Leben Regarding th e Sitz i m Leben ther e i s littl e clarity . Almos t th e whol e history o f Israel i s encompasse d i n this single pericope. Traditionall y Ezekiel 1-2 4 i s typified a s a judgment prophecy and is therefore date d before th e fal l o f Jerusale m i n 58 7 BCE . The structura l analysi s ha s already show n thi s hypothesis a s problematical because the pericope closes with a salvation prophecy clima x (cf. sub-pericope E) . How can a salvatio n prophec y b e possibl e befor e th e fal l o f Jerusale m i n 58 7 BCE? If we look at the centrality o f the covenant (ma) in this sectio n and especiall y it s everlastingnes s (v . 61), the n w e must ask the ques tion whethe r th e pericop e doe s no t equall y wel l belon g i n a Sitz i m Leben afte r 58 7 BCE . In thi s connectio n i t i s importan t t o loo k a t Ezekiel 3 4 an d 3 7 (cf . Swanepoe l 1987 : 6 9 an d 154) . Th e terminus ante quern is at a time whe n the Babylonian exile belong s i n the past, thus 500 BCE, while the terminus post quern is about 721 BCE with the fall o f Samaria. 6. Motifs, Traditions and Formulas Many motifs appear i n ch. 16 . Of these th e Canaan motif in v. 3 is an interesting example . I t i s clea r tha t th e heathen origin s o f Jerusale m are her e emphasized . Canaa n i s curse d b y Noa h i n Gen . 9.25 . Th e

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Canaan moti f als o include s th e referenc e t o Amorite s an d Hittites . According to Fuhs (1984: 81) , these heathe n nation s had to be driven out b y Israe l befor e the y coul d occup y the lan d (cf . Deut . 7.1 ; Josh . 3.10 and 24.11). The Canaa n moti f i s linke d t o th e abandone d chil d o r foundling child moti f i n vv . 4-6 . Eichrod t (1970 : 202 ) call s i t th e fair y tal e motif. I n the original stor y it would be the wizard who saves th e child by magic , bu t here the hero i s Yahweh (cf . Eichrod t 1970 : 205) . W e find the defenceless chil d also in Hos. 2.2 and Jer. 3.19 . However in Ezekiel 1 6 there is a drastic change. This i s an adopte d (heathen) child , whom God not only saves, bu t even adopts . H e treat s her as his own child and not as a slave. Without more ad o the abandoned child motif passes on to the plant motif i n v . 7, whic h emphasizes vitalit y and growth . This moti f use s the languag e of the creatio n stor y in Gen . 2.4-9. I t harks bac k t o th e creation tradition (cf . Fuhs 1984 : 81) . In its tur n th e plant motif gives way t o th e marriage motif (cf. Fishban e 1984 : 139 ) i n vv . 8-14 . Zimmerli to o (1979: 340) speaks justifiably o f 'ceremonie s of fetching the bride'. This speak s o f an intimate bond between Go d and humankind. I f th e first marvel i s tha t Yahwe h adopts th e child , th e secon d marvel i s tha t he takes th e chil d to wife (cf . Fuhs 1984 : 81) . Perhap s the plethora of the metaphors needs some explanation. Zimmerli (1979 : 335 ) rightl y observe s tha t i n Ezekie l 1 6 the ga p between th e metaphor and the fact portraye d can easily disappear, an d the realit y referre d t o ma y aris e directl y out o f th e metaphor . Ther e is a directness i n the address, an d 'fro m th e very beginning everything is se t within the real m o f a n addres s of accusation . The allegor y i s a "disclosure of abomination " (v . 2), upon which th e threat o f judgment can follo w i n a direc t adres s t o th e woman ' (Zimmerl i 1979 : 335) . This must have been part o f a legal procedure presente d as a for m o f accusation tha t wa s bot h revealin g an d explanatory . Th e reade r i s moved b y th e kindnes s and grac e o f Yahwe h a s th e differen t meta phors succeed s each othe r rapidl y (on e expects an emotional climax) , but thi s expectation i s shattere d (becaus e o f the unfaithful woman ) to pave the way for the final climax of the sovereign grace o f Yahweh. The covenant formula (v . 8) is closely connecte d to this and empha sizes wha t it is about (cf . Greenberg 1983 : 254 , 277-78) , namely, th e personal relationshi p between Go d an d humanity . The them e o f th e covenant figures strongly in the book of Ezekiel (cf . Ezek. 16.8 , 59-62 ;

SWANEPOEL Ezekiel 1 6 9

7

17.13-19; 20.37 ; 34.25; 37.26; 44.7 , an d especially the formulation in 16.60, namel y obis nn a "p Tivrp m ( I wil l establish/maintai n my covenant with yo u for ever) . The pla n o f hop e come s t o th e for e i n th e renewin g o f th e Sina i covenant i n th e covenant formula, 'yo u ar e m y people— I a m your God' (cf . Kellerman n 1971 : 85) . Thi s formul a doe s no t appea r i n Ezekiel 16 , but th e ide a certainl y does . Therefore w e ca n spea k o f a covenantal theme. Great emphasis is placed o n salvation: a new day of salvation ha s dawned . A n important qualificatio n is adde d i n v . 60— the ne w da y o f salvatio n last s fo r eve r (D^ID) . Th e absenc e o f th e covenant formul a an d th e (accompanying ) stres s o n the activitie s o f Yahweh demonstrates the inadequacy of Jerusalem. The moti f o f th e unfaithful wife (?ri) fro m vv . 15-3 4 i s no t a n unfamiliar moti f i n th e OT . W e fin d it , amon g other places , i n Isa . 1.21; 57.8 ; Jer . 2.20 ; 3.2 , 6 , 20; Ezek . 23.3 , 8 , 11 , 12 ; Hos. 1.2 . A s has alread y bee n demonstrate d in th e structura l analysis, this motif suggests th e movemen t awa y fro m Yahweh , ho w th e peopl e tr y t o 'desert' Yahwe h in his love. This is also a metaphor for wrong political alliances (vv. 26-29), and for collusion with idols (vv. 17-19). Even th e chil d sacrifice s (vv. 20-22 ) ar e relate d t o this . Fo r th e children wer e apparentl y th e product s of templ e prostitutio n i n th e service o f Baal. Chil d sacrifices are also mentioned in Jer. 2.34, 3.24 , 7.31, 19. 5 an d 32.35 . The y occu r i n time s o f grea t crisis . Eichrod t (1970: 207 ) show s tha t thi s happen s whe n Yahwis m merge s int o Canaanite religions. Punishment for the unfaithfulness, adulter y and child murder follows in v . 36 . Here is the shocking exposure of the wife. Greenber g (1983 : 286) says , 'Thi s ma y be the earliest instanc e of what became a motif of hypersexualit y i n eroti c literature' . Th e guilt y dee d (exposur e before th e lovers) comes back upon the guilty woman as a curse in the form o f a punishmen t (exposure befor e Yahweh) . Hereb y bot h th e adultery wit h th e lover s (metaphor ) an d th e immoralit y wit h idol s (reality) ar e condemned . Her e th e sig n an d th e actio n merg e (cf . Zimmerli 1979 : 347) . According to v . 38 ther e are two transgressions: adultery (me«3) and bloodshed (an rosffii) - Henc e the erstwhile lovers devastat e Jerusale m (the Yahwe h marriag e ha s ru n upo n th e rock s [?]) , an d Jerusale m returns t o it s beginnin g (v. 7) , accordin g t o Greenber g (1983 : 286) . The end is like th e beginning: in blood (01) . If a woman divorces her

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husband, she must be naked when she leaves hi m (v. 39), symbolizing the withdrawal of all her husband's good s (cf . Greenberg 1983 : 287) . The punishment for adultery according t o Deut. 22.2 1 an d 2 4 is th e stoning o f th e guilt y woman . Sh e i s execute d b y stonin g as a publi c punishment t o give expressio n t o the outrag e o f th e community . Her body is also hacked/cut to pieces wit h thei r swords (v . 40). Thos e who execute th e punishmen t ar e a ^np— a ter m use d fo r a gatherin g o f armed force s (Ezek . 17.17 ; 26.7 ; 32.3 , 22 ; 38.4 , 7 , 13 , 15) as well as of a host of foreign armie s tha t descend upo n Jerusalem (Ezek . 27.27 , 34). The motifs around Samaria an d Sodom (vv . 44-58) also deserve ou r attention. Eichrodt (1970 : 217) say s that what we find here i s a direct personification. Th e Sodom motif i s als o t o be foun d i n Genesi s 18 , Amos 4.11 an d Isa. 1.9 . I n Gen . 19.5- 9 Sodo m i s linke d wit h sexual immorality. Wever s (1969 : 102 ) point s ou t tha t Sodo m lie s sout h o f Jerusalem. 'Sodo m i s "little " i n siz e no t age , sinc e i t wa s destroye d before Juda h ever existed', according to Greenberg (1983 : 288) . Samaria, o n th e othe r hand , lies t o th e lef t an d nort h o f Jerusalem . In thi s cas e i t i s nort h o f on e lookin g toward s th e risin g su n (cf . Greenberg 1983 : 294) . Samaria' s si n is idolatry , accordin g t o 2 Kg s 17.7-18. Greenber g (1983 : 288 ) als o says , 'Samari a is "big " i n size , not age , younge r tha n Jerusalem, muc h large r tha n Judah (fo r which Jerusalem stands)'. But th e questio n remains : wha t is th e functio n o f th e Sodo m an d Samaria motif s i n thi s section ? Obviousl y the Ezekie l tex t (v . 49) i s judging self-satisfaction , prid e an d wealth with regar d t o Sodom. I t is noteworthy that this aspect doe s no t appear i n Genesis 19 . So it seem s more likel y tha t Sodo m (an d Samaria ) ar e use d her e i n a manne r o f comparison/metaphorically t o emphasize th e typica l socia l condition s round about Jerusale m (cf . Zimmerl i 1979 : 350) . Wha t it is sayin g is that th e daughters ' (Samaria' s an d Sodom's) ba d behaviour ha s bee n learned fro m th e mother (Jerusalem) . In this connection Greenberg (1983 : 288 ) point s out that 'daughters ' is th e designatio n o f smalle r town s name d i n th e compan y o f larg e cities. Ezek . 26. 6 wit h regar d t o Tyre , a s wel l a s Ezek . 30.1 8 wit h regard t o Tahpanhes , ar e vali d examples . Greenber g (1983 : 294 ) i s apparently correct i n stating that Jerusalem's sin s make the bad sisters' sins loo k goo d b y compariso n wit h hers . He r restoratio n i s als o a n afterthought t o that of th e restoration o f th e bad sister s (cf . th e orde r

SWANEPOEL Ezekiel 1 6 9

9

in v . 53). Th e behaviou r o f th e sister s receive s t o a certai n exten t justification fro m v . 51. This brings us to the tradition about Jerusalem, which is never mentioned b y nam e in the book of Ezekiel, but which is always present in the background (cf . Zimmerli 1958 : 84) . Th e concept of Zion i s use d in th e name Jerusalem. Bu t because fo r Ezekiel th e Zion tradition had led wrongl y t o a misplace d fait h i n Jerusalem' s impregnability , h e does not use the name of Zion. The book o f Ezekiel prefer s t o show that Yahweh's presence i s th e only securit y fo r Jerusalem . Tha t i s wh y Fuh s (1984: 82 ) justifiabl y believes tha t i t i s possibl e tha t th e lo t o f Sodo m an d Samari a ca n change, because Jerusalem carries their guilt. It is clear tha t Jerusalem, with regard to the nations, fills a representative role in Yahweh's eyes . Jerusalem i s jointly responsible befor e Go d for th e ba d behaviou r of Sodom and Samaria . The covenan t theme is in fact ratifie d b y the Erkenntnis-formula. i n v. 62. Thi s formul a appears a t leas t 5 4 times i n th e boo k o f Ezekiel : 'You/they shal l kno w that I am the Lord'. Through thi s th e recogni tion o f Go d is revealed a s the final goal an d the proper conclusio n of the Gotteswort. The recognition o f Yahweh is thus an event that point s to an ac t of Yahweh (cf. Zimmerli 1954 : 12) . Yahweh' s dealing s ar e directed toward s humankin d (cf. Zimmerl i 1954 : 14) . Th e ac t mus t grip humankin d and mov e toward s a recognition , a n understanding and a n appreciatio n o f Yahweh . Yahwe h act s becaus e h e want s t o attain this appreciation among humankind. The Erkenntnis formul a is als o i n m y vie w the ke y t o th e under standing of ~|rvnQ N 1?! (not according to your covenant). The emphasis is on the second person (Jerusalem) that forms part of the new covenant. Because Yahwe h doe s goo d t o Jerusalem , h e als o doe s goo d t o Samaria an d Sodo m withi n a wide r covenant . Ostensibl y th e write r here wishe s to plac e th e emphasi s o n Jerusalem' s responsibilit y fo r Samaria and Sodom before the Lord. 'Throug h the judgment God will lead Hi s people s o that they will be made ashamed of the overplus of grace show n to the m and will be please d t o accept a s a daughter th e Canaanite Sodo m whic h the y ha d hithert o rejecte d a s to o sinful . B y such action they will come to recognize their God an d kno w who H e is' (Zimmerl i 1979 : 353) . It i s clea r tha t in Ezekie l 1 6 we fin d a mixtur e of differen t tradi tions. We find the desert tradition (the abandoned child; cf. also Ezek .

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20.10-26) and the Creation traditio n (the young plant), as well as the tradition o f th e occupatio n of th e lan d (Jerusalem' s heathe n origins ) and th e Zio n traditio n (Jerusalem) . Al l thes e tradition s ar e use d i n Ezekiel 1 6 to brin g fort h a ne w understanding , a ne w realization , a new knowledg e o f Yahweh. Therefore al l these tradition s ar e brought together unde r the denomination o f the Erkenntnis formula (v. 62) as the closin g formul a o f th e pericope . Th e Erkenntnis formul a ofte n functions as the conclusion of a series o f Yahweh's deeds (cf . Zimmerli 1954:10). Yahweh's great act s towards Jerusalem ar e called t o remem brance (actuall y re-lived) . Thi s bring s Jerusale m t o a righ t under standing of the eternal covenant . 7. Redaction Criticism As fa r a s redactio n criticis m i s concerned , opinion s ar e divergen t Von Rabena u (1955-56 : 681 ) regard s 16.1-4 2 a s th e origina l uni t The res t woul d be late r redactiona l addition s (L e Rou x 1987 : 175) . Presho (1972 : 79) als o pay s homage t o this point of view. According to thi s view, 16.1-42/4 3 forms th e core them e o r 'origina l word' , and vv. 44-58 and 59-63 are then regarded a s the core theme develope d i n a ne w manne r an d sen t i n a ne w direction . Eichrodt (1970 : 217 ) i s outspoken i n his belief tha t 16.54-6 3 doe s no t originate with Ezekiel . Wevers als o (1969 : 94 ) accepts 16.1-4 3 a s the 'original ' prophecy. His reason is : 'No t onl y i s th e figur e o f th e origina l stor y completel y abandoned i n verse s 44ff , bu t th e concep t o f a restoratio n t o th e former estat e i s completel y a t odd s wit h the judgement o n th e adul teress i n verse s 40-41a' . Thi s ide a i s strengthene d b y Clar k (1984 : 190), who suggests tha t 16.44-58 is built on 'quotations'. On th e othe r hand , Lan g (1981 : 49 ) regard s Ezekie l 16.1-5 2 a s a unit tha t can b e date d fro m 59 1 t o 588 BCE . Greenberg (1983 : 292 ) divides the pericop e int o three parts , namel y vv. 3-43 , vv . 44-58 and vv. 59-63 . Eac h par t end s wit h th e Gottespruch formula . Thu s i t seems tha t there is a difference of opinion about what is 'original ' an d what is not. My vie w is that the structura l analysis shows convincingly that th e whole pericope forms a meaningful unit . T o dat e an y parts earlie r o r later withou t sufficient ground s is not a good practice . In thi s connectio n Paruna k (1983 : 544 ) point s t o th e relationshi p between Ezekie l 1 6 an d 17 . H e describe s 16.59-6 3 a s a n 'inverte d

SWANEPOEL Ezekiel 1 6 10

1

hinge' betwee n 16.1-5 8 an d ch. 17 . He bases thi s especially o n the key term rva, which appears throughou t in the chiastic hinge (16.59-63 ) as well as in both adjacent units (16.1-58 and ch. 17) . 'I n 16. 8 the word refers t o a marriag e covenan t betwee n th e Lor d an d the orpha n girl , while in 17.13-19 , a political covenant is in view' (Paruna k 1983: 545) . This confirm s th e fac t tha t Ezek . 16.1-6 3 is th e masterpiec e o f th e final redactor(s) o f the book Ezekiel . H e placed th e sub-pericopes in a specific orde r t o attain the desired effec t (message) . 8. Final Synthesis The main ideas i n thi s pericop e ca n be summarize d eithe r unde r th e heading of judgment or of salvation. In Ezekiel 1 6 the pendulum swings from a n abandoned child (judgment) to a wild plant (restoration), fro m young beaut y (restoration) , an d fro m a brid e (restoration) , t o a n unfaithful wif e (judgment ) who i s stone d fo r he r misdeeds , an d bac k to a new covenant (restoration) . Ezekie l 1 6 is a mirror o f life for life . Here opposite s mee t eac h other : th e greates t merc y an d th e mos t horrible contempt . The boo k Ezekie l expose s her e i n a grippin g wa y th e enormitie s that can be committed agains t God. We find also in Ezekiel 16 the pain and ange r o f personal rejectio n (cf . May o 1973 : 24-25) , bu t als o th e satisfaction whic h can only be foun d i n a n intimate personal relation ship with God. Jerusalem's si n against Yahweh i s th e flagran t breac h of precisely this lovely relationship/covenant between the Lord and his child. On the one hand we have the beautiful garment s and presents of the Giver , an d o n the othe r hand the givin g awa y of thes e presents t o other lover s (th e breachin g o f th e covenant) . Thi s i s t o humiliat e Yahweh. Ezekiel 1 6 does no t intend that Jerusalem shoul d thin k back t o th e 'good ol d days'. Thos e days wer e in realit y evil an d ba d (Lu c 1983 : 139). Also , th e guil t cannot be lai d o n somethin g or somebod y else , but is placed squarely o n the shoulders of Jerusalem. 'Israe l wanted to be like th e othe r peoples—i t wanted t o forget tha t it had been calle d into an indissoluble covenant with God' (Fuh s 1984 : 85) . Th e punishment i s therefor e th e necessar y consequenc e o f th e covenan t which lays obligations on both parties . The judgment i s a personal judgment of the Covenant God. However , there i s n o specifi c judgmen t linke d t o a specifi c si n (cf . Fishban e

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1984: 148) . S o this pericope suggest s the reality of Divine Providence on th e on e hand , bu t o n th e othe r han d th e lin k betwee n si n an d judgment. Si n is referred t o in metaphorical and poetic language , and not i n detail . Ezekie l her e prefer s t o bring home th e ide a o f a sinfu l inclination/nature o f humanit y rather tha n a numbe r o f sins . Si n i s thus tackled i n its core, i n its origin. In thi s connectio n i t i s meaningfu l to notic e tha t th e admissio n o f guilt by Jerusalem (th e shaming) will follow after the acquittal. This i s because th e merc y i s s o overwhelmingl y great . Th e grea t merc y of Yahweh overshadows every single act that Jerusalem ca n commit. Bu t the shame is also the token of a new, pure heart that brings hope for a new future . S o with the realization of the reckless pas t and the broken heart, th e objectiv e o f th e judgmen t is attaine d an d a ne w under standing of the Lord is made possible. This understanding/knowledg e of th e Lor d show s u s th e persona l involvement of Yahweh, in this pericope especiall y in connection with the judgment . I t i s sayin g tha t Yahwe h mus t als o b e know n i n hi s judgment. Hi s judgment is i n th e future . I t i s there t o encourage an d warn that Yahweh is the mighty God whose judgments will be carrie d out as they have been announced—a knowledge of Yahweh which is at this stag e wanting . Because th e judgments are described i n advance , those addresse d hav e a n anticipator y understanding of thi s futur e knowledge (cf . Fishban e 1984 : 149) . Thi s i s precisely th e ai m o f th e pericope: t o bring people to the same intimat e knowledge o f Yahweh to which unbelievers wil l also be brought, against thei r wishes . There is , however , an-Other side : Yahweh' s desir e t o be known. Not because he needs to, but because hi s name is joined t o his peopl e (Zimmerli 1958 : 88) . The prophe t know s this , becaus e his whol e being is taken up in this knowledge, but the irony is that those who m he addresse s d o no t com e t o thi s realization . Therefor e th e whol e book of Ezekiel i s a series o f attempts to make known the purposes o f Yahweh with his children. There i s thus no way out. There remains onl y one knowledge : th e recognition o f Yahweh . I f you take thi s reluctantly it will com e t o you in the form of judgment. The perso n wh o accept s i t i n grac e wil l experience i t a s salvation . That i s why Zimmerli (1958: 90) rightly says, 'Da s sola gratia dei, das bei Ezechie l interpretier t wir d al s ei n sol a majesta s dei , wir d dari n horbar'. This honourin g of God , whic h consists o f reverenc e fo r hi s Name, i s therefor e th e lin k betwee n Israel/Jerusalem' s critica l past ,

SWANEPOEL Ezekiel 1 6 10

3

present judgment and future salvatio n (Luc 1983 : 142) . Fuhs's word s (1984: 87 ) are appropriate: 'Sham e opens a new way to the love of God. By forgiving al l sin God reveals his true greatness. This i s the new covenant: forgiveness for all sin and salvation to a new life. Th e usua l orde r o f things , accordin g t o whic h disgrac e lead s t o confession o f guilt, thus reverses itsel f here' (Greenber g 1983 : 242) . Jerusalem's join t reponsibilit y for other s (Sodo m an d Samaria ) i s therefore als o discusse d here . Th e disgrac e mus t be remembere d t o avoid a repetition o f th e iniquity. The merc y i s s o wide tha t ther e i s even enough for Samaria an d Sodom . By using the Sodom motif (v . 49), self-satisfaction , prid e and wealth is judged (cf. also above), an d the covenant is extended (v . 61) to urge Jerusalem (believers ) t o take care o f the poor and the underprivileged. Sodom an d Samari a ar e used her e b y comparison/metaphoricall y t o emphasize th e typica l socia l condition s round abou t Jerusalem . A n appeal i s thus made to the reader t o share the gift s o f God (the results of th e covenant) with the worl d (Samari a an d Sodom) . Th e existenc e and renewa l o f th e covenan t implies a n opennes s o f believers fo r th e need i n the worl d an d a readiness t o be responsibl e fo r thos e aroun d us. Tha t i s a n integrate d par t o f ou r knowledg e tha t Yahwe h i s th e Lord (v . 62).

BIBLIOGRAPHY Burden, J.J. an d W.S. Prinslo o (eds. ) 1987 Tweegesprek me t God: Di e literatuur va n di e Ou Testament, II I (Cap e Town: Tafelberg) . Clark, D.R. 1984 'Th e Citation s i n th e Boo k o f Ezekiel: A n Investigatio n int o Method , Audience an d Message ' (Ph D dissertation , Vanderbil t University , Nashville, TN). Eichrodt, W. 1970 Ezekiel: A Commentary (OTL; London: SC M Press). Fishbane, M . 1984 'Si n an d Judgmen t in th e Prophecie s o f Ezekiel', Int 38 : 131-50. Fuhs, H.F . 1984 Ezechiel 1-24 (Wurzburg : Echter) . Garner, D.W. 1980 'Form s o f Communicatio n i n th e Boo k o f Ezekiel ' (Ph D dissertation , The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary , Louisville, KY) . Gowan, D.E . 1985 Ezekiel (Atlanta : John Knox).

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Greenberg, M . 1983 Ezekiel 1-20: A Ne w Translation with Introduction an d Commentary (Garden City, NY: Doubleday). Kellermann, U . 1971 Messias und Gesetz (Neukirchen-Vluyn : Neukirchene r Verlag) . Lang, B. 1981 Ezechiel (Ertrag e de r Forschung , 153 ; Darmstadt: Wissenschaftlich e Buchgesellschaft). Lemke, W.E. 1984 'Lif e i n th e Presen t an d Hop e fo r th e Futur e (Ezek . 33-37)' , Int 38 : 165-80. Le Roux, J.H. 1987 'Di e boe k EsegieT , i n Burde n and Prinsloo 1987 : 175-94 . Luc, A. 1983 ' A Theolog y o f Ezekiel : God' s Nam e and Israel' s History' , JETS 26 : 137-43. Mayo, J. 1973 'Covenan t Theolog y i n Ezekiel', ResQ 16 : 23-31. McKeating, H. 1965 'O n Understandin g Ezekiel', London Quarterly an d Holborn Review, 36-43. Parunak, H . va n Dyke 1978 'Structura l Studie s i n Ezekiel ' (DPhi l thesis , Harvar d University , Cambridge, MA) . 1983 'Transitiona l Technique s i n th e Bible" , JBL 102 : 525-48. Presho, C. 1972 'Distinctiv e Theologica l Emphase s i n th e Boo k o f Ezekiel ' (PhD dissertation. Queen's University, Belfast). Rabenau, K., von 1955-56 'Di e Entstehun g de s Buche s Ezechie l i n formgeschichtliche r Sicht' , Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift Halle 5: 659-94 . Swanepoel, M.G. 1987 'Di e teologie van Esegiel 3 3 tot 39' (D D thesis, Universit y o f Pretoria , Faculty o f Theolog y [Dutc h Reformed Church], Pretoria) . Wevers, J.W. 1969 Ezekiel (OTL ; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans). Zimmerli, W. 1954 Erkenntnis Gotles nach dem Buche Ezechiel—Eine theologische Studie (Wiirzburg: Echte r Verlag) . 1958 'Israe l i m Buch e Ezechiel', V T 8: 75-90. 1965 'Specia l Form - an d Traditio-Historica l Characte r o f Ezekiel' s Prophecy', V T 15 : 515-27. 1979 Ezekiel. I . A Commentary on th e Book of th e Prophet Ezekiel, Chapters 1-24 (Hermeneia ; Philadelphia: Fortres s Press) .

EZEKIEL 27 AN D THE COSMIC SHIP John B. Geyer

ABSTRACT Ezekiel 2 7 is reviewed i n the context o f mythology. This is an oracle against Tyre . The islan d might have suggested th e image of the ship. Tyre's cultural links with Egypt coul d hav e evoked th e ide a o f th e Cosmi c Ship , well know n i n Egyptian mythology. The materials mentioned in Ezek. 27 indicate links with materials used in the temple a t Jerusalem whic h was modeled on the temple at Tyre. Place name s in Ezek. 2 7 have mythological connotations. The tradition of the Cosmic Shi p has been adapted t o th e propheti c perspectiv e o f th e downfal l o f th e her o brough t about because o f hybris.

The purpose o f this article is to argue that Ezekiel 2 7 has to do with a cosmic shi p an d it s rol e i n th e overthro w o f enemie s terrestria l an d mythological. A greate r concentratio n of mythologica l an d ritua l themes appear s t o b e presen t tha n ha s bee n admitte d i n previou s studies. Compariso n will b e mad e wit h th e Egyptia n myt h know n a s the Amduat. Ezekiel 2 7 stands within the collection of oracles agains t the nations in chs. 25-32. In a previous article I have argued that this collection is to be take n alon g wit h the collection s in Isaia h 13-2 3 and Jeremia h 46-51, wher e a commo n for m i s followed , and wher e th e basi s i s mythological.1 This is no t to deny that in places the oracles hav e historical reference, bu t i t emphasizes that the interes t is theological and that th e imagery is draw n fro m creatio n mythology. 1. J.B . Geyer, 'Mytholog y and Culture in the Oracles agains t the Nations', VT 36 (1986), pp. 129-45 . In that article it is argued that Ezek. 25 is not an original part of the collection. I n this article the major collections will be referred to as ON(-IJE). A related stud y ha s been offere d b y me in Twistin g Tiamat's Tail : A Mythologica l Interpretation o f Isaiah xii i 5 and 8', V T 37 (1987) , pp . 164-79 . A further article , "The Night of Dumah' ( a study of Isa. 21.11-12), and a Short Note, 'Mythologica l Sequence in Job xxiv 19-20', appear i n VT42 (1992), pp . 317-39 an d pp. 118-20 .

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In makin g a compariso n wit h the Amduat , n o suggestio n i s bein g made tha t Ezekiel is dependent on the Egyptian myth. Distinct differences wil l be pointed out between Mesopotamian , Wes t Semiti c an d Egyptian mythology. The significant fact is that the Ship in Ezekiel 2 7 has cosmic significance, and the fate of the Ship is described i n terms of creation mytholog y as it appears i n other part s o f the Ol d Testament , especially th e Psalms . Thi s i s i n keepin g wit h othe r myth s tha t ar e presented i n th e cours e o f ON-IJE , namel y helel be n sahar in Isaia h 14, or Primaeval Ma n or the Cosmic Tre e in Ezekiel 2 8 and 31. Mythology in Ezekiel 27 While th e Se a i s th e natura l element i n whic h Tyre i s se t an d ove r which it trades, i t is also a symbol of chaos in the creation mythology. In v . 3 Tyre i s introduce d a s th e cit y enthroned on th e entrance s o f Yam. Th e absenc e o f th e article i s significant. 1 Tyr e i s situated a t the gates of Yam's kingdom. The reader need s to be sensitive to the theological undertone s eve n where ther e i s als o a natural reference (bib ymym, vv. 4, 6, 27; mym rbym, v. 26; btwk hym, v. 32;ymym, vv. 33, 34).2 The wordm'mqym (v. 34) occur s elsewher e onl y in connectio n wit h Raha b (Isa . 51.10 ) or in liturgical materia l probabl y connected with the chaos motif (Pss . 69.3, 15 ; 130.1) . I n v . 32 th e meanin g of th e expressio n kdmh btwk hym i s b y n o mean s obvious . H.J . van Dijk translates , 'lik e th e fortress i n th e mids t o f th e sea' , linkin g this wit h Akkadian dimtu, 'tower, fortifie d area', 3 which makes sens e fo r Tyre. Moder n transla tions indicate the difficulties. 4 1. Cf . W . Zimmerli, Ezechiel, I I (BKAT ; Neukirchen-Vluyn : Neukirchener Verlag, 1969) , a d loc. The yodh at the end of hysbty migh t be the hireq compaginis (GKC, §90m) signifying the ruler. 2. Significan t passages i n which the water and chaos motifs are linked with the destiny o f nation s were explore d b y H.C . May, 'Som e Cosmi c Connotation s o f MAYIM RABBIM, "Man y Waters'" , JBL 7 5 (1955) , pp . 9-21, a n articl e whic h deserves mor e attention than it has received. 3. H.J . va n Dijk, Ezekiel's Prophecy o n Tyre (Ez. 26.1-28.19) (Rome , 1968), p . 85. 4. A V 'like the destroyed'; RV 'like her that is brought to silence'; RSV 'who was ever destroyed... (mg.: Tg. Vg.: Heb. like silence)'. NEB ha s 'wit h her buildings pile d (mg. : prob . rdg. ; Heb . obscure)' , apparentl y substituting krmh; cf . L.H. Brockington, Th e Hebrew Text o f th e Ol d Testament (Oxford, 1973), p . 229 . REB evades the difficulty, omitting the phrase without comment

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bib ymym occur s i n liturgical contexts at Exod. 15. 8 (sg.) , Jon . 2. 4 and Ps . 46.3. ymym/ym paralle l wit h mym occur s i n ON at Isa. 17.12 ; 18.2; 23.2-3 ; Ezek. 27.25-26 ; 32.2; cf . Exod. 15.8 , 10 , 19; Ps. 46.3-4; 93.4. Th e parallelism stand s 6 times i n ON-UE, 8 times i n the Psalms, 11 time s i n connection wit h the creation myth , once in a festal liturgy against the nations (Nah. 3.8), an d finally i n Isa. 50.2 , whic h describe s Yahweh's power over the seas. The ide a o f being enthroned (ysb) i s presen t als o i n v . 28 an d Isa . 14.13. The mlky 'rs (v. 33 ; cf. v. 35) occur also in v. 28 and Isa. 14.9 , 18 and in liturgical materia l i n Pss. 2.2 ; 76.13 ; 89.28 ; 102.16 ; 138.4 ; 148.11; Lam . 4.12 . Th e languag e i s simila r t o that of Baa l 2. i (CA/L , pp. 40-43) . Within th e sam e rang e ar e th e expression s klylt yp y (v . 3), kllw ypyk (v . 4; cf . 28.12 , 17 ; 31.3 ; cf . vv . 8, 9) ; yplw...mpltk (vv . 27, 34; cf. Isa. 14.12 ; Ezek . 31.12 , 13 , 16); yrdw... 'lh'rs,y'mdw (v . 29; cf. Isa . 14.11 , 15 ; Ezek. 31.14-17 ) an d r's (v . 28; cf . 31.1 6 an d rg z in Isa . 14.19) . Destruction b y th e (east ) win d (v. 26) i s characteristi c o f ON-UE (Isa. 17.13 ; Jer . 49.36 ; 51.1) . Va n Dijk (p . 82) draws attentio n to Ps . 48.8, Isa . 27.8 , Ezek . 17.1 0 and 19.12 , Jer. 18.1 7 and Hos. 13.15 , Jon. 4.8, an d passage s suc h a s Isa . 11.1 5 an d 30.2 8 (agains t th e nations ) should also be noted. The Amduat Since there ar e traces tha t Ezekiel 27 is handling mythological themes , consideration wil l now be given to an Egyptian mythological text that describes th e cosmic shi p known as the Bark of Re. This wil l illustrate the way i n which such themes wer e handled in one tradition and gives a broade r perspectiv e fro m whic h the materia l i n Ezekie l 2 7 ca n b e better understood . A lin k between th e oracles agains t the nations in the Old Testamen t and Egyptia n mytholog y an d rite s ha s bee n posite d b y others , mos t recently b y B . Gosse1 wit h reference t o the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus 2 which date s fro m abou t 31 0 BCE, though scholars agre e tha t the myth and ritual belong t o a much earlier date . 1. B . Gosse, Jsaie 13.1-14.23 (Gottingen , 1988) , pp. 27-29. 2. Translation s include those by R.O. Faulkner in JEA 23 (1937), pp. 166-85 , and J.A . Wilson in ANEf2, pp . 6-7.

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This Papyru s is particularly interestin g because, especiall y i n Boo k 26, it link s th e conflic t wit h creation (th e conflic t i s on e i n which th e primaeval monste r snak e Apophis attacks R e in his Bark), because th e slaying o f Apophis is directl y linke d with the overthro w o f the terres trial enemie s o f Pharaoh , an d becaus e th e connectio n wit h a dail y ritual is explicit . Attention i s directe d i n thi s article t o th e accoun t of th e journey o f the Bar k o f R e throug h th e underworl d during th e Twelv e Hour s o f Night, including the conflict wit h Apophis, whic h is given in the 7my Det zs n't-jmnt, 'What is in the Underworld: The Text of the Hidden Chamber', which wil l be referred to as the Amduat. This tal e i s transcribed i n variou s degree s o f completenes s i n th e tomb s o f th e pharaohs an d other s fro m th e time of Thutmosis I to Ramses IX , an d is particularl y wel l preserve d i n th e tom b o f Amenophi s II I (1417 1379 BCE). 1 In Mesopotamia n mytholog y the Underworld is a dreadful place o f dust an d mu d an d darkness . Abov e all , i t i s th e Lan d o f N o Retur n (Sum. NU.GI 4A; Akk . erseti l a tdri). B y contrast , th e Egyptia n Underworld wa s a lan d o f rejuvenatio n an d rebirth . R e descend s t o the Underworl d i n th e evenin g an d come s fort h renewe d i n th e morning. However , thi s proces s i s no t considere d t o b e automatic . Severe dangers hav e to be overcome o n the way. This is done through knowing th e correc t formulae . This Underworl d realm i s know n a s the Dat. During th e da y th e go d traverse s th e sk y in th e Da y Bar k (m'ndt), but durin g th e hour s o f darknes s h e travel s i n th e Nigh t Bar k (n t msktt), whic h is also known as the Bark of Re (wj3-n-r). Accordin g t o a magi c papyrus of the 20th Dynasty , the Night Bark wa s golden . R e does no t disembark . Th e Bar k itsel f change s fro m on e for m t o th e other. Th e Bar k ha s th e name , 'Th e on e wh o pave s th e way ' (dmw3t—Mid. Reg. , Fourt h Hou r [p . 86]). I n the sam e Registe r a towing rope i s mentione d fo r th e firs t time . I t i s pulle d b y fou r gods . Th e Bark als o ha s a cre w whic h i s mentione d i n th e secon d scen e (Mid . Reg., Nint h Hou r [p . 156]), wher e ther e ar e twelv e oarsmen , eac h with an oar in his hand . 'Wha t the y hav e to do is to row Re dail y to this place . The y stan d b y th e waterwa y (nt) o f th e Bar k whic h i s i n 1. Th e editio n tha t ha s bee n use d i n this articl e i s tha t b y E . Hornung, Da s Amduat, I-II I (Wiesbaden, 1963 , 1967) . All references i n this article ar e to Vol. 2, and the article is wholly dependent on Hornung for translation, notes and commentary.

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this place.' I n th e secon d scen e (Uppe r Reg. , Twelfth Hour [p . 189]) twelve god s hol d th e to w rop e wit h bot h hands , thei r face s turne d towards the Bark . This Bar k moves alon g canals (e.g . Mid . Reg., Sixth Hour [p . 116]) rather tha n the open sea . Whe n the primaeval wate r i s encountered, i t is part o f cosmos, th e sourc e o f life , rathe r than an element o f chaos , though i t ca n b e threatenin g o n occasions . Th e regio n o f th e Sixt h Hour is called mdwt, the Deep, an d has the determinative $55:. This opens out into the primaeval wate r Nun, which encloses th e world on all side s i n a n endles s stretch , bu t als o run s through it. Th e threa t i s encountered i n th e Uppe r Registe r o f th e Thir d Hou r (p . 64), wher e reference i s made to the flood (h 'pj) tha t destroys the enemy. This als o is designate d a s Nun. It attack s th e enemie s o f th e god , no t th e go d himself. But th e go d does hav e enemies t o face. These (especiall y Apophis ) live on sandbanks, and indeed this Bark has to be pulled over sand and even has t o traverse mu d (Seventh Hour, introduction, Horizontal line 9 [p . 125]) left behin d after th e hostile Apophis has swallowe d all the water s o a s t o preven t th e progres s o f th e Bark . Th e Bar k ca n b e pulled ove r the sand but it can only get across th e mud by magic. Th e Middle Register of the Fourth Hour (p. 86) describe s the Snake domain of rs'-st3-w ('th e pulling over th e sand business'). The Bar k changes into a snake so that it can glide more easily over the sand, the bow and stern turne d int o fire-spittin g shinin g snak e heads . Eve n thoug h th e Bark change s int o a snake, it is here tha t the two ropes ar e produced for th e first time. Th e san d is the deser t which , in Mesopotamia also , was an element of chaos, a perpetual threat to cosmos . Another familia r elemen t o f chao s tha t appear s i n th e Amdua t is darkness. Line s 7-9 o f th e title (p. 2) affirm : The beginning is the horn of the west the gate of the western horizon ; the end is the primaeval darknes s the gate o f the western horizon. 1

The primaeva l darknes s (tith) i s a regio n no t lighte d b y Re . I t i s reserved fo r th e enemies an d i s a t th e furthes t reache s o f th e Da t (cf . 1. On e would expec t the eastern horizo n t o be mentioned, bu t kkw-zm3w ha s nothing t o do with the east. It indicates an absolute boundary i n the Underworld tha t is unconnected with geographical direction.

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yrkty br, Isa. 14.15) . Thi s is the beginning of a primaeval chaos tha t surrounds th e world , over whic h neither th e god s no r th e king s have power. R e doe s no t engag e wit h thi s chaoti c power , bu t h e travel s close t o the boundaries o f being. In the third scene o f the Middle Registe r o f the Tenth Hour (p. 167 ) there is a falcon-headed snak e in a boat, wit h the inscription, 'H e is so constituted i n hi s Bark . H e rouse s himsel f agains t th e primaeva l darkness.' Th e Introductio n t o th e Twelt h Hou r (p . 184 ) place s R e eye t o eye wit h the primaeval darkness , an d th e name o f th e place i s 'Rising a t dark , appearin g a t births', fro m whic h follow s the rebirt h of Re . Lin e 7 o f th e inscriptio n accompanyin g th e firs t scen e o f th e Upper Registe r o f th e Twelft h Hou r (p . 186 ) make s i t clea r tha t darkness binds the dead and light releases them. The journey o f R e through the Underworl d is ful l o f threats t o th e created order . Thes e hav e t o b e face d an d overcome . Th e enemie s appear i n differen t guises , bu t the y include the militar y opponents of Pharaoh, th e enemie s o f th e gods (criminals? ) an d th e primaeva l forces themselves . Al l thes e ar e linke d i n th e unit y o f creation . Th e enemies o f Re and the enemies of the earthly monarch are one and th e same threat. In th e tex t o f th e Firs t Hou r (p . 33) th e god s gree t R e wit h th e words: 'Yo u triump h over you r enemies (ny'fcw) ; yo u impos e disaste r on th e punished ' (1 . 58), an d th e nam e of th e Hou r is : Th e on e tha t shatters the foreheads of the enemies of Re' (1 . 76). Th e Uppe r Registe r of th e Thir d Hou r (p . 64) state s tha t th e god s ar e ther e t o crus h th e adversary (1 . 6), an d th e Lowe r Registe r (p . 71) record s tha t thes e gods have to 'roas t and slaughter the souls, imprison the shades, brin g about the annihilation of the Non-Beings, who are in their place o f the Annihilation Posts. 1 The y kindl e th e flames , the y bur n th e enemie s through that which is o n the point of their swords' (II . 2-6) . After th e fift h scen e o f th e Uppe r Registe r o f th e Fift h Hou r (p. 98), th e Slaughterer s ar e addressed, wh o belong t o the shambles (nmt)... Ma y you r word s aris e an d ma y you r magic shine (ssp). Abl e (spd) b e your souls, considerabl e (w3s) b e your might. Crushed b e the enemies becaus e you destroy th e dead an d mass acre the shades of the annihilated. You are the ones who protect Osiris , who preven t a trial becaus e o f Onnophris. Sharp be your swords, gruesome be your shambles... so that I may go by you in peace (11 . 3-11). 1. htmjt

i s the place where the enemies are expelled from bein g to non-being.

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1

The firs t scen e i n th e Lowe r Registe r i n th e Fift h Hou r (p . 104 ) shows fou r head s wearin g the beards o f divinity. All of them hav e th e common nam e tpw-tk3w 'Torc h Heads' , an d it i s said , 'Wha t the y have t o do is to destro y an d drive bac k hi s enemies'. The destruction (s3m) i s effected throug h thei r torches. The secon d scen e o f th e Lower Registe r o f the Sixth Hour (p. 121 ) represents a snake with four human heads (i.e . the sons of Horus), and the inscriptio n states , 'Wha t he has to d o is t o sip up the shade s an d extinguish th e form s o f th e enemie s wh o ar e overthrown i n th e Dat ' (11. 2-4). Thi s snak e i s called th e 'mw-jrw, 'th e on e who devour s th e forms'. Th e fourt h scene (p . 122) shows nine fire-spitting snake staff s armed wit h a sword. Connected wit h them , at th e end o f the Register , is th e go d Nun . R e say s t o them : 'Ma y you r face s bur n an d you r swords (zw) b e shar p s o that yo u ma y destro y (3m) th e enemie s o f Khepri an d cut up their shades... Yours it is t o protect Khepri , who i s the wate r o f Tatenan, the Arise n One' (11 . 4-6). The mai n enemy to be overcome is Apophis, and he is encountered in th e Sevent h Hour . Th e vertica l line s of th e introductio n (p. 125 ) assert that R e diverts fro m Apophi s through the magic saying s of Isis and o f the Oldes t Magician . The nam e of thi s Night Hour is 'Th e one which ward s of f th e hjw an d beheads th e nh3-hr'. Both thes e term s refer t o Apophis, who can also be identified wit h Seth, so that the 37th goddess in the First Hour is called hsft-zm3 t-sth. The horizonta l lines (11-12) relate that 'it happens tha t Apophis is dismembered i n the Dat in thi s chambe r [although ] his plac e i s i n th e sky' , a reminde r tha t Apophis attacks the Bark during the day as well as at night. The secon d scen e o f th e Uppe r Registe r (p . 127 ) represent s th e punishment of the 'enemies', which is to say the dead condemned before Osiris, wh o i s th e Underworl d Su n god . Thre e enemies , alread y beheaded an d bound, kneel before th e Judge of the Dead. Behin d them there is a punishing god. In the inscription the god says to Osiris , May your enemies fal l under your feet; may you seize those who offende d against you! The flames of (the Snake god) 'Livin g in Forms* are against them. The 'Violen t of Countenance' is against them; he massacres them, he roasts them as a roast for himself (11. 5-8).

The 'Violen t of Countenance' (mds-hr) i s the punishing god. H e hold s a sword in one hand and a sling in the other. In th e thir d scen e (p. 128 ) anothe r punishin g god holds th e end of

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the halte r b y whic h three defenceles s prostrat e enemie s ar e bound . The inscription reads, You whom Osiris bound up and who have rebelled against him of the Dat, may you r arm s be bound an d your nooses be tightened; may your souls be annihilate d an d your souls be detained. The punisher punishes you with his knife and you never escape his attention.

The aim is to prevent the souls being united with their bodies . The tex t o f th e Middl e Registe r (pp. 131-32 ) state s tha t the magi c of Isis and the Oldest Magicia n is made to ward off Apophis from R e and describes th e sandbank (tw) o f the nh3-hr i n th e Dat . 'H e fill s i t with his coils and he is massacred befor e this god goes pas t him. This god journey s in thi s plac e i n th e imag e o f th e Mehe n ( m ssmw n mhn).' Th e Su n Bar k alter s cours e s o tha t R e doe s no t nee d t o g o directly by the dangerous Snake until Apophis is rendered harmless . The secon d scen e (p . 132) shows the much wounded Snake body of Apophis wh o ha s alread y bee n dismembere d b y knive s an d i s hel d neck and tail by a couple o f gods. He is found o n the sandbank which is called sd3w. Then 'th e one who causes th e throat to breathe' slings the lass o abou t his hea d whil e 'th e on e wh o i s ove r th e knives' , th e 'Punisher', throw s hi m abou t a t hi s feet , afte r Isi s an d th e Oldes t Magician have robbed his strength (phtj) throug h thei r magic (11 . 6-9). 'The one who causes the throat to breathe' is the god Selket, srqt-htjt, the Scorpion god. The third scene shows four goddesses armed with knives. According to the inscription, these ar e the goddesses wh o punish Apophis in th e Dat an d diver t th e blow s (jht —lit. 'things' ) o f th e enem y fro m Re . They carry their knives and every day punish Apophis in the Dat. Re has armed himself in many ways against the dangerous encounter with Apophis ; for example, th e Rin g Snak e (mhri) encircle s an d pro tects hi m in the Bark, and the magic-working gods Isis an d Seth (hk3 w-smsw) stan d by him. The Sun god also conceals a disc ('eye' ) and alters cours e fo r adde d protection . Apophi s block s th e wa y wit h his gigantic Snak e body , bu t ther e i s neve r an y rea l battle . Apophi s i s bewitched an d the n easil y boun d b y th e othe r gods . Finall y h e i s annihilated (htm). The journey can no w continu e in peace (m htp; cf . commentary, pp . 139-40) . Troubles continu e even afte r th e defeat o f Apophi s in th e Sevent h Hour. The inscription of the third scene in the Middle Register o f th e

GEYER Ezekiel 27 an d th e Cosmic Ship 11

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Eighth Hour records th e presence o f those wh o have to dismember th e enemies o f Re (p. 145) . In th e Elevent h Hou r (firs t scene , Lowe r Reg . [pp . 180-81] ) R e gives instruction s abou t th e massacr e o f thos e wh o sle w hi s fathe r Osiris, the corpses o f the enemies an d the bodies o f the dead, th e overthrown (shdw) an d th e form s o f th e annihilated . They ar e curse d b y Horus, wh o say s among othe r things, 'Do no t raise yourself , fo r yo u have fallen int o your graves! May you no t escape. May yo u no t flee ' (11. 8-9), an d th e sectio n finishe s wit h the words : 'Thei r destruction i s commanded ever y day through the Majesty of the Underworl d Horus' (11. 18-19) . Th e secon d scen e o f th e Lowe r Registe r o f th e Twelft h Hour makes it clear that Apophis is still a threat to Re (p. 191) . At most gates R e is greeted b y the resident gods. I n the closing text of th e First Hou r (p . 33) the god s sa y among othe r things , 'Yo u tri umph over your enemies (nkjw); yo u impose disaster on the punished' (1. 58; cf . also pp. 55-56,74) . In the third scene of the Middle Register of th e Fift h Hou r (p. 101) the goddesses offe r th e greeting, 'Re come s in peace to the Dat. The way is opened for Re in his Bark, which is in the eart h a s hi s body . Hi s enemie s ar e destroye d fo r you...Yo u triumph an d your enemies ar e driven away.' The entir e dram a o f th e Amdua t is linke d wit h concept s o f th e creation o f th e universe . The Superscriptio n o f th e firs t par t o f th e Middle Register o f the First Hou r (p . 17) refers to 'Th e Two Realities ' that draw (st3) th e god in the Night Bark. 'Th e Two Realities' (m 3 '// ) are elsewher e represente d a s tw o goddesses , an d the y indicat e th e duality inheren t in th e cosmos rathe r than two separate beings . A t the end o f th e journey (Introductio n to th e Twelft h Hour , vertica l line s [p. 184]) Re 'goe s out of the Dat, lies down in the Day Bark and step s forward (h 'j) ou t o f th e thigh s o f Nut ' (1 . 5), wher e Nu t represent s the primaeva l wate r of lif e an d fertility. Th e cosmi c dimensio n of th e situation appear s again i n th e secon d scen e o f th e Uppe r Registe r o f the Twelft h Hou r (p . 189) , wher e twelv e gods stan d wit h thei r leg s reaching ove r the gigantic body of the Snake, through which they pull the Bark. I n the first scene of the Lower Register o f the Twelfth Hour (p. 191 ) th e totalit y of the primaeval gods is present , wit h the excep tion o f the paired Amun/Amaunet . The Amdua t indicates tha t durin g the cours e o f th e Nigh t journey law an d orde r i n th e worl d ar e confirmed . I n th e thir d scen e o f th e Middle Registe r o f th e Sixt h Hou r (p . 118 ) R e i s foun d confirming

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the kings o f Upper and Lower Egypt in their offices . The structur e o f th e cosmos i s preserve d throug h thi s dail y ritual . This i s made clear i n the first scene o f the Upper Register of the Ninth Hour (p . 154) , wher e R e says, 'Ma y yo u do your duty for Osiris , tha t your worshi p fo r th e Lor d o f th e Wes t ma y b e declare d (sw3s), an d let him triump h over hi s enemies ever y day . It is the Judgment Court of th e God s that interrogates o n behalf o f Osiris ever y day . What you have t o d o i n th e Da t i s t o fel l th e enemie s o f Osiris ' (11 . 7-8). Th e destruction o f the enemies 'ever y day' is commanded i n the first scene of th e Lowe r Registe r o f th e Elevent h Hou r (p . 181,11 . 18-19). Analysis of Ezekiel 27 1. Outline and Structure The imag e i s no t clearl y hel d throughout . First o f al l Tyr e i s intro duced a s th e cit y enthrone d o n th e entrance s o f Yam . I n th e secon d part of the verse, thoug h it is not explicit, is the theological indictmen t of hybris . Tyr e ha s sai d tha t sh e i s perfec t i n beauty—whic h sh e is , according t o v. 4. It might be that the image o f the shi p is introduce d in v . 3, BHK an d BUS readin g 'nyh fo r 'nv, 1 'Yo u hav e said , " I a m a ship, perfect in beauty"'. Verses 5- 7 recor d th e material s importe d fro m variou s nation s fo r the construction o f the vessel, an d vv. 8-11 record th e various nations from whic h th e cre w ha s bee n assembled . Vers e 9 b interrupt s thi s flow with mentio n of th e way i n whic h all trading ships contribut e t o Tyre's commerce, an d this links up wit h v . 25. Verses 12-2 4 lis t th e variou s ware s trade d b y Tyre , togethe r wit h the countries fro m which they are imported. Thi s sectio n i s generall y regarded a s a n insertio n o f materia l differen t fro m th e res t o f th e chapter, though , a s H.J. van Dijk says , 'o n insufficien t grounds'. 2 The most obviou s differenc e i s that while the rest o f the chapter i s clearl y written i n poeti c metre , vv . 12-2 4 ar e no t s o obviousl y poetic . Bu t vv. 12-2 4 hav e a rhythm and may be intended as poetry, a n indication of whic h is th e regular repetitio n o f phrase s use d lik e a drum bea t t o mark the stages o f the list:

1. Cf . Zimmerli, Ezechiel, II, ad he. 2. Va n Dijk, Ezekiel's Prophecy, p . 75.

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v. 1 2 shrtk ntnw 'zbwnyk v. 1 3 rklyk ntnw m 'rbk v. 1 4 ntnw 'zbwnyk v. 1 5 rklyk <strt ydk> v. 1 6 shrtk ntnw b'zbwnk v. 1 7 rklyk ntnw m'rbk v. 1 8 shrtk v. 1 9 b'zbwnyk bin 'rbk hyh v. 2 1 shry ydk. . . shryk v. 2 2 rklyk ntnw 'zbwnk v. 2 3 rkltk v. 2 4 rklyk

ntnw

There is a close connectio n i n thought and language between vv . 9-2 4 and th e remainde r o f th e chapter . G.A . Cooke 1 liste d word s an d phrases tha t are repeated i n both parts : kllw ypyk vv

'zbwyn vv mrbklhwn vv m 'r b vv shrym vv

. 4, 1 1

. 12 , 14 , etc., 2 7 . 12 , 18 , 3 3 . 13 , etc., 9 , 3 4 . 12 , 15 , etc., 3 6

Cooke explain s thi s phenomenon a s a deliberate attemp t b y th e late r author (vv . 9b-24) t o lin k hi s materia l wit h th e poem . Ye t th e fac t that both section s ar e painting the picture of a world power, tha t they both produc e names , som e o f which belong mor e i n th e mythological realm tha n th e historical , an d tha t the y bot h lis t material s tha t ar e associated wit h th e constructio n o f th e templ e ar e al l reason s fo r accepting th e chapte r a s a n integra l uni t fro m whateve r source s it s parts ma y have been brough t together . The wrec k o f th e shi p b y a n eas t win d is describe d i n vv . 26-27. Verse 2 8 i s curiou s an d introduce s som e confusion . I t migh t b e translated: 1. G.A . Cooke , Th e Book o f Ezekiel (Edinburgh , 1936) .

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th e Prophets At the sound of the cry of your helmsme n the common ground (?) shakes .

We are then tol d (v . 29) that 'rowers , sailors an d helmsmen' g o down from thei r ship s an d stan d 'l-h'rs. Thes e ar e no t th e survivor s o f th e ship Tyr e unles s the y wer e equippe d wit h lifeboats , yrdw... 'l-'rs recalls 'l-s'wltwrd i n Isa . 14.1 5 and simila r phrase s i n mythology . The y'mdw doe s not seem t o belong, an d one would expect 7 for 7 if it did. Whatever i s goin g on in thes e tw o verses , 'they ' the n becom e the choru s singin g th e lament , whic h i s standar d i n th e myths unde r review, finishin g wit h the same words as Ezek. 28.19 . 2. Names and Substances An outstandin g feature o f Ezekie l 2 7 throughou t is th e collectio n o f proper name s an d the list o f substances, bot h thos e use d fo r th e construction o f the shi p and those that were the wares trade d b y Tyre. O n examination, thes e ar e seen to have links with mythological tradition s and, as fa r as the substances are concerned, they are much in keeping with the materials use d in the construction of the temple in Jerusalem . 3. Proper Names Thirty-six prope r name s o f town s o r state s appea r i n Ezekie l 27 ; o f these, 1 3 occur in the first section (vv . 5-11), an d 2 3 in the trad e list (vv. 12-23). This i s excluding the name of Tyre itself , thoug h Tyre i s not without significance. The name of Tyre occur s 46 times in the Old Testament, of which nearly hal f (20) are in ON-UE. Two conclusion s may b e draw n fro m thi s fact . On e i s tha t geographica l name s wil l obviously occu r i n particular contexts , an d the names o f Israel/Judah's immediate neighbour s ca n be expected t o occur in oracles concerne d with nation s mor e frequentl y tha n elsewhere . Th e secon d possibl e conclusion i s tha t th e nam e o f Tyr e i s no t s o widel y sprea d throug h the Old Testament a s might be expected. Analysi s of the occurrence o f the othe r name s bear s ou t th e fac t tha t th e 3 6 places mentione d ar e sparsely distribute d i n th e Ol d Testamen t an d frequentl y belon g together i n other contexts . Clues a s to the provenance o f these name s emerg e fro m th e occur rence o f Ibnwn. Thi s i s mentione d i n v . 5 a s th e plac e fro m whic h wood was imported fo r the ship's mast . There i s nothing curious about this either geographicall y o r historically. Bu t the distribution of Ibnwn in th e Ol d Testament shoul d b e noted . I t is foun d agai n i n ON-U E a t

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Isa. 14. 8 an d Ezek . 31.3 , 15 , and elsewher e i n a n oracl e agains t a foreign nation, 1 i n oracle s agains t Israel o r Judah 2 and i n oracle s o f promise t o Israel. 3 It is foun d i n poetry. 4 The woo d is value d for th e temple building, 5 which has more significance for Ezekiel 2 7 when the list o f ware s i n th e followin g section i s considered . I t occur s i n th e enthronement Psal m 2 9 (vv . 5, 6 ) an d th e roya l Psal m 7 2 (v . 16 ; cf. also Ps. 92.13). It is associated wit h the House (Temple?) o f the Forest of Lebanon. 6 Like snyr, it is associated wit h Hermon (almost certainl y a cult resort) i n Josh. 11.1 7 an d 13.5 , an d also with Seir (Josh . 12.7) . It occur s i n th e spuriou s lists, 7 th e dubiou s natur e o f whic h i s highlighted b y more historical references. 8 This evidence suggests that although Ibnwn was (and is!) a historical site it had particular emotional overtone s that were brought into play, especially in oracle s of doo m or promis e concernin g the nations , including Israel/Judah. The traditiona l us e o f th e name s i s brough t into sharpe r focu s b y consideration o f the other items in the list. Fifteen of the names occur also in the lists in Genesis 1 0 and 1 Chronicles 1 , three o f them occur ring onl y in Ezekiel 2 7 and the lists ('lysh, v . 7; 'wzl, v . 19; r'm/i , v. 22), an d on e o f the m occurrin g in th e list s an d th e Gog-Mago g tradition (twgrmh, v . 14 ; Ezek . 38.6) . Th e name s occu r i n poetry : snyr, v . 5;9 q d r , v . 21 ;10 sb' (vv . 22, 23); 11 in liturgy : bsn, v . 6;12 trsys, v. 1 2 (Ps. 48.8), and in a royal Psalm (Ps. 72.10). The majorit y o f the occurrences o f all the names falls i n the oracle s about th e nation s or about Israel/Judah. ywn an d tbl (v . 13 ) are men 1. 2 Kg s 19.2 3 / / Isa . 37.24 ; Isa . 10.34 ; Nah . 1.4 ; Zech . 11. 1 (o r agains t Judah?). 2. Isa . 2.1 3 (o r agains t another nation?); 29.17 ; 33.9 ; Jer . 18.1 4 (proverb?) ; 22.6, 20 , 23; Ezek. 17.2 ; Hab. 2.17. 3. Isa . 35.2 ; 40.16 ; 60.13; Hos. 14.6 , 7, 8; Zech. 10.10 . 4. Ps . 104.16 ; Cant. 3.9; 4.6 , 8 , 11 ; 5.15; 7.5 . I t is also foun d i n fable: Judg . 9.15; 2 Kgs 14. 9 // 2 Chron. 25.18. 5. 1 Kgs 5.13, 20 , 23, 28 (bis); 1 Chron. 2.7 (bis), 15 ; Ezra 3.7 . 6. 1 Kgs 7.2; 10.17 , 21; 2 Chron. 9.16, 20 . 7. Josh . 9.1 ; Judg . 3.3 . 8. Deut . 1.7 ; 3.25 ; 11.24 ; Josh. 1.4 . 9. Cant . 4.8 . 10. Cant . 1.5 ; Ps. 120.5 ; cf. msk, v . 13. 11. Jo b 6.19 ; Ps . 72.10, 15. 12. Ps . 68.16, 23.

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tioned togethe r i n Isa . 66.19 , wher e favou r is promised t o th e nation . Of particular note ar e the eight place name s i n the Gog-Magog tradi tion: prs, v . 10; pwt, v. 10; trsys, v. 12; tbl, v. 13; msk, v . 13; twgrmh, v. 14 ; ddn, vv . 15 , 20 ; sb\ vv. 22, 23. Of these, tb l occurs i n ON-IJE at Ezek . 32.2 6 ( + msk), i n th e list s Gen . 10. 2 an d 1 Chron. 1. 5 (also with msk) an d Isa. 66.19 (wit h Iwd); ms k (v . 13 ) is similar ; twgrmh occurs elsewher e onl y i n th e list s Gen . 10. 3 an d 1 Chron. 1.6 ; dd n occurs 1 0 times: 4 times in ON-IJE plus Ezek. 25.13, in an oracle against nations (Jer . 25.23) , and in the lists (Gen. 10.7 ; 1 Chron. 1.9 , 32) . One sixt h o f th e name s (6:36 ) ar e hapax legomena: hylk (NEB Cilicia) an d gmdym i n v . 11 ; hlbwn an d shr i n v . 18 ; knh an d klmd in v . 23. Some o f these ma y be traceable t o faulty transmission . Ther e must have been thousand s of places tha t are no longer known by nam e to us . Va n Dijk suggest s tha t gmdym refer s t o dwarf s (gomed 'shor t cubit'). M . Elat 1 ha s mad e a n impressive reconstruction of th e tex t to show tha t v . 1 9 may b e translated , 'Als o Da n an d Yawa n traded fo r your ware s fro m Uzal' , an d tha t thes e place s wer e t o b e foun d i n Anatolia. Bu t t o b e abl e t o giv e geographica l o r historica l identity t o some, o r all, of the places mentioned does no t in itself explain the list . It remain s mysterious ; th e Gog-Mago g traditio n suggest s tha t thi s i s deliberately so . The poeti c allusions , particularly those in th e Psalms , suggest that the use in ON-IJE in general, and Ezekie l 2 7 in particular, is traditiona l rather than factual. Modern scholars, strugglin g to trea t the list as factual, hav e failed to reach a comprehensive explanation. In th e ligh t of al l this , prs stand s ou t a s exceptional . Apar t fro m Ezekiel 2 7 an d th e Gog-Mago g tradition , it i s foun d frequentl y in Esther, Daniel , Ezra, Nehemia h an d 2 Chronicles, an d s o is in perfect keeping wit h th e Persia n perio d t o whic h i t refers . Thi s doe s no t necessarily giv e th e dat e o f Ezekie l 27 . I t ma y appea r her e i n a n attempt t o brin g the oracl e u p t o date , an d i t ma y hav e replace d a n earlier kws (cf . Ezek . 30.5 ; etc.) . sb' (vv . 22, 23) i s a goo d exampl e of th e wa y i n which history and tradition combine. Closely connecte d with th e quee n ( 1 Kgs 10.1 , 4 , 10 , 1 3 // 2 Chron. 9.1, 3 , 9, 12) , i t ha s never bee n finall y decide d wher e i t lay , an d tha t make s ver y littl e difference t o th e legen d i n whic h i t i s embedded . I t wa s a romanti c title conjurin g u p the mysteries of the east (o r the sout h or wherever) . 1. M . Elat, Th e Iro n Expor t fro m Uza l (Ezekie l xxvi i 19)' , V T 3 3 (1983) , pp. 323-30.

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The name s in Ezekiel 2 7 are no t intended to do much more tha n that. The attempt t o read the chapter in a matter-of-fact way is misleading. 4. Substances Fifty-three substance s ar e mentioned altogethe r i n th e poe m an d th e list. Thes e ma y b e considere d al l together , since , fro m thi s poin t of view, no significant difference exists between them. Nine of the words used are hapax legomena, so no further commen t can b e mad e o n the m excep t t o sa y tha t i f thi s wer e a list o f well known product s the y migh t b e expecte d t o appea r elsewher e i n th e Old Testament. Th e fac t tha t they do not s o occur migh t suggest tha t the author' s min d wa s elsewhere—fo r exampl e o n som e culti c o r mythological theme . Th e nin e are : mprs (v . 7) ; swsym wprsym wprdym, t o be treated a s a unit (v. 14); hbny (v . 15 ; an Egyptia n loan word foun d i n Ugaritic 1), an d al l th e substance s in v . 24 except hbl, namely mkll, glwm, brm and 'rwz, which last is possibly an adjectiv e (see the versions). A furthe r fiv e words appea r i n secula r context s an d neve r (i n th e Old Testament ) hav e referenc e t o sacra l functions . Thes e are : tr n (v. 5) , sn (vv . 6, 15) , rqmh (vv . 7, 16 , 24), r'mh (v . 16 ) and hblym (v. 24) . However , n o fewe r tha n 3 0 substance s ar e connecte d else where wit h the templ e (o r ar k o r tabernacle) , an d thi s suggest s tha t the image in the author's mind was the sacred place as he knew it best, in Jerusalem, alon g wit h it s associate d traditions , an d thes e h e ha s transferred t o Tyre , whic h he migh t have known , or hav e justifiabl y thought, to be simila r to the templ e in Jerusalem. 2 This stand s eve n though th e author was using the symbolism of a merchant ship and its wares (henc e the five substances not known t o have connections with sacred places) . The lis t is presente d belo w unde r headings indicating objects with which the substances are elsewhere associated . The Temple, rwsym (v . 5) were used fo r panelling the larg e chambe r of Solomon' s templ e ( 2 Chron. 3.5). 'r z (v . 5) wa s use d fo r David' s palace, makin g th e kin g ashame d tha t th e ar k wa s house d onl y i n 1. U T 2102.6; cf. van Dijk, Ezekiel's Prophecy, p . 78. 2. Tyr e was much involved in the building of the temple in Jerusalem and was the dominan t partner ; cf . J.K . Kuan, Thir d Kingdom s 5. 1 an d Israelite-Tyria n Relations during the Reign of Solomon', JSOT46 (1990) , pp. 31-46.

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curtains; i t wa s the n use d fo r Solomon' s templ e an d it s alta r (e.g . 1 Kg s 6.18 ) and fo r th e postexili c templ e (Ezr a 3.7) . I t wa s use d fo r sacrifice (Lev . 14.4 , 49 ; Num . 19.6 ) an d b y thos e wh o mad e idol s (Isa. 44.14). It appears i n hymnody and myth. 1 bqd occur s elsewher e only wit h reference t o the temple. 2 brzl (v . 12) was used in the templ e according t o 1 Chron. 22.14, 16 ; 29.2; 2 Chron. 2.6 , 13 . Strangely, it was use d fo r th e sarcophagu s o f O g (Deut . 3.11) , bu t i t i s prohibite d in th e constructio n of altars (Deut . 27.5; Josh . 8.31 ; 1 Kgs 6.7), whic h was due to the nature of the 'livin g stone' rathe r tha n any objection t o the substance tha t was not to be used o n it. I t is associated with curse (Deut. 28.23 ; cf . v . 48), bu t als o wit h blessin g (Deut . 33.25) . I t i s holy when placed unde r ban (Josh. 6.19, 24) . Temple Furnishings an d th e Like, luh (v . 5) i s use d frequentl y o f th e tables o f ston e give n to Moses (e.g . Exod . 24.12 ; 31.18 ; Deut . 4.13) ; also of the material fo r the trolleys in Solomon' s templ e ( 1 Kgs 7.36). ns (v . 7) i s use d o f a n alta r (Exod . 17.15 ) an d o f th e bronz e serpen t (Num. 21.8-9) . I t also occurs i n ON-Isa. 13.2; 18.3 ; Jer . 50.2 ; 51.12 . 'bn yqrh (v . 22) appear s agai n in ON-Ezek . 28.1 3 an d a s part o f th e temple adornment s ( 1 Chron . 29.2; 2 Chron. 3.6) . bws (v . 16 ) i s a n emblem o f grandeu r (Est . 1.6 ; 8.15) , otherwis e mentione d onl y i n connection wit h attendant s of th e ar k ( 1 Chron . 15.27 ) an d th e vei l (2 Chron . 3.14) . Th e place s wher e i t wa s processe d ar e note d (1 Chron . 4.21) . The Tabernacle, qrs (v . 6) i s otherwis e use d onl y in connectio n with the tabernacle. 3 In the case o f ss (v . 7), th e majorit y of reference s i s to the tabernacl e and its court. 4 As to tklt (vv . 7, 24) , apar t fro m the dress o f Samaria' s lover s th e Assyrian s (Ezek. 23.6 ) an d it s associa tion wit h royalty (Est . 1.6 ; 8.15) , al l reference s ar e t o th e tabernacl e (Exod. 26.36) , th e breastplate an d ephod (Exod . 28.39) , t o the cover ing fo r object s i n th e sanctuary 5 o r t o th e coverin g fo r idol s (Jer . 10.9; not e th e referenc e i n th e sam e vers e t o silve r fro m Tarshish) . 'rgmn (vv . 7, 16 ) is ver y simila r t o tklt an d i s associate d wit h i t i n 1. Pss . 29.5 ; 92.13 ; cf. ON-Isa. 14. 8 an d Ezek. 31.3 . 2. 2 Kgs 12.6-13; 22.5; 2 Chron. 34.10 . 3. Exod . 26.15 ; 35.11; 36.20; 39.33; 40.18; Num. 3.36; 4.31 . 4. Exod . 26.1 ; 27.9; 39.28 . It is also use d o f the ephod: Exod. 28.6 . 5. Num . 4.6; cf . also Num. 15.38 ; 2 Chron. 2.6 ; 3.14 .

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1

some places . Ther e ar e reference s t o th e coverin g fo r th e altar, 1 th e tabernacle,2 th e epho d (Exod . 28.39 ) and , alon g wit h tklt, t o idol s (Jer. 10.9 ) an d royalt y (Est . 6.1 ; 8.15) . mksk (v . 7) i s a n unusual, possibly unique , use of piel participle, of ksh (cf . ON-Isa. 14.11) . Th e noun miksek shoul d perhap s b e read. Thi s i s use d o f the tabernacle. 3 ksp (v . 12 ) wa s use d fo r th e decoratio n o f th e tabernacle 4 an d th e veil.5 nhst (v . 13 ) is use d fo r th e tabernacle, 6 the temple,7 its vessels, 8 its platform, 9 it s pillars, 10 it s altar, 11 it s 'Sea', 12 an d th e 'Serpent ' i n the wilderness. 13 I t constitute s members o f heavenl y beings 14 and of mountains see n i n vision. 15 I t form s par t o f Goliath' s armour 16 an d also David's. 17 zhb (v . 22) wa s use d fo r th e constructio n o f th e ark , the tabernacl e an d thei r furnishings, 18 th e ephod, 19 th e breastplate, 20 the lampstand, 21 th e gold altar, 22 th e rosette fo r Aaron's turban, 23 th e inner shrin e to house the ark an d it s fittings, 24 an d furnishing s fo r th e temple,25 as well as the construction of idols. 26 1. Num . 4.13; cf . 2 Chron. 3.14 + tklt. 2. E.g . Exod. 26; 27. 3. Exod . 26; 35.11; 40.19; cf. Num. 4. 4. Exod . 26.19, 21 , 25. 5. Exod . 26.32 . 6. Exod . 26.11; 27, passim. 7. 1 Chron. 22.3 . 8. 1 Kgs 7.47. 9. 2 Chron. 6.13 . 10. 1 Kgs 7.14-16; 2 Kgs 18.4 ; 25.17. 11. Exod . 27.2 , 3 , 4 ; 1 Kgs 8.64 ; 2 Kg s 16.14 ; 2 Chron . 1.5 , 6 ; 4.1 ; 7.7 ; Ezek. 9.2 . 12. 1 Chron. 18.8 . 13. Num . 21.9. 14. Ezek . 1.7 ; 40.3; Dan . 10.6 . 15. Zech . 6.1 . 16. 1 Sam. 17.5, 6 . 17. 1 Sam. 17.38 . 18. Exod . 25.26 . 19. Exod . 28.6-22 . 20. Exod . 28.13. 21. Num . 8.4. 22. Exod . 40.5, 26 ; Num. 4.11. 23. Lev . 8.9 . 24. 1 Kgs 6.20, 30. 25. 1 Kgs 7.48. 26. 1 Kgs 12.18 ; Ps . 135.15 .

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The High Priest's Breastplate. As well as tklt (se e under Tabernacle), npk (v . 16 ) i s use d o f th e breastplat e an d o f tha t only, 1 alon g wit h ON-Ezek. 28.13 , which probably depends on the breastplate . Anointing Oil. qdh (v . 19) is mentione d otherwise onl y as a n ingredient o f sacre d anointin g oil (Exod . 30.24). qn h (v . 19 ) is mentioned in connectio n with sacrifice (Isa. 43.24) an d as an ingredient of sacre d anointing oi l (Exod . 30.23) . I t is als o th e ter m use d fo r th e branches of th e temple lamp (Exod. 25.31). bsm (v . 22) i s use d i n th e sacre d anointing oil (Exod. 30.23; 35.28) . Sacrifice, hth (v . 17 ) constitute d on e o f th e regula r sacrifices. 2 5m n (v. 17 ) is used as a n oblation, 3 sacrifice 4 an d als o fo r anointing. 5 yyn (v. 18 ) occurs i n ON-Isa . 16.10 , 22.13 , Jer . 48.3 3 an d 51.7. I t i s forbidden o n entrance to the sanctuary, 6 but is recognized as a sacrificial offering.7 k r (v . 21) i s associate d wit h sacrific e as a symbo l o f th e destruction o f die nations. 8 'yl (v . 21) has a regular place in the sacrificial system. 9 'twd (v . 21) i s presente d i n sacrifice, 10 thoug h i t i s spurned by some; 11 it is associated wit h the slaughter of the nations.12 Symbols o f Yahweh. mgn (v . 10 ) occurs also in ON-Isa. 21.5 and 22.6 , in Jer . 46.3 , 9 , i n th e Gog-Mago g tradition, 13 an d i n othe r oracle s against nations. 14 I t occur s i n poetry. 15 It s mos t commo n usag e i s 1. Exod . 28.18; 39.11. 2. Exod . 29.1; cf . 34.22; Ezek . 45.13. 3. Gen . 28.18 ; 35.14. 4. Lev . 2.1 , 6; Ezek. 45.24; 46.5 , 7 , 11 , 14. 5. Exod . 30.25; 31.11; 37.29; Lev . 8.2; 21.10; Ps . 133.2 . 6. Lev . 10.9 ; Ezek . 44.21 . 7. Exod . 29.40; Lev . 23.13 ; Num . 15.5, 7, 10 ; 28.14; cf . Gen. 14.18 ; 1 Sam. 1.14; 1 Chron. 9.29 . 8. Isa . 34.6 ; Ezek . 39.18; ON-Jer. 51.40. 9. Exod . 29.13 ; Lev . 5.15 ; 9.2 ; 16.3 , 5 ; Num . 7.15; etc. ; Ezek . 43.23 , 25 ; 46.6; Ps . 66.15. 10. Num . 7; Ps. 66.15 . 11. Ps . 50.9; Isa . 1.11 . 12. Isa . 34.6 ; Ezek . 39.18. 13. Ezek . 38.4 and in 38.5 wit h kwb'. 14. 2 Kgs 19.3 2 // Isa. 37.33 ; Nah. 2.4; Ps. 76.4 . 15. Judg . 5.8; 2 Sam. 1.21 ; Cant. 4.4 .

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either a s a symbo l o f Yahwe h o r a n objec t associate d wit h him. 1 I t occurs i n th e Hous e o f Fores t o f Lebanon, 2 otherwis e a s a military term onl y in 1 Kgs 14.26 , 27 ; Ezek. 23.24 ; Neh . 4.10 an d 1- 2 Chron . (10 times) ; Jo b 14.26 ; possibl y als o Prov . 6.11 ; 24.34 . Problemati c are Hos . 4.1 8 (probabl y a referenc e t o Yahweh ) an d Jo b 41. 7 (mythological?), kwb' (v . 10) occur s i n th e Gog-Mago g traditio n with mgn (Ezek . 38.5) ; i t belong s t o th e armour y o f Yahwe h (Isa . 59.17) an d Goliat h ( 1 Sam . 17.5) . I t ha s a militar y us e i n 2 Chron . 26.14 an d i n ON-Jer . 46.4 . hd r (v . 10 ) is mos t frequen t i n liturgical texts connecte d wit h Yahwe h or th e king. 3 qrn (v . 15 ) also occur s i n ON-Jer. 48.25 , Ezek . 29.21 . I t i s a symbo l o f Yahweh 4 an d o f worship5 an d i s connecte d wit h th e altar. 6 It is a symbol of th e king 7 and his anointing. 8 There remai n nin e word s whos e provenanc e i s equivocal , word s that could be used in a 'religious ' sense , tha t is to say, connected with rites an d rituals, bu t which might equally be used in a natural or secular sense (thi s is also true of some of the 30 words in the previous list, but a concentratio n of thei r usage i n ritua l contexts an d thei r bein g linked togethe r i n Ezekie l 2 7 suggest s mor e positivel y th e author' s intention to describe th e temple unde r the figure of the ship). 'Iwn (v . 6) i s associate d wit h sacre d place s an d wit h idolatry, 9 (h)bdyl (v . 12) stands in appositio n to h'bn i n Zech . 4.10 , a symbo l held b y Zerubbabe l a s messianic ruler. It has been suggeste d tha t th e word might be pointed as hiphil of bdl and have the sense 'dividing' . 'wprt (v . 12 ) occur s i n Exod . 15.1 0 a s a n imag e o f th e wa y i n which Egyp t sank as a result o f Yahweh's action a t the Reed Sea . np s

1. Gen . 15.1; Deut. 33.29; 2 Sam. 22.3, 31, 36 // Ps. 18.3 , 31, 36; Prov. 30.5; Pss. 3.4 ; 7.11 ; 28.7 ; 33.20 ; 59.12 ; 84.10 , 12 ; 89.19 ; 115.9 , 10 , 11 ; 119.114; 144.2; cf . Pss. 35.2 ; 47.10; Prov. 2.7. 2. 1 Kgs 10.17//2 Chron. 9.16. 3. Pss . 8.6 ; 21.6; 29.4; 45.4, 5 ; 90.16; 96.6 ; 110.2 ; 111.3; 145.5 , 12 ; 149.9 ; 1 Chron. 16.27; cf. Isa . 2.10, 19 , 21; 35.2; Mic . 2.9; Job 40.10. 4. 2 Sam. 23.3 // Ps. 18.3 ; Hab. 3.4. 5. 1 Chron. 25.5. 6. Exod . 29.12 ; Lev . 4.7 ; 1 Kg s 1.50 ; 2.28 ; Amo s 3.14 ; Ezek . 43.15 ; Ps. 118.27 . 7. 1 Sam. 2.10; 16.1 ; Ps. 132.17 ; cf. 1 Sam. 2.1. 8. 1 Sam. 16.13; 1 Kgs 1.39 . 9. Gen . 35.8; Hos . 4.13; Isa . 6.13 ; 44.14 .

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'dm (v . 13 ) i s a comparativel y rar e phrase. 1 Onl y in 1 Chron. 5.2 1 does i t have th e sam e sens e a s Ezek . 27.1 3 (slave/captive) . A lis t of slaves is called sprnps'm U T 2106.1-2. 2 'skr (v . 15) occur s elsewher e onl y of th e tribut e paid b y Tarshish , Sheba an d Seb a (Ps . 72.10) . kdkd (v . 16 ) is used elsewher e onl y of a (mythologically) restore d Jerusale m (Isa . 54.12 ; cf . 54.16) . dbs (v. 17 ) is not to be burnt as an offerin g t o Yahweh (Lev . 2.11) , but i t is a standard symbol of the promised land. 3 sry (v . 17 ) occurs i n ON Jer. 46.1 1 an d 51.8 ; i t i s otherwis e t o b e foun d onl y i n Gen . 37.25 ; 43.11 and Jer. 8.22 . smr (v . 18) was no t t o b e wor n in th e sanctuar y (Ezek. 44.17) . I t is onc e sai d t o have bee n use d i n divinatio n (Judg. 6.37). A tent h substanc e migh t b e adde d t o thi s lis t wit h r'mt i n v . 16, elsewhere onl y Job 28.1 8 an d Prov . 24.7—bu t o n thi s se e NE B and W. McKane. 4 Va n Dijk (p . 79) draw s attentio n t o U T 'nt II I 1- 2 (= CML 3 C 1-2 , p . 48): [t]st nmt lirth. H e say s tha t th e singula r 'coral' i s a collectiv e noun , the -6- pointin g t o Phoenician vocaliza tion. Ha s th e Old Testament suppresse d an intimate adornment of th e goddess? Not al l th e substance s are associated wit h th e temple i n Jerusalem . Some o f the m ar e no t eve n acceptabl e there . Th e fac t tha t som e o f them are associated wit h idolatry does no t exclude the possibility that the author is thinking of the temple in Tyre. Th e fac t tha t some o f th e substances ar e not known to have been associate d wit h worship doe s not preclude th e conclusion tha t the author was thinking principally o f the temple . Th e concentratio n o f article s wel l know n as par t o f th e paraphernalia o f the temple suggests that tha t is what he had i n mind . The image h e used was tha t o f a merchant ship, and he include d arti cles other tha n those associated with worship as he thought appropriate . The sea, thoug h always feared, had also a benevolent aspec t fo r sea faring people . A . van Selms compare s a n Egyptia n text dealin g wit h a shipwrecke d sailo r an d th e Ugariti c text s U T 129 , 13 7 an d 6 8 (= CM L 2 iii, 2 i, pp. 37, 40). I n the Egyptia n text th e sea-go d give s the sailor a shipload of goods. Van Selms concludes, 'Non e of the epic 1. Gen . 9.5 ; Num . 19.13 (bot h h'dm); Lev . 24.17; Num . 9.6, 7 ; 19.11 ; 31.55, 40,46; 1 Chron. 5.21 . 2. Quote d by van Dijk, Ezekiel's Prophecy, p . 76. 3. Lev . 20.24 ; Deut. 6.3; 11.9 ; 26.9 , 15 . 4. W . McKane, Proverbs (London , 1970) .

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texts discovered a t Ugarit deal s wit h seafarin g but th e Egyptia n story is a n indicatio n that the sea , fa r fro m bein g th e universall y abhorred chaotic force, could also be pictured as a great and good god'.1 Comparisons Now that the two mythologies have been set out, they may be compared . 1. Th

e mos t strikin g differenc e i s tha t th e se a appear s a s a threatening element i n Ezekiel. Th e sea does no t appear a t all in th e Amduat, where san d and deser t ar e th e most threaten ing feature s o f th e natura l world . I n th e Egyptia n traditio n any referenc e t o wate r i s generall y a s th e sourc e of lif e an d fertility. Th e floo d (h'pj) i s a n elemen t tha t destroy s th e enemy but protects th e god. 2. A notable element in ON-IJE is the Lament passage. Thi s als o occurs i n th e myth s where th e lamen t becomes a taun t (Isa. 14.9-11; Ezek . 27.29-36 ; 31.15). Wher e th e lament occur s in myth, i t usuall y marks th e poin t a t whic h th e go d (her o o r anti-hero) is greeted i n the Underworld, often withou t enthusiasm (cf . Descent o f Istar, 11 . 28-37 ; CML 5 i i 17-22) . A remarkable featur e o f the Amdua t is the wa y i n whic h Re i s greeted a t th e gate s o f th e variou s Hours . H e i s alway s greeted with adulation. The contrast is wholly in keeping with the Ol d Testamen t us e o f myth , where th e on e wh o shoul d end up as the glorious god ends up as the defeated, humiliate d tyrant. 3. I n th e Amdua t a cre w o f twelv e oarsmen i s mentione d an d there i s als o mentio n of twelv e gods wh o pul l th e to w rope . Much attention is given to the crew in Ezekiel, wher e th e cre w is draw n fro m man y countries , some o f whic h ar e know n only from mythology . This accentuates the cosmic dimensio n of this Ship. 4. Th e primaeval darkness (tith) i s a region not lighted by Re. It is reserve d fo r th e enemie s an d i s a t th e furthes t reache s o f the Dat . Re doe s no t engage wit h this chaoti c power , bu t h e travels close to the boundaries of being. In view of the mythological significanc e of the se a in Ezekie l 27 , hysbty 'l-mbw't 1. A . van Selms, The Fir e i n Yammu's Palace', UF 3 (1971), pp. 249-52.

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ym in v . 3 comes t o have a simila r significance . Tyr e stand s at the boundaries of chaos. 5. Frequen t reference s ar e mad e i n th e Amdua t to ritual s tha t are t o b e carrie d ou t daily , an d i t become s clea r tha t th e whole progres s o f the Bar k i s closel y monitore d i n worship . In fact , wha t the Amduat is about i s the right ordering o f th e cosmos expresse d throug h templ e liturgies . Th e constructio n of the Ship shows that Ezekiel also had the temple ver y much in mind. He speaks o f the fate o f Tyre but he does s o in term s that link this oracl e wit h th e other myth s used in ON-IJE . H e speaks o f th e Go d wh o bring s orde r ou t o f chao s an d wh o does s o by subjugating the rebel people .

STRUCTURE, TRADITION AND REDACTION IN EZEKIEL'S DEATH VALLEY VISION* Leslie C . Allen ABSTRACT This stud y analyse s Ezek . 37.1-1 4 fro m th e perspective s o f structure , traditio n history an d redaction. Structurall y there is a double movement in the vision accoun t from a negative orientatio n to a positive one ; this is matched by a single movement in the accompanyin g oracl e o f salvation . I n term s o f tradition history thi s movemen t echoes the metaphorical credal statement that Yahweh bot h kills and makes alive, in order to affirm his positive purpos e to restore his exiled people . Redactionally the passage functions as an elaboration o f the gift of Yahweh's spiri t promised earlie r in Ezek. 36.27a.

The degre e t o which the vision o f dry bones has gripped the religious imagination is evident in expressions as culturally diverse as the DuraEuropos synagogu e paintings and black America n preaching.1 In this article a concerte d attemp t i s mad e t o explor e th e meanin g o f thi s powerful tex t in Ezek. 37.1-14 from thre e perspectives, on e synchronic and two diachronic . Structure M.V. Fox , i n a valuable rhetorical stud y of this pericope, ha s playe d down th e valu e of forma l structural analysis, in a desire t o focu s on the persuasiv e forc e of discours e and thu s to alig n Old Testamen t rhetorical criticis m wit h th e extra-biblica l discipline. 2 Hi s genera l * A n earlier draft of the material relatin g t o structure and redaction wa s read a s a paper at the 198 9 Annua l Meeting of the Pacific Coast Region of SBL . 1. Fo r the latter, see F.C. Watkins , '"De Dry Bones i n de Valley" (Ezek. 37, 110)', Southern Folklore Quarterly 2 0 (1956), pp. 136-49 . 2. 'Th e Rhetoric of Ezekiel's Vision of the Valley of the Bones', HUCA 5 1 (1980), pp. 1-15(1-4) .

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point i s wel l taken : comple x stati c pattern s coul d hardl y hav e bee n appreciated b y a n audience . However , i t need s t o b e born e i n min d that i n it s presen t for m Ezek . 37.1-1 4 function s a s a literar y text , which permit s rereadin g an d s o appreciatio n o f fine points. Fo x went on t o admi t tha t analysi s o f th e structur e o f a uni t o f discours e ma y have som e value . A s w e shal l see , it help s t o revea l no t onl y th e relation betwee n th e variou s part s o f a unit , bu t als o it s dynami c development. Various scholar s hav e trie d thei r han d a t uncoverin g th e structur e of th e passage . A n overvie w o f their rather differen t conclusion s wil l be presente d befor e a fres h analysi s tha t build s upo n thei r wor k i s offered. H.V.D . Parunak made a good star t by observin g symmetrica l elements tha t dominat e th e piece. 1 He divided vv . 1-1 4 into two main parts, two symmetrical 'symboli c panels' i n vv. 3-8 and 9-10, prefaced by a headin g i n vv . 1- 2 and followe d b y a n interpretativ e oracl e i n vv. 11-14 . H e foun d th e structura l focu s o f th e passag e i n th e tw o panels. The y exhibi t triple parallel structurin g consisting of (1 ) divine command wit h three repeated feature s (an introductory 'and he said to me', 'so n o f man' , an d 'prophesy...an d say' ) i n vv . 2- 6 an d 9 , (2) report o f prophetic obedienc e i n vv . 7a an d lOa , an d (3 ) narrativ e description o f th e resul t o f th e prophec y i n vv . 7b- 8 and lOb . Elements o f thi s central structur e stretc h bac k an d forwar d t o fram e the pericope; th e thir d elemen t o f descriptio n i s anticipate d i n th e heading o f vv . 1-2 , while th e firs t elemen t o f divin e comman d i s repeated i n vv. 11-14 . Next, M. Fishban e ha s claimed chias m a s the key to th e structure. 2 According t o him ther e ar e three doubl e elements , ABCC'B'A' . Th e first and last , i n vv. 1- 2 and 14 , consist of a combination of terms, th e 'spirit' (mi ) of Yahweh an d hiphil forms of the verb rm wit h Yahweh as subject, ^rrn 'an d he set me down' and Timm 'an d I will settle' (AA'). Th e next element s ar e th e fulfilment o f Ezekiel' s prophecy ove r the dry bones and its interpretation i n national terms (B-B') in vv. 3-10 and 12-13 . Th e centra l element s o f th e chias m ar e th e interpretatio n of th e vision in v. 1 la an d what he describes a s an idiomatic focu s t o the vision provided in v. lib (C-C); both anticipate th e interpretation 1. 'Structura l Studies in Ezekiel' (PhD dissertation, Harvard, 1978 ; Ann Arbor , MI: University Microfilms International), pp. 479-81. 2. Biblical Interpretation i n Ancient Israel (Oxford : Clarendo n Press , 1985) , p. 452.

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that follows . Fishban e has draw n attention to th e significanc e o f th e parallelism betwee n th e A-A' elements. Ezekiel's experience o f being 'set down' i n the valley by Yahweh turns out to be a model fo r that of Israel's being 'se t down' i n its own land by Yahweh. What was to be done fo r th e communit y wa s first done i n th e perso n o f th e prophet , so that his experience function s a s a guarantee of national restoration. C. Westerman n ha s offere d a doubl e analysis. 1 First , dividin g the passage int o tw o parts, vv . 1-1 0 an d 11-14 , h e discovere d a paralle l sequence inse t i n th e former, a sequence o f commissions an d conse quences i n vv . 4-5/ 7 an d 9/10 , afte r th e basi c visio n i n vv . 1- 3 and before th e presentatio n o f it s meanin g in vv . 11-14 . Thi s analysi s is similar t o Parunak's, with less exposur e of his element o f description . True t o hi s longstandin g concer n fo r form , Westerman n judge d a form-critical structurin g also t o be important. He foun d a central rol e for v . l i b a s a fragmentar y declaration o f communa l lament , whil e vv. 1-1 0 and 12-1 4 function a s expression s o f a n oracl e o f response . Both Fishban e an d Westerman n hav e give n a centra l rol e t o v . 11 . They ech o a n emphasis expresse d b y W . Zimmerli , tha t v . 1 1 i s th e nucleus of the whole pericope, lookin g both back and forward. 2 Both scholar s see m t o hav e uncovere d vita l structura l element s from thei r differen t perspectives. I f on e look s afres h a t th e pericop e in th e light of their labors, reusing some of these elements and utilizing further features , a consisten t structur e emerges. Vers e l a seem s t o function a s the introduction, lying outside the structure of the unit as a whole. Th e bod y o f th e tex t consists of a threefold sequence , whos e elements gro w progressivel y shorter , i n vv . lb-8a , 8b-1 0 an d 11-14 . The sequence of elements is ABCBCA'-ABCA'-AB. A represents nega tive description, B divine speech, C prophetic reaction, and A' positiv e description. The first part, vv. lb-8a , fall s int o two segments, vv . lb- 3 and 4-8a . The forme r consists of three elements, th e first of which is a negative description o f bones s o devoid o f life tha t they are 'ver y dry' (vv . Ib2, A). The vividnes s of the visionar y scene is emphasized b y th e tw o uses o f 'behold ' i n v . 2. There follow s a divin e speech i n v . 3a (B) , prefaced b y th e introductory formula 'and h e sai d t o me' an d begin 1. Prophetische Heilsworte im Alien Testament (FRLANT , 145 ; Gottingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987) , pp. 133-34. 2. Ezekiel (Hermeneia ; 2 vols.; Philadelphia: Fortres s Press, 1979 , 1983) , II , p. 257 .

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ning wit h the vocative 'so n o f man'. The divin e speech consist s o f a question, to which a prophetic answer is given in v. 3b (C). The negati vism in vv. lb-2 seems to dominate this first segment. Ezekiel's laconic reply ma y b e take n a s a reinforcemen t o f th e negativ e description : 'You kno w that these bones—s o dry and lifeless—will no t and cannot live'.1 The second segmen t o f vv. lb-8 a is composed o f vv. 4-8a. Thre e of the element s o f th e firs t segmen t reappear , wit h variety o f orde r an d content. Firs t come s divin e speech (B) , i n vv . 4-6. I t essentially con sists of an oracle o f salvation that is a two-part proof saying , in which the particl e 'behold ' i s pointedl y reuse d i n a positiv e context . Th e oracle i s preface d wit h th e introductory formula already use d fo r th e divine speec h o f v. 3 . It is prefaced wit h a commission t o prophesy, a call t o attentio n and a messenger formula . Prophetic transmissio n of the oracl e (C ) follow s i n v . 7a . Finall y there i s positiv e descriptio n (A') in vv. 7b-8a, whic h studiously includes two uses o f 'behold' , in a happy counterpar t t o th e gri m usag e i n v . 2 . Overall , th e relatio n between th e two parts, vv . lb-3 and 4-8a, seem s to be that of a nega tive prelud e t o a positive , transformin g event. Withi n vv. 1-1 0 th e content of vv. lb-8a is marked by incompleteness, in that the oracle of revival has onl y partially been fulfilled . Ye t structurall y this portion is self-contained and represent s a distinc t phase tha t come s to an end with v . 8a. Verses 8b-1 0 present a second par t that, while developing th e story line, includes the same elements a s vv. lb-8 a but in a shorter compass . A brie f negativ e descriptio n (A ) pave s th e way , i n v . 8b. 2 Ther e follows divin e speech (B ) in v. 9, which comprehensively recapitulates in it s preliminar y features the case s i n vv . 3 a an d 4-6 : th e introductory formul a (/ / vv . 3 , 4) , th e commissio n t o prophes y (/ / v . 4), th e address 'so n o f man' (/ / v. 3) and the messenger formul a (// v. 5). The call t o attentio n in v. 5 is lef t ou t of this recapitulation, with a brevity that may echo the overall conciseness of vv. 8-10 in relation to vv. Ib 1. Th e prophet' s reply should probably be paraphrased: "Yo u kno w th e answe r to that . O f cours e the y can' t live!" ' (P.C . Craigie , Ezekiel [Dail y Stud y Bible ; Philadelphia: Westminster Press , 1983] , p . 260) . Cf . W.E . Lemke , 'Lif e i n th e Present and Hope for the Future', Int 38 (1984), pp. 165-8 0 (178-79). 2. P . Hoffke n ('Beobachtunge n z u Ezechie l xxxvi i 1-10' , V T 3 1 [1981] , pp. 305-17 [308 n . 10] ) has drawn attention to the change i n the mode o f descriptio n at v. 8b, from visual experienc e to interpretation .

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8a. Th e actua l oracl e i s o f a differen t kin d fro m tha t in vv . 5-6 ; i t i s now an oracle of command for the mi, here the world-sustaining lifeforce, t o presenc e itsel f an d fulfi l th e wor k o f reanimation . Ther e follows i n v . 1 0 propheti c transmissio n (C ) whic h matche s tha t o f v. 7a, wit h stylistic variation. 1 Finall y comes positiv e description (A' ) in v . lOb . Overall , vv . 8b-1 0 has echoed th e elements alread y use d i n vv. lb-8, but telescoped them , as is not uncommon in literary repetition . The thir d part , i n vv . 11-14 , i s briefer stil l i n term s o f th e numbe r of elements . Propheti c reactio n i s lacking , an d s o i s th e positiv e narrative description featured in vv. 7b-8a and lOb . The part is wholly made u p o f divine speech (B) , which takes th e form o f a disputation. Imbedded withi n it is an element o f negative description (A), in v. 11 . It consists of interpretation of the dry bones described in vv. lb- 2 and a complementary quotatio n of the exiles' lamentin g despair. It s attention-drawing particl e 'behold ' noticeabl y echoe s v . 2 . In reply t o this negative feature , the divine speech move s i n vv. 12-1 3 to an oracle of salvation, a two-part proof sayin g in vv. 5-6. I t too contains 'behold' , now correspondin g to that in v. 5. One may add tha t it also allude s to its double presence withi n the positive description of vv . 7b-8a, at v. 8a. What i s promised i n th e oracl e o f vv. 12-1 3 naturally corresponds t o what wa s performe d i n th e vision , as wel l a s t o wha t was promise d there. Th e divin e speec h i s initiate d b y element s alread y familia r t o the reader : i n v . 1 1 th e introductor y formula (/ / vv . 3 , 4 , 9 ) an d th e vocative addres s (/ / vv. 3, 9) and in v. 1 2 the commission t o prophes y (// vv. 4, 9) and the messenger formul a (// vv. 5, 9). Prophetic formu laic languag e used i n th e tw o section s o f th e visio n narrative i s her e gathered u p an d reused i n thi s interpretative section. Structurall y one might hav e expecte d th e piec e t o conclud e wit h v . 13 . However, i n v. 1 4 there follow s a s a seeming clima x a further oracl e o f salvation, again a two-par t proo f saying , whic h i s cappe d b y a n asseveratio n formula an d a divine-saying formula. Support fo r this structura l analysis comes fro m a pair o f inclusions evident i n th e passage . Th e firs t o f th e thre e section s o f the pericop e was define d as vv. lb-8a ; i n fact th e double usage o f 'behold ' i n both the initial negativ e description an d th e final positive descriptio n pro vides a nice framework for it . The second section, vv. 8b-10, is marke d 1. R . Rendtorf f (TDNT, VI , p . 799 ) ha s compare d th e hithpae l o f th e ver b 'prophesy' wit h th e us e a t 13.17 , where i t characterizes a misused psychi c gif t o f mediating life or death. Here the prophetic word share s this immense potential.

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by a contrasting border, Dn n n n p o 'bu t there was no breath in them' and aro nn n »ia m 'an d breath came into them' (8b , 10) . There ar e a numbe r o f othe r example s o f inclusio n in thi s stylistically rich pericope. Wha t Fishbane regarded a s the first and last step s in a chiasm may at least be viewed as an envelope fo r the pericope, in vv. 1 and 14 . The firs t tw o section s togethe r mak e u p th e visionary part o f the passage . D . Baltzer ha s note d tha t it i s marked of f by th e parallel doubl e usag e o f n« n 'very ' i n vv . 2 and 10. 1 Th e repetitio n accentuates the contrast between the negative and positive descriptions in whic h they ar e set . Smalle r portion s o f tex t ar e als o delineate d b y inclusion. P. Hb'ffke n ha s observe d tha t within the oracle o f salvatio n in vv . 5- 6 th e firs t par t o f th e proo f sayin g ha s it s ow n inclusion , on^m rr n 023 , '...i n yo u breat h an d yo u wil l live', whic h serves t o focus o n th e gif t o f ne w life. 2 Paruna k ha s draw n attentio n t o th e extensive inclusion that marks the oracle o f salvatio n in vv . 12-13 : ' I will ope n you r grave s an d brin g yo u u p fro m you r graves' , an d th e resumptive 'whe n I ope n you r grave s an d brin g yo u u p fro m you r graves'.3 Tight bondin g and differentiatio n ar e achieve d b y al l thes e examples o f inclusion , and amon g the m ar e pointer s t o a structural break betwee n v . 8a and 8b. Cognizance ma y b e take n of a number of case s o f wor d repetitio n and wordplay, mainly serving as stylistic links between parts. Wordplay is characteristic o f vision oracles, an d s o one is not surprised to find it here. The wor d repetition i s not of a straightforward kind, but applie s the sam e term s t o differen t contexts . Th e firs t an d thir d part s ar e loosely linke d b y tw o example s o f thi s patterning . First, th e divin e bringing o f breat h (N^D E M N ' I wil l bring' , v . 5 ) i s echoe d i n th e bringing o f th e exile s t o the lan d of Israe l (Tma m 'an d I will bring', v. 12) . Secondly , th e divin e bringing u p o f fles h upo n th e bone s i s capped by the bringing up of the exiles from thei r virtua l graves (Tibum 'and I will bring up', vv.6,12). Wordplay also unites these parts: lanpm 'and (th e bones) joined' (v . 7) finds an echo i n wnrap 'you r graves ' (vv. 12, 13) . Another instance of wordplay bridges the second and third parts: TI B 'breathe' (v . 9) and nns •>] « ' I will open' togethe r wit h Tinea 'when I open' (vv . 12, 13). Counterpointing of thi s same pair o f stem s occurs i n Jeremiah's visio n of the tilting cauldron and its explanator y 1. Ezechiel und Deuterojesaja (BZAW , 121 ; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1971), p. 109 . 2. Hoffken , 'Beobachtungen' , p. 306 . 3. 'Structural Studies', p. 483 .

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oracle in Jer. 1.13-14 . Mention may also be made of consonantal assonance tha t occurs withi n the second part: vm nbn n D'orinto ) 'thes e slain ones, tha t they may live ' an d *rn orr^r i (~bi? ) '(upon ) their feet, a host' (vv. 9 , 10) . Th e transpose d consonant s stylisticall y emphasiz e th e radical transformatio n Yahwe h woul d brin g about , whereb y victim s of divine judgment were to become recipients of salvation and strength. The third par t deserve s close r structura l examination. I n general th e lament i s obviously matched b y the following oracle of salvation, with appropriate correlatio n o f forms . Th e thre e clause s o f th e lamen t correspond t o th e thre e clause s o f th e divin e response , bu t onl y loosely. I n fact, the third clause i n v. 1 1 matches th e second clause i n v. 12 , fo r tw o reasons . First , th e doubl e pronomina l referenc e i n 13*7 iriTH 'w e ar e cu t of f fo r ourselves ' i s nicel y answere d b y tha t o f D^Tinapn DDH « Ti^u m 'an d I wil l brin g yo u u p fro m you r graves' . Secondly, th e metaphor s o f graves an d o f being cu t of f (i n death ) ar e closely associate d concept s i n a lament context , a s Ps . 88.6(5 ) illustrates: TIN:)...-o p • | Mffl...iM 'like...thos e wh o li e in th e grave... they are cu t off. Th e secon d claus e i n th e lamen t seems t o correspon d t o the firs t on e i n th e oracle . Th e emotiona l expressio n o f dea d hope , nmpn n~DK i 'an d ou r hop e i s perished' , i s answere d b y a ne w hope , Yahweh's openin g o f thei r graves . On e ma y not e her e no t onl y th e matching of th e two final terms in the Hebrew, a s nouns with suffixe s that relat e t o th e exiles , bu t als o th e echo o f th e death-lade n ver b i n the ter m 'graves' , an d the irruption of dynamic activity on Yahweh' s part t o deal wit h th e passive situatio n o f the exiles. Th e first statement in th e lamen t an d th e thir d on e i n th e oracl e functio n a s flanges . Th e initial lament claus e 'ou r bones ar e dried up ' ha s its own role to play, as a metapho r o f disorientatio n tha t expresse s a lo w qualit y o f life . Reinterpreted i n terms o f the metaphor of death expressed i n the third clause ('w e ar e cu t off) , i t ha s forme d th e basi s o f th e precedin g vision, a s the references t o dry bones in vv. 2 and 4 reveal. The interpretation o f the vision commences wit h the basic factor revealed a t the start o f th e vision . Th e thir d statemen t i n th e oracl e o f v . 1 2 con cerning restoratio n o f th e exile s t o thei r ow n lan d i s a n importan t element i n th e interpretation . I t ground s the metapho r o f ne w lif e i n Ezekiel's genera l positiv e agend a of a new exodus. By implication i t serves t o identif y th e bringin g up fro m th e grave s wit h th e actua l phase o f exodus, whic h is then followed by the phase o f entry into th e promised land . Vers e 2 1 i s comparable , wher e th e exodu s phas e i s

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flavored by the symbolism of taking sticks (np b 'take' , vv. 16 , 19, 21). The mentio n o f entry into the land finds reinforcement in v. 1 4 within the second salvation oracle. Tradition Hopefully th e reason fo r this complex structurin g will become evident from a consideration o f Ezekiel's us e o f traditio n history . I t mus t b e said tha t ther e i s muc h i n 37.1-1 4 tha t correlates wit h materia l else where in th e book. Fo r instance, the overall for m of the unit is simila r to tha t o f 36.16-3 2 i n consistin g of bot h a private communicatio n o f Yahweh t o th e prophe t an d a public oracle . I n form-critica l content, although no t i n th e orde r o f it s components , i t i s especiall y clos e t o 11.1-13. There a vision and a disputation that consists of divine interpretation o f th e vision , a commissio n t o delive r a n oracl e an d th e actual oracl e ar e followe d by a visionary account of th e effec t o f th e oracle an d a questio n aske d b y th e prophet. 1 Th e tw o stage s o f reanimation in the vision have been compare d b y Zimmerli t o the two phases o f Ezekiel' s eatin g th e scrol l i n 3.1-3 , whic h both consis t o f divine command an d prophetic compliance. 2 F. Hossfeld has observed that th e referenc e t o th e 'slain ' (D-mn ) in v. 1 0 echoes th e use o f th e verb in 9.16 , 21.16(11 ) an d 23.10 , 4 7 i n context s of divine judgment against Israel. 3 At a climacti c point in th e vision the ter m i s deliber ately use d t o categoriz e th e exile s a s virtuall y 'slain' , victim s o f Yahweh's punishment for their sins. Yet i t i s als o clea r tha t the pericop e draw s upon earlier traditions . Commentators generall y se e in the two stage s o f reanimation narrate d in th e vision the influence o f Gen. 2.7; the fact tha t the verb 'breathe ' (ns]) is common to both passages support s the derivation. 4 Yahweh is engaged i n a wor k o f ne w creation . Baltze r has foun d i n th e divin e command o f v . 9 a referenc e t o th e powe r o f th e creativ e wor d i n Genesis 1. 5 Bu t wha t of th e conceptio n of deat h an d ne w life ? Th e 1. Se e especially Hoffken, 'Beobachtungen' , pp. 310-12. 2. Ezekiel, II, p. 257; cf. Ezekiel I , pp. 135-36 . 3. Untersuchungen zu Komposition und Theologie de s Ezechielbuches (Forschungen zur Bibel, 20; Wurzburg: Echter Verlag, 1977), p. 380. H e also cited the usage in foreign oracle s a t 26.6, 8, 11 , 15 ; 28.9. 4. See , e.g. , Zimmerli , Ezekiel, II, p. 261. 5. Ezechiel, p. 112 .

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very questio n o f v . 3 appear s t o indicat e tha t a belie f i n physica l resurrection wa s no t ye t curren t t o provid e th e basi s fo r a positiv e answer. Scholar s hav e usuall y been conten t to groun d the conceptio n in the lamenting citation o f the exiles' despai r i n v. 11 , with examples from th e Psalm s o f disorientatio n describe d i n term s o f a livin g death.l I f the citation supplie s the negative imagery, one can go on to relate th e gif t o f ne w lif e t o th e reorientatio n tha t Yahwe h bring s about. 'Yo u hav e brough t u p m y bein g fro m Sheol' , exclaim s th e giver o f thank s (Ps . 30.4[3] ; cf . 86.13) . Bu t ma y on e fin d a mor e specific parallel ? Hossfeld , wh o views vv. llb-13 a a s a separate uni t from vv . 1-1 0 and s o cannot ground th e latter i n th e imagery o f v. 11 , has include d in his extensiv e stud y of vv. 1-1 4 a section o n the tradi tion histor y o f th e vision . He has foun d the sourc e o f it s imager y o f new lif e afte r deat h i n the literal resurrectio n o f the dea d bo y through the prophe t Elija h i n 1 Kg s 17.17-24. 2 I n hi s sectio n o n semanti c analysis h e note d tha t bot h ther e and in the vision th e verb rr n 'live ' has a n ingressive sense , 'com e back t o life'. 3 Eve n more significantl y he also cited as a semantic parallel the interrelated saying s in 1 Sam. 2. 6 and 2 Kgs. 5.7 concerning God's powe r to kill and bring back to life. 4 Here surel y i s a likel y traditio-historical sourc e fo r the transforma tion i n th e vision . Deut . 32.39 , 1 Sam . 2. 6 an d 2 Kg s 5. 7 ar e al l examples o f a merismu s tha t couple s Yahweh' s omnipoten t powe r both to inflict deat h an d t o besto w life. 5 I n vie w of its particula r con texts, i t i s apparentl y use d no t o f litera l deat h bu t metaphoricall y o f Yahweh a s th e originato r o f both disorientatio n an d reorientation. 6 In the first cas e i t i s expresse d i n hymnic language, ' I put t o deat h an d bring t o life' , an d i s followe d by ' I woun d and I heal'. Th e secon d case i s a similar affirmation: 'Yahwe h puts to death and brings to life' . 1. Fo r a recent study of death in the Psalter, se e C.C. Broyles , The Conflict o f Faith and Experience i n the Psalms (JSOTSup , 52 ; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1989) , pp. 84-95. The imagery appears to be restricted to individual psalms. 2. Untersuchungen, p. 390 . 3. Untersuchungen, pp. 376-77 . 4. Untersuchungen, p. 377. 5. Se e J . Krasovec , De r Merismus i m Biblisch-Hebrdischen un d Nordwestsemitischen (BibOr , 33; Rome : Biblical Institut e Press, 1977) , p . 118 ; K.-J. Illman , Ol d Testament Formulas about Death (Abo : Ab o Akademi , 1979) , pp. 164-68 . Cf. Wisd. 16.13 : 'For you have authority over life and death; you bring down to the gates of Sheol and back again'. 6. Cf . A.D.H. Mayes, Deuteronomy (NCB ; London: Oliphants, 1979) , p . 392 .

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The tex t continues with example s o f God's providentia l dual activity, impoverishing/enriching an d demoting/promoting . I n it s settin g o f thanksgiving the focus i s on the second element: Yahwe h who inflict s deathlike disorientatio n als o restore s t o a ne w qualit y of life . I n th e third case both the emphasis on the second of the two elements an d the metaphorical natur e of the terminology ar e clear: 'A m I God to put to death an d to bring alive, tha t this person send s to me to cure a man of his leprosy?' Let u s recal l a t thi s poin t tha t Ezekie l mad e us e o f a serie s o f Achilles' hee l metaphor s to corroborate hi s message o f coming divine judgment. These metaphor s first empathetically share d th e misplace d optimism o f th e exile s an d the n too k a ver y logica l tangen t toward pessimism.1 Thus Tyre i s a magnificent ocean-goin g merchan t ship — but i n traditiona l Israelit e thinkin g do no t ship s ten d t o b e wrecke d (ch. 27)? The prince of Tyre has all the glory of the fabulous primaeval man i n Eden—bu t di d h e no t fal l (ch . 28) ? Pharao h possesse s th e power o f th e mythologica l chao s monster—bu t di d i t no t los e t o it s divine enemy (chs . 2 9 and 32)? In the prophet's messag e o f salvation here th e same thin g seems t o be happening in reverse. The exiles' des pair cite d i n v . 1 1 i s depicte d i n a visionar y metapho r tha t full y assents t o their pessimism: 'Ca n thes e bones live?' Wh o indeed coul d give an affirmative answer? In the terms o f 33.10, 'Ho w ca n we live?' Yet the bones d o come back to life. Jus t as Ezekiel use d older cultural concepts a s models to support his theme of unforeseeable judgment, so here th e implici t basi s fo r salvatio n appear s t o b e th e traditiona l hymnic quality o f th e nationa l God t o giv e triump h over th e traged y he sends. 2 Yahwe h puts to death and bring s back t o life. The 'slain' , victims of just punishment at his hand, are destined to enjoy an amazing new lease on life. The double process o f reanimation itself reflect s the prophet's twofol d agend a o f first empathizing with the exiles' moo d and then contradicting it. Fox has delightfully compare d 'th e magicia n 1. Cf . C.A . Newsom , ' A Make r o f Metaphors—Ezekiel' s Oracle s agains t Tyre', Int 38 (1984), pp. 151-6 4 (157) . 2. I n thi s fre e adaptatio n o f th e hymni c formula , rin 'slay ' function s as a synonym of fVfo n 'pu t to death'. Note too the hiphil of n^U 'brin g up (from Sheol) ' in 2 Sam. 2.6, a s in vv. 12-1 3 here. Illman (Old Testament Formulas, pp. 164 , 166 ) has observed tha t alongside the formulaic phrasing of 'pu t to death/make alive' ther e are freer instances that employ the qal of iTT! 'live' in a perfect consecutive construc tion (Exod. 1.16; Esth. 4.11)—which is what occurs her e in vv. 5, 6, 14.

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who invariabl y "fails" onc e o r twice in attemptin g the grand finale in order t o intensif y suspens e an d t o focu s attentio n o n th e climacti c success t o follow'. 1 I n fact the magician is also reinforcing the evident impossibility o f th e tric k i n th e mind s o f th e audience . Th e doubl e process o f revivin g expresse d i n th e tw o structura l section s o f th e vision concede s th e difficult y o f th e enterpris e an d accentuate s th e power o f God . Lik e th e her o i n Pau l Gallico' s Th e Ma n Wh o Wa s Magic,2 Yahwe h was a real magician . Also wove n int o th e visionar y accoun t is the traditiona l concep t o f the prophet a s inaugurator of the futur e h e prophesies fo r th e people. 3 'I hav e hew n the m throug h the prophets , I hav e slai n the m by the words of my mouth', declared Yahwe h through Hosea (Hos . 6.5). Ye t not onl y a negativ e futur e wa s unleashe d b y th e prophets . Jeremia h was se t 'ove r nations and kingdoms, to pluck up and break down...to build an d plant ' (Jer . 1.10 ; cf . Ezek . 36.36) . I n al l thre e part s o f th e pericope, structura l emphasi s i s lai d o n th e rol e o f th e prophe t i n bringing abou t Yahweh' s positiv e work. 4 A s i n 11.4-12 , Ezekiel' s prophetic wor d control s th e developmen t o f th e vision. 5 H e wa s t o function unde r Go d as the agen t of renewal. Thi s rol e serve d bot h a s an assurance t o the prophet and as an assertion t o the people regarding the authority and authenticity he possessed a s proclaimer o f salvation, as trul y a s whe n h e ha d predicte d th e judgment tha t ha d no w bee n fulfilled. Redaction Scholars hav e varied i n th e amoun t of redactional materia l the y hav e detected i n 37.1-14 . Perhap s surprisingl y Zimmerli ha s her e refuse d to se e any. 6 Other s hav e discovere d i n redaction criticis m th e answe r to a discrepancy betwee n th e vision and its interpretation—a scene of 1. Fox , 'Rhetoric' , p. 11. 2. London : Heinemann, 1966. 3. Cf . J. Lindblom, Prophecy i n Ancient Israel (Philadelphia : Fortress Press , 1965), pp . 117-20 . 4. Fox' s descriptio n of Ezekiel in the vision as a largely passive spectator ha s rightly bee n criticize d b y R.W . Klein (Ezekiel: Th e Prophet an d hi s Message [Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988] , p. 15 5 n. 9). 5. Cf . Zimmerli, Ezekiel, I, p. 258. 6. Ezekiel, II, p. 257.

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unburied bone s give s wa y t o a graveyard . Accordingl y A. Bertholet , G. Fohrer an d J.W . Wever s hav e envisage d a n origina l uni t of vv . 1 12aoc and 14, whic h has bee n supplemente d wit h the first oracl e of salvation i n vv . 12a|3-1 3 tha t contain s th e awkwar d 'graves'. 1 Mor e recently a rather mor e radica l expedien t ha s foun d favor: t o envisag e the combination o f two independent units—a n interpreted visio n an d a disputation—and the n thei r supplementatio n wit h eithe r v . 1 4 o r vv. 13b-14 . Thu s Baltze r ha s take n th e visio n o f unburie d bone s i n vv. 1-1 0 alon g wit h th e interpretatio n i n v . 1 1 ('Thes e bone s ar e al l the house o f Israel') as a unit separate fro m the divine introductio n i n the res t o f v . 1 1 an d th e graves-base d oracl e o f vv . 12-13 . The fres h oracle o f v . 14 , which use s n n i n th e sens e o f 'spirit ' (rathe r tha n 'breath' o r 'lif e force' ) an d makes i t Yahweh's, is a subsequent com ment o n vv . 6 an d 12-13 . I t i s linke d wit h th e redactiona l 36.26-28 , which employ s n n i n th e sam e wa y as here. 2 Hossfel d ha s largel y followed Baltzer' s analysis except tha t he has aligned v. 1 la a s a whole with vv . 1-10 , rather tha n only the interpretin g clause , envisagin g th e redactional additio n a s vv . 13b-14. 3 H e dilute d th e basi c similarit y between vv . 1- 1 la an d v. li b by claiming tha t th e references t o 'dr y bones' withi n vv. 2 and 4 were redactiona l addition s t o bind vv . 1-1 la more closel y t o th e next , juxtaposed unit . H e dre w attentio n t o th e omission o f th e norma l TIX 'Lord ' i n th e divine-sayin g formula i n v. 14. 4 Zimmerli ha s brushed aside as unnecessary the concern about chang e of imager y fro m unburie d bone s t o properl y interre d remains. 5 His instinctive reaction agains t envisaging two units may be supporte d b y objective arguments . First, in view of the lament styl e of the quotation 1. A . Bertholet, Hesekiel (HAT; Tubingen: Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1936) , p . 126 ; G. Fohrer , Ezechiel (HAT ; Tubingen: Mohr [Pau l Siebeck] , 1955) , pp . 209-10 ; J.W. Wevers, Ezekiel (NCB ; London: Nelson, 1969) , pp . 277, 279 . 2. Ezechiel, pp . 101-108 . H e ha s bee n followe d b y A . Graffy , A Prophet Confronts hi s People (AnBib , 104; Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1984) , pp . 83-84. 3. Untersuchungen, pp. 367, 369 . H e followed G. Jahn, Das Buch Ezechiel auf Grund de r Septuaginta hergestellt (Leipzig : E. Pfeiffer, 1905) , p. 255, an d mor e recently b y J . Garscha , Studien zum Ezechielbuch: Eine redaktionkritische Untersuchung vo n 1-39 (Bonn : Lang, 1974) , p. 222, in taking v. 13 b as the start of the redactional addition. Both Baltzer and Hossfeld construe nnn 'they ' at the end of v. 1 la wit h v. lib, in order to supply a subject at the beginning of their new unit. 4. Untersuchungen, p. 387 . 5. Untersuchungen, p. 387 .

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in v . 11 , i t i s pertinen t t o refe r t o th e fre e mixin g o f metaphor s t o describe th e experienc e o f disorientatio n in th e psalm s o f lamen t an d thanksgiving. Fo r instance , ther e i s fre e movemen t fro m a figur e o f drowning t o tha t o f a trap i n Ps . 124.4-5 , 7 (cf . Pss . 57.2 , 5 , 7 [1 , 4, 6]). Accordingly it is wooden to differentiate o n this score between the prophetic visio n an d the divin e oracle , whic h commen t fro m slightl y different perspective s o n th e deathlik e disorientatio n o f v . lib. Secondly, one must take seriousl y th e stylistic coherence of the passage suggested above , especiall y th e paralle l element s an d wordplay . Thirdly, th e rol e o f th e prophe t i n th e visio n a s agen t o f divin e salvation fo r th e exile s matche s th e propheti c formulation s an d th e actual message o f salvatio n i n th e interpretativ e material . Fourthly , a warning need s t o b e sounde d agains t confusin g for m criticis m an d redaction criticism. 1 The existence o f unredacted 'mixed ' Psalm s i s a perennial cautio n agains t thi s no t infrequen t confusion . Ther e i s n o reason wh y a vision and a disputation cannot coexist from the beginning in a prophetic piece. 2 Zimmerli als o dismisse d a s unnecessary th e assignment o f vv . 13b 14 to a redactor's hand. 3 He explained vv. 12-1 4 a s an expanded proo f saying an d wa s abl e t o cit e othe r example s i n th e boo k o f Ezekiel . However, h e admitte d elsewher e tha t a t time s wha t looke d lik e a n original expanded proo f sayin g might on othe r grounds turn ou t t o b e primary materia l redactionall y expanded. 4 I n thi s case th e facto r o f inclusion permit s v . 13 b t o b e take n wit h wha t precedes , s o tha t Baltzer's limitatio n o f the alleged supplemen t t o v. 1 4 may b e judged preferable. Certainl y i n term s o f structur e vv . 11-1 3 supplie s wha t one expects t o find in correspondenc e wit h th e previous tw o section s of the unit . The extr a oracl e o f salvation or proof sayin g in v . 1 4 gilds the structura l lily . What the n i s th e rol e o f v . 14 ? The answe r lie s i n the wide r literar y settin g o f thi s pericope . Baltzer , Garsch a an d Hossfeld al l made referenc e t o 36.27 an d ascribe d v . 1 4 or vv. 13b-1 4 1. Graff y ( A Prophet, p . 84 ) identifie d for m an d structur e a s 'th e principa l reasons' fo r division int o tw o units, with the change i n metaphor a s a supplementar y reason. By 'structure' he meant form-critica l structure . 2. On e might add, fifthly , tha t R. Bartelmus has argued strongl y fo r the unity of v. 11 , agains t Baltze r an d Hossfel d ('Textkritik , Literaturkriti k un d Syntax : Anmerkungen zur neueren Diskussion um Ezek. 37, 11', BN 25 [1984], pp. 55-64). 3. Bartelmus , Textkritik'. 4. Ezekiel, II, p. 97.

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to th e sam e redactiona l hand that they found i n th e context o f 36.27. l Zimmerli himsel f assigne d 36.23bp~3 8 t o th e 'school ' o f Ezekiel, 2 while i n a recen t commentary 3 I have judged 36.24-3 8 t o b e redac tional. U. Cassuto once suggested tha t the similarity o f 36.27 and 37.14 was the reason wh y 37.1-14 was placed after ch . 36. 4 His insight ma y be develope d i n a redactiona l direction . Vers e 37.14 a i s remarkabl y like 36.21 a: oimpa ]n « TirrnN i 'an d my spirit I will put withi n you' appears t o b e echoe d b y D3 3 s nn Tir m 'an d I wil l pu t m y spiri t i n you'. Th e chang e o f prepositio n an d verba l constructio n ma y b e explained as deliberate assimilation t o ten 02 3 Tinn in v. 6 in order to allude t o specific material within 37.1-13. The continuation with Drv"m 'and yo u wil l live' an d a recognition formul a in bot h vv. 6 and 1 4 is further evidenc e o f a recapitulating intent. This virtua l quotation from 36.2 7 i n v . 1 4 needs t o be linked with a parallel echoin g o f 36.27 b in 37.24b : •'OEHD& I "ob n • >prQ"u»» n « Trai n Dirrain nnra n 'an d I wil l caus e tha t i n m y statute s yo u wal k and m y ordinances yo u observ e an d do ' i s resume d b y Tip m 'o' r •'asffl&a i am« ifflu i v w 'an d i n my ordinances the y wil l walk an d my statute s they wil l observe an d do them'. The reversa l o f th e objects i s typica l of literar y resumptio n o f earlie r material. 5 I n th e cas e o f 37.24b , Zimmerli ha s seen i t as the start of a redactional expansion in vv. 24b 28.6 Rightly so, most probably , but more remains to be said abou t th e redactional process . 37.14 a an d 37.24 b see m t o functio n a s fina l captions t o 37.1-1 3 an d 37.15-23 . Thes e caption s deliberatel y refe r back to the two halves o f 36.27. The editorial functio n o f 37.1-13 in its presen t positio n is to throw light on the gif t of the spiri t in 36.27a . That o f 37.15-2 3 i s to clarify a means b y which Yahweh would bring about th e obedience o f 36.27b , namely via a Davidic king who would impose orde r amon g God' s people , unitin g souther n an d norther n elements wit h hi s roya l staf f o r scepter. In tur n 37.14 a represents an 1. Baltzer , Ezechiel, p . 108 ; Garscha , Studien, p . 222 ; Hossfeld , Untersuchungen, p. 401 . 2. Ezekiel, II , pp. 245-46, 248 . 3. Ezekiel 20-48 (WBC; Dallas: Word Books, 1990) . 4. Biblical and Oriental Studies. I. Bible (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1973) , p. 239 . 5. Cf . in principle S. Talmon in P.M. Cross an d S. Talmon (eds.), Qumran and the History of th e Biblical Text (Cambridge , MA: Harvard University Press, 1975) , pp. 359-68. It is a further exampl e of what Talmon calle d 'inverte d distan t paral lelism' used in inner-biblical quotations . 6. Ezekiel, II , pp. 272-73.

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editorial roundin g off o f th e uni t o f vv . 1-13 , whic h use s th e visio n with it s ninefol d occurrenc e o f mi 'breath/spirit ' a s a n illustration of the restorin g powe r o f Go d i n 36.27a . I t intends to focu s particularly on th e referenc e t o the givin g of th e mi i n v . 6 , but it s identification as Yahweh's spirit seem s to echo Ezekiel's own empowering i n v. 1 . Hossfeld observed tha t in both 36.2 7 an d 37.14 reference t o renewed occupation o f th e lan d follows. 1 Th e redacto r apparentl y use d th e unusual verb mn 'settle ' i n order t o recall th e setting dow n of Ezekiel in v . 1 , thereby creatin g no t onl y a structura l inclusio n bu t als o th e role-modeling inten t detected b y Fishbane , whic h the skewin g factor of redaction makes more likel y than it would be in an unredacted text. 2 The formul a o f asseveratio n tha t i s wove n int o th e recognitio n formula, TTWJJ I TIID I m m ^ K ' I Yahwe h hav e spoke n an d wil l act', serves to reinforce th e twin components o f promise an d event presen t in th e vision . The interpretatio n of vv . 11-1 3 necessaril y focuse d o n promise; th e asseveratio n formul a allows both component s t o surfac e in a final reference. Ther e i s a nice stylistic echo o f mrr 13 1 'the word of Yahweh' i n v . 4, which in the rest o f the vision and in the interpretation lack s a matchin g counterpart . There i s muc h evidenc e i n th e book o f Ezekiel tha t the redactor(s) had a n eye fo r literar y style. Her e an opportunity is take n for a slight stylistic improvement that yields a satisfying clima x b y addin g the las t piece t o a structural jigsaw. Th e closing signatur e of th e divin e saying formul a accords wit h a feature of redactiona l wor k i n th e book , th e clai m o f propheti c inspiratio n

1. Untersuchungen, p . 386 . The change from P K 'land ' t o nan* in 37.14 i s doubtless to be explained by to the influence of the latter term in 37.12; cf. also 36.24. 2. Fo x refused t o see inclusion in the double use of mi, since it would hardly be detectable to an auditor and since the term functions so differently tha t the repetition has no rhetorical value ('Rhetoric', p. 1 4 n. 18). Fishbane's larger inclusion and explanation, when set in a redactional perspective, serve to answer his second point. If v . 1 4 is redactional , hi s firs t poin t is invalid . Hoffken ha s reasonabl y aske d whether the verb means 'settle', as in Isa. 14.1 , or 'allo w to stay', as in Jer. 27.11 ('Beobachtungen', p. 315 n. 26). He took it in the latter sense and intriguingly saw in vv . 1 2 and 1 4 two differen t act s of God, corresponding to the tw o i n vv. 8 and 10. However, if v . 1 4 is take n a s primary , i t shoul d mos t probably b e regarded form-critically a s the closing part of an expanded proof saying, as Zimmerli took it. Then v. 1 4 continues the subordinate clauses of v. 13 , as further act s after bringin g the exiles up from thei r Sheol of disorientation. Yet in v. 12 the next step is return to the land, to which one accordingly expects a reference in v. 14.

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and divin e authorit y i n vali d continuatio n of th e wor k o f Ezekie l himself. An attemp t ha s been mad e t o analyze this pericope fro m thre e per spectives i n orde r t o she d ligh t o n its meaning . I n term s o f structur e there is a double movemen t fro m a negative orientatio n t o a positive one in the visio n report; i t is matched i n th e accompanying oracle . I n terms o f tradition history thi s movement relate s t o the creda l affirma tion that Yahweh both kills and makes alive , whic h is echoed in orde r to confirm his positive inten t to restore hi s people . Redactionally th e pericope function s as a n elaboratio n o f th e gif t o f Yahweh' s spiri t promised i n 36.27a.

Part II I MINOR PROPHETS

IN PRAISE OF DIVINE CAPRICE : THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BOOK OF JONAH* Alan Coope r

ABSTRACT 'Deliverance', as the author of Jonah depicts it , is neither a reward fo r merit nor a tempering of justice wit h mercy. It is, instead, a free and gracious ac t of divine love. The wellsprin g o f thi s concept o f deliverance i s no t covenan t faith , bu t persona l religion. This understanding of the message o f Jonah is defended by a close reading of the critical passages in Jon. 3-4, and by an examination of intertextual relationships between Jonah and some of the other Minor Prophets. I

The Boo k o f Jonah give s commo n sens e a battering. A t almost ever y turn, i t seem s t o refut e som e unspoke n assumption , somethin g take n for grante d abou t th e wa y thing s work in th e world . A prophe t com missioned t o g o t o th e east woul d not flee to th e west ; peopl e drow n when they are tossed int o a tempestuous sea; if God announces that he is goin g t o destro y a city , i t i s a s goo d a s destroyed ; th e Assyrian s would no t chang e thei r entir e wa y o f lif e becaus e o f a five-wor d admonition fro m a Hebrew prophet—excep t (i n all fou r cases ) in th e Book o f Jonah . Practicall y everythin g in th e boo k confute s norma l expectation—its characters , it s plot, an d even it s language . It s fictive world is far removed fro m th e everyday world descried b y experienc e and common sense. 1 * I would like to thank my former students, Rabbi R.M. Rosenberg an d Rabbi E.W. Torop, for their responses to the ideas contained in this paper. I also benefitte d from kee n critica l reading s o f earlie r draft s b y m y friends , Dr s M.V . Fox , B.R. Goldstein an d B . Halpern . 1. Se e S. Stewart, Nonsense: Aspects o f Intertextuality i n Folklore and Literature (Baltimore: John s Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1980) , pp . 3-46. I n he r words , 'nonsense mos t ofte n results from wha t may be seen t o be a radical shift.. . away

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5

One o f th e classi c confutation s o f th e 'rea l world ' i n al l literature , of course , i s Jonah' s se a voyag e i n th e bell y o f a grea t fish . Thi s incredible adventur e is spu n out o f th e literalizatio n or inversion of a metaphor,1 specifically the metaphor of Jon. 2.3-4 ('Fro m the belly of Sheol I crie d out') . Th e effec t o f suc h inversio n i s t o 'presen t a critique and a denial of univocal meaning and the ideology o f univocal meaning foun d i n commo n sense' 2—not a ba d preci s fo r th e entir e Book o f Jonah, in m y view . Yet it i s ou t o f the book' s befuddlement of it s reader s tha t it s profoun d theologica l messag e emerges , a s I intend to show in this paper. It ca n hardl y be fortuitou s that two astonishin g instances o f unpredictable plot-reversa l (peripeteia) i n the Bibl e happen t o involve th e prophet Jonah . I n 2 Kg s 14.25-27 , Go d permit s th e expansio n o f Israel's borders, 'accordin g to die word that his servant Jonah uttered', despite th e nation' s persisten t sinfulnes s (14.24) . An d i n Jon . 3.10 , God reverses th e evil decree that Jonah had pronounced against Nineveh in 3.4 . Th e thematic lin k between these tw o events wa s already note d in th e Babylonia n Talmud, where R. Nahman b. Yisha q i s quote d a s saying, 'Jus t a s evi l wa s transformed 3 int o good fo r Nineveh, s o was evil transforme d int o good fo r Israe l durin g the day s o f Jeroboam b . Joash' (b . Yeb. 98a). In eac h instance , the change of fortun e entail s th e falsificatio n o f a prophetic threat of destruction. The reversal of Jon. 3.4 is self-evident. 4 from a contiguous relationship to the context of everyday life...' (p . 33) . 1. Example s of this phenomenon are legion in everyday discourse, an d are ofte n a sourc e o f humor . When cartoo n characters becom e furious , the y tur n re d an d breathe fire, their ears emit steam, and the tops of their heads blow off—all literaliza tions o f commonl y used metaphors . On thes e an d othe r metaphor s o f anger , se e G. Lakoff, Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: Universit y of Chicago Press, 1987) , pp. 380-97. 2. Quotin g Stewart , Nonsense, p . 77. 3. R . Nahman uses the niphal of hpk, as does Jon. 3.4 . 4. I am assuming for the moment that Jon. 3.4. i s unequivocally negative. Ye t according t o Rash i an d Isaac Abravanel , for example, nehpaket migh t hav e tw o senses: either Nineveh will be 'overthrown', or it will be 'transformed' fo r the better. Nineveh's response to the oracle will determine whic h of the two senses is effect uated. This view has been adopted recently by E.M. Good, Irony i n the Old Testament (Philadelphia: Westminste r Press, 1985), pp. 48-49; B. Halpern an d R.E. Friedman, 'Composition an d Paronomasia in the Book o f Jonah', HAR 4 (1980), pp. 79-92, esp. pp . 87, 89 . Fo r a n arbitrar y rejectio n o f it , se e H.W . Wolff, Obadiah an d

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It i s les s frequentl y note d tha t th e prophecie s o f Amo s agains t Jeroboam, recounte d i n Amo s 7. 9 an d 1 1 (th e latte r bein g Amaziah' s report o f Amos's speech) , ar e contradicte d b y th e favorabl e notice in 2 Kings 1 4 and, by inference, must have been a t variance wit h Jonah' s predictions. A s M . Cogan an d H . Tadmo r remark , 2 Kg s 14.2 7 'evidences awarenes s o f a propheti c wor d contradictin g tha t o f Jonah'.1 A midrash suggest s tha t Jeroboa m wa s rewarded becaus e h e repudiated Amaziah' s charg e agains t Amos : 'Wa s no t Jeroboa m a n idolater? Yes , ye t God chose hi m to save Israe l becaus e h e refused t o accept slande r o f the prophet Amos.' 2 The sixteenth-centur y homilist Moses Alshek h explain s tha t b y sparin g Amos' s life , Jeroboa m brought about the annulment of Amos's prophecies, an d the fulfillmen t of Jonah's.3 In each case , the Bible seems t o supply God's motiv e for sparing the condemned people . I say 'seems to' because, upon closer examination , the purported motive s evanesce , o r at least rais e mor e problem s tha n they solve . I intend to argu e tha t thes e problem s ar e th e cru x o f th e Book o f Jonah—an d no t th e contrast betwee n Israe l an d th e gentil e nations, th e clash betwee n universalis m an d particularism, th e tension between divin e justice an d mercy , o r th e dilemm a of fals e prophecy , to name th e fou r theme s tha t have dominated discussion of th e boo k for tw o millennia. 4 Jonah (trans . M. Kohl; Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1986), p . 149 . 1. / / Kings (AB, 11; New York: Doubleday, 1988), p. 16 1 (see als o p . 164) . 2. T . d . Eliyy. 1 7 and parallels . Se e W.G . Braud e and I.J . Kapstein , Tanna Debe Eliyyahu (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1981) , pp. 233-34. 3. M . Alshekh , Sefer Mar'ot ha-Sove'ot (repr . Ne w York : Josep h Weiss , 1979), a d 2 Kg s 14.26 . Alshekh's positio n is consistent wit h a common attitude towards prophecy, namely that prophecies of destructio n are contingent upon the human response t o them. Such prophecies may therefore be annulled without prejudice t o the prophet who pronounced them. Promises o f good fortune , on the othe r hand, are invariably fulfilled. O n the latter point, see b. Ber. 7a (bot.); b. Sab. 5la. On th e general principle , see Maimonides, Hilkhot Yesodei ha-Torah 10. 4 (trans . H.M. Russell an d J . Weinber g [Ne w York : Ktav , 1983] , pp . 26-27); Lev i be n Gershom, Milhamot ha-Shem 2. 6 (trans . S . Feldma n [Philadelphia : Jewis h Publication Society , 1986] , II , pp. 59-60). 4. Fo r basi c orientation , see E . Bickerman , 'Les deu x erreur s d u prophet e Jonas', RHPR 4 5 (1965), pp. 232-64; idem. Four Strange Books of th e Bible (New York: Schocke n Books , 1967) , pp . 3-49; L . Schmidt , 'D e Deo': Studien zu r Literarkritik un d Theologie de s Buches Jona... (BZAW, 143 ; Berlin : de Gruyter, 1976), pp . 4-130; J. Magonet, Form and Meaning: Studies in Literary Techniques in

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According t o 2 Kg s 14.26-2 7 (contrar y t o th e aforementione d midrash), God perceived th e abject helplessness o f Israel, an d 'resolved not t o blo t ou t th e nam e o f Israe l fro m unde r heaven ' (NJPSV). 1 A similar pretex t i s apparentl y adduce d fo r th e rescu e o f Nineveh : it s inhabitants 'd o no t ye t kno w thei r righ t han d fro m thei r left ' (Jon . 4.11). Th e thrus t i n bot h case s seem s t o b e tha t th e helpless , th e ignorant, o r those wh o are not responsible fo r their action s (lik e those renowned 'beasts ' o f Jon. 4.11) benefit fro m God's mercy. 2 The proble m wit h tha t motiv e fo r divin e mercy i s twofold . I n th e first place , i t i s contradicte d b y othe r description s o f th e huma n characters. Amo s depict s a n Israel tha t exults in its military successe s (Amos 6.13) , an d i s anythin g but forlorn : 'The y li e o n ivor y beds , lolling o n thei r couches , feastin g o n lamb s fro m th e floc k an d o n calves fro m the stalls' (6.4) . One might sugges t that God's perceptio n of Israe l i s a t odd s wit h Israel' s self-perception , bu t tha t woul d b e special pleadin g i n favo r o f harmonizing Amos with 2 Kings 14 . And that suggestion woul d not explain wh y God should choose to constru e this particular instance of Israelite sinfulnes s a s helplessness. The contras t betwee n th e professe d divin e motivation an d human action is even mor e blatant in Jonah. In response t o Jonah's word , the Ninevites embark o n a course of action that is s o commendable tha t it has bee n take n fo r satire: 3 they repent (Jon . 3.5-8). In effect, the y ac t the Book of Jonah (Sheffield : Almon d Press, 1983) , pp. 85-112; A. Preminger and E.L. Greenstein, The Hebrew Bible in Literary Criticism (New York: Ungar, 1986) , pp. 467-78. O n th e histor y o f interpretatio n i n general , se e th e work s liste d i n Wolffs bibliograph y (Obadiah and Jonah, pp. 91-92, §10) . 1. Th e passage bristles with difficulties. Fo r a recent discussion, see Cogan and Tadmor, / / Kings, pp . 107, 160-64 . 2. Cf . J . Licht, Storytelling i n the Bible (Jerusalem : Magnes, 1978) , pp . 121 22. Licht suggests tha t God 'spare s His creatures for the simple reason tha t He like s them t o exist' . Tha t suggestio n raise s a n obviou s question: why , then , doe s h e destroy them? 3. Se e J.A. Miles, Jr, 'Laughin g at the Bible: Jonah as Parody', JQR 65 (197475), pp . 168-81 ; J.S . Ackerman , 'Satir e an d Symbolism in the Son g o f Jonah', in B. Halpern and J.D. Levenso n (eds.), Traditions in Transformation: Turning Points in Biblical Faith (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1981) , pp . 213-46; idem, 'Jonah' , in R. Alter and F. Kermode (eds.), The Literary Guide to the Bible (Cambridge, MA : Harvard Universit y Press, 1987) , pp. 234-43, esp. 238-39 . Note also T. Eagleton's recent characterizatio n o f Jonah a s a 'surrealist farce' ('J.L . Austin and the Book of Jonah', in R. Schwartz (ed.), The Book and the Text: The Bible and Literary Theory [Oxford: Basi l Blackwell, 1990] , pp. 231-36).

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out Amos' s admonitio n t o 'see k th e Lord an d live' (Amo s 5.6) . Thi s hardly represent s th e behavio r o f helpless , ignoran t or irresponsibl e people. An d thei r motivatio n fo r repentanc e i s sophisticated : 'Wh o knows bu t tha t Go d ma y tur n an d relent? ' (Jon . 3.9) . I n 3.1 0 Go d 'perceives' (r'h, a s in 2 Kgs 14.26 ) wha t the Ninevites have done, and reverses hi s evi l decree . Fo r a moment, i t eve n seem s a s i f Go d ha s renounced hi s threa t because o f th e Ninevites' repentance , bu t tha t causal nexu s i s immediatel y severe d b y bot h Jona h (4.2 ) an d Go d (4.11). Accordin g t o Jonah , merc y arise s ou t o f God' s character , which th e prophe t define s b y a purposefu l revisio n o f Exod . 34.6. l When Go d account s fo r hi s behavior , however , h e refer s neithe r t o the Ninevites' repentance, nor to Jonah's characterization of him (4.11). The dissonance between God' s action s and his putative motive(s) i s exacerbated b y a secon d consideration : the redemptio n o f bot h th e Northern Kingdo m and Nineveh was abortive . The 'transformatio n of evil int o good' wa s reversed i n both cases . Israe l persiste d i n it s evil ways an d wa s wipe d ou t ( 2 Kg s 17) . Th e Ninevite s repented , an d lasted lon g enough t o serve as the agents of Israel's destruction befor e meeting thei r doom (Nahum) . The destinies of the two beneficiaries of divine 'mercy ' wer e thus intertwined until the demise o f both. It should be clea r fro m th e forgoing remark s tha t I reject th e notion that 'Jona h ha s n o connection wit h the grand sequenc e o f sacred his tory'. 2 Suc h a clai m ma y serv e th e interest s o f critic s wh o woul d divorce Jona h fro m it s canonica l context , an d rea d i t a s a n isolated , self-contained entity . My view , however (t o be elaborate d below) , i s that only a n intertextua l readin g ca n d o justice t o th e book . I t seem s obvious to me that, a s B.S. Child s observes, the reader of Jonah 'ha s in hi s cano n th e boo k o f Nahum!' 3 (and , I woul d add , Amo s an d 2 King s a s well) . I woul d appl y tha t observatio n t o ancien t an d modern reader s alike , an d suspec t tha t i t wa s alread y i n th e min d o f the editor o f the Book of the Twelve Mino r Prophets .

1. I shal l retur n t o thi s topi c below . Se e th e importan t discussion s b y M. Fish bane, Biblical Interpretation i n Ancient Israel (Oxford : Clarendo n Press , 1985), pp . 335-50; T.B . Dozeman , 'Inner-Biblica l Interpretatio n o f Yahweh' s Gracious an d Compassionate Character' , JBL 10 8 (1989), pp . 207-23. 2. Licht , Storytelling, p . 124. 3. Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), pp . 425-26.

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9

It i s easy , then , t o sympathiz e wit h I . Abravanel' s explanatio n o f Jonah's anger , apropo s o f Jon. 4.1:' He neve r though t that th e decre e agains t [th e Ninevites ] woul d b e reversed, fo r even though they had turned away from thei r wicked deeds , they persiste d i n thei r idolatry...Why , then , di d Go d renounc e th e punishment that he had planned to bring upon them?... So that they might become th e 'ro d of his anger' [Isa . 10.5 ] an d the 'weapon s of his wrath' [Isa. 13.5], in order that he might take vengeance agains t Israel by means of them. 2 The prophet protested agains t God in his heart: Why should it be his intention to destroy Israel for idolatry, while pardoning Nineveh for the same offense?

The questio n tha t Abravane l put s i n Jonah' s hear t i s precisel y th e question o f the Book o f Jonah, but it need s t o be rephrased i n a more general way : why does Go d allow a wicked natio n to prosper, onl y to destroy it later on for the selfsame wickedness ? The poin t is no t to contrast God' s treatmen t o f Jews wit h his treat ment o f gentiles, but simpl y t o ask why God seems to be s o inconsistent an d unpredictable. I s his behavior motivate d i n som e comprehen sible way ? The Boo k o f Jonah and 2 King s 1 4 provide thre e possibl e answers t o tha t question : (1 ) Go d spare s th e helpless ; (2 ) Go d i s 'compassionate an d gracious , slo w t o anger , aboundin g i n kindness , renouncing punishment' ; (3 ) Go d eschew s th e punishmen t o f thos e who repent . Al l thre e o f thos e answer s ar e rendere d problematic, 3 particularly grantin g th e validit y of intertextual reading. Eve n withi n the storie s themselves , Israe l an d Nineve h ar e no t portraye d a s particularly helpless . I n the larger canonica l context , i t becomes clear that Go d di d no t utterl y renounce thei r punishment; he onl y put i t off for a while. 4 Finally, whil e the repentance of the Ninevites did not sav e 1. Al l citations o f Abravanel are fro m th e Warsaw (1862 ) edition, wher e th e commentary o n Jonah can b e found o n pp. 119-30 . The commentary on the Latte r Prophets was first published in Pesaro in 1520 . 2. Fo r a modern commentator who derives Jonah's patho s from hi s prophetic knowledge of Israel's future destructio n by Assyria, see H. Gese, 'Jon a ben Amittai und da s Jonabuch', Theologische Beitrage 1 6 (1985), pp. 256-72 . 3. Fo r a diametrically oppose d opinio n on this point, see T.E. Fretheim , The Message o f Jonah: A Theological Commentary (Minneapolis : Augsburg , 1977) , p. 129 . Fretheim asserts th e validity of all three answers. 4. Abravane l discern s God' s true intention by interpreting Jonah's prophec y esoterically. 'Fort y days more' (3.4 ) turn s out to mean 'in 12 0 years', for 'days' = 'years', and the numerical value of the Hebrew word for 'more' ('od, i.e. 7 0 + 6 + 4

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them in the end, a remnant of Israel, which neve r repented, survived. Why shoul d th e Boo k of Jona h raise thre e explanations of divine behavior tha t are subjec t t o contradiction or falsification ? Because , in my view, that is the point of the book! God's actions ar e uncanny and inexplicable; he i s absolutel y free t o d o a s he chooses . Mor e importantly, for the postexilic author of the Book of Jonah, 1 divine freedom manifests th e onl y tolerabl e alternativ e t o th e faile d conditiona l covenant—the covenan t that had literall y compelled Go d t o destro y Israel.2 Divine freedo m i s ofte n propounde d as a them e o f th e Boo k o f Jonah,3 but I do not thin k that it has been understood in all its ramifi cations. In a popular introduction t o Jonah, K. Pfisterer Dar r writes, Central t o th e Boo k o f Jona h ar e th e concept s o f divin e freedo m an d mercy i n th e fac e o f repentance . Th e stor y is , in fact , illustrative o f th e perspective foun d i n a text like Jeremiah 18.7-8, 4 wherein Yahwe h says: 'If at any time I declare concerning a nation or a kingdom, that I will pluck up an d break dow n and destroy it , and if that nation, concerning which I

= 80) must be added to the explicitly mentioned forty! 1. Perhap s als o for the authors of Lamentations an d Job. Se e my articles, 'Th e Message of Lamentations', i n J. Lassner and P. Machinis t (eds.), The Hebrew Bible: Sacred Text an d Literature (Detroit : Wayn e Stat e Universit y Pres s [i n press]) ; 'Reading and Misreading th e Prologue t o Job', JSOT46 (1990) , pp. 67-79. 2. I accept th e scholarly consensu s tha t places th e composition o f Jonah i n the late fifth or early fourt h century. On the reassessment o f covenant i n exilic and post exilic Israelite thought, see D.J. McCarthy , 'Covenan t in Narratives fro m Late OT Times', in H.B. Huffmo n e l al. (eds.), The Quest for th e Kingdom o f God: Studies in Honor ofG.E. Mendenhall (Winon a Lake, IN : Eisenbrauns, 1983) , pp . 77-94; P.D. Hanson , 'Israelit e Religion i n the Early Postexili c Period', in P.D. Miller , Jr , el al. (eds.), Ancient Israelite Religion (Philadelphia : Fortress Press , 1987) , pp. 485 508; S.D . Sperling , 'Rethinkin g Covenant in Late Biblica l Books' , Bib 70 (1989) , pp. 50-73 . 3. See , e.g. , Wolff , Obadiah an d Jonah, p . 177 , o n God's 'completel y fre e grace'. Schmidt comment s ('De Deo\ p. 129 ) tha t the Book of Jonah 'verma g zwa r von ihrem Ansatz her die Freiheit Gottes z u wahren, auch das in der volkstiimlichen Weisheit gelegentlic h nicht der Fall gewesen sei n mag'. See also Magonet, Form and Meaning, p . 112 ; J . Blenkinsopp, A History o f Prophecy i n Israel (Philadelphia : Westminster Press , 1983) , p . 271. 4. S o already th e ninth/tenth-century Karaite commentator Danie l al-Qumisi , in his Pitron Sheneim-Asar (ed . I.D . Markon; Jerusalem : Mekiz e Nirdamim , 1957) , p. 42 .

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1

have spoken, turns from it s evil, I will repent o f the evil that I intended t o do to it'. God exercises freedom to pronounce judgment against, an d be moved b y compassion toward , Nineveh. 1

What Darr calls 'freedom ' i s not freedom at all. God acts in a clearly motivated way , under compulsion, i n fact. He condemns th e Ninevites for thei r wickedness (Jon. 1.2) , but then he must spar e the m because of thei r (an d his ) adherenc e t o th e formul a in Jeremia h 18 . Jonah' s objections, i n thi s light , appear silly , or, worse , turn hi m into a hardhearted Jew. 2 Then, too, if th e Ninevites were saved because o f their repentance , what hope is there for those who do not repent? The logic of Jeremiah 18 ineluctably condemns them. The author of Jonah, in turn, condemns that logic . A s A . an d P.E . Lacocqu e observ e i n thei r provocative study of Jonah, 3 The author of Jonah had the amazing boldness t o show the 'anti-Jonah' in the persons of the wicked Ninevites . T o the Jonah who hungered for cer tainty they opposed the ultimate uncertainty of 'perhaps' [Jon . 3.9] . They thus opene d a n immens e possibility , namely , tha t Go d migh t choos e extravagance ove r determinism...

In this view, God is free t o save (or, as the Lacocques neglec t to mention, to destroy) whomever he pleases, in whatever manner he chooses. The adroitl y paire d stor m win d (1.4 ) an d deser t scirocc o (4.8), 4 tempest (1.4) and hot sun (4.8), Phoenicians (1.6) and Assyrians (3.9), great fis h (2.1 ) an d tin y wor m (4.7)—all d o God's bidding , with th e 1. K.P . Darr , 'Jonah' , i n B.W . Anderso n (ed.) , Th e Books o f th e Bible (2 vols.; Ne w York: Scribner's , 1989) , I, pp. 381-84 (quotatio n o n pp . 382-83). 2. Dar r als o remark s tha t 'Jonah' s stor y refute s an y notio n tha t Israe l alon e deserves divin e mercy , wherea s th e othe r nation s o f th e worl d meri t onl y divin e justice' ('Jonah' , i n Anderso n (ed.) , Th e Books o f th e Bible, p. 383) . Similarly , Wolff, Obadiah and Jonah, p . 177 . These are but modern reworkings of the kind of interpretation tha t Bickerman demolished. Cf . the salutary remarks i n Blenkinsopp , History o f Prophecy, p . 271. 3. A . Lacocque an d P.-E. Lacocque , Th e Jonah Complex (Atlanta : Joh n Knox , 1981), pp. 90-100, 125-2 7 (quotatio n o n p. 127) . The authors' 'in-dept h reworking' (Jonah: A Psycho-Religious Approach t o th e Prophet [Columbia : Universit y o f South Carolina, 1990] ) arrived afte r the present articl e wa s completed. O n the issue under discussion , se e esp. pp . 122-25. 4. O n this symmetry, see the sensitive remark s o f G.H. Conn , Da s Buch Jona im Lichte der biblischen Ezrahlkhunst (Studi a Semitica Neerlandica , 12 ; Assen: Van Gorcum, 1969) , pp . 54, 59-60 .

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sole purpos e o f teachin g Jona h wha t he kne w al l along , namel y that 'deliverance is the Lord's' (2.10) . 'Deliverance', as th e author of Jonah depict s it , i s neither a reward for meri t no r a tempering o f justice wit h mercy. 1 It is, instead, a free and gracious act of love. A s such, i t is a worthless people' s only hope for survival . An d th e wellsprin g of thi s concep t o f deliveranc e i s no t covenant faith, but the simple trust in God's love an d fear of his wrath that are the hallmarks of 'persona l religion'. 2 I intend to defend this understanding of the message o f Jonah in two ways: b y proposin g a ne w interpretatio n o f th e critica l passage s i n Jonah 3-4 , and by examinin g on e aspect o f the intertextua l relation ship o f Jona h wit h som e o f th e othe r Mino r Prophets , especiall y Micah and Nahum, the two books that follow Jonah in canonical order. II

Since th e pioneerin g articl e b y N . Lohfink, 3 i t ha s becom e commo n for scholar s t o regard th e tw o episodes in Jona h 3-4 as a narratoria l unity, their complex textua l pre-history notwithstanding. Th e linchpin of any unified reading, a s Lohfink observed, is the interpretation o f 4.5 , which establishes som e sor t o f temporal relationshi p between th e tw o episodes. My view, itself admittedly not free of difficulties, i s that 4.5b(3 establishes th e simultaneity an d complementarity of the two accounts. 4 The storie s abou t Nineveh and Jonah, in other words, illuminate and confound on e another . Eac h on e supplie s vita l detail s tha t th e othe r is lacking , s o tha t neithe r on e i s comprehensibl e excep t i n th e ligh t 1. Contras t Coh n (Das Buck Jona, pp . 87-88), wh o see s thi s a s th e centra l theme of the book. 2. O n the emergence (or, perhaps , re-emergence) of personal religion in postexilic Israel, see McCarthy, 'Covenan t in Late OT Times', in McCarthy et al. (eds.), The Quest for th e Kingdom, pp . 86-88. I us e th e ter m 'persona l religion ' i n th e sense delineate d b y T . Jacobsen , Th e Treasures o f Darkness: A History o f Mesopotamian Religion (Ne w Haven : Yale Universit y Press , 1976) , pp. 147-64. 1 have discussed the concept in relation t o the theology of the Book of Lamentations in my article , 'Th e Message of Lamentations' i n Lassner an d Machinist (eds.) , Th e Hebrew Bible. 3. 'Jon a ging zu r Stadt hinau s (Jon a 4 , 5)', BZNS 5 (1961), pp. 185-203 ; cf. Wolff, Obadiah and Jonah, p. 163 . 4. Simultaneit y in narrative has the advantage o f disrupting ordinar y narrative temporality, and thus disorienting the reader. See Stewart, Nonsense, pp. 146-70 .

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of th e other . I n th e end , Jonah' s strang e encounte r wit h Go d bring s about th e deconstructio n an d re-mystificatio n o f th e superficiall y simple tale of Nineveh's repentanc e an d salvation. At the heart o f the matter i s an analogy cum wordplay, whic h centers on God' s abilit y t o do wha t h e want s by mean s o f seemingl y unpro mising agents . Thus , Jona h (th e agent ) i s t o Nineveh (th e on e acte d upon) a s the qiqayon (4.6) l i s t o Jonah . Thi s analog y i s no t merel y signalled b y th e wordplay YONa/qiqdY&N. 2 Th e qi- elemen t i n th e plant name als o evokes Jon. 2.11 , where th e fish 'vomits' (wayyaQE") Jonah out onto dry land. 3 And God describes the qiqayon as having had a lifespan o f a single day (4.1 Ob), which corresponds t o the amount of time that Jonah had spent in Nineveh (3.4), despit e tha t city's enormou s size. Jonah's physical presenc e wa s as ephemeral fo r Nineve h a s tha t of the qiqayon wa s for Jonah. With thi s analogy in mind, we can follow th e two story-line s as they overlap an d intertwine . Both storie s begi n wit h th e human character s in a state of 'evil ' (ra'a). Jona h prophesies agains t Nineveh, th e 'grea t city' whos e 'evil ' ha s com e t o God' s attentio n (1.2 ; 3.3-4) . Havin g prophesied, Jona h experiences a 'grea t evil' himself (4.1) . The Ninevites' initia l response t o Jonah's wor d is to believe it; they take it to be reliable (wayya' ammu)4 an d of divine origin (3.5). Jonah, in contrast , assert s tha t God is unreliable, in his reformulatio n (4.2 ) o f one of the divine attribute s listed in Exod. 34.6ap-b :

1. I do not gloss this word because, as Good rightly observes, th e identity of the plant is irrelevant (Irony i n the Old Testament, pp. 51-52). 2. I t als o shoul d be note d tha t NYNW H (Nineveh ) contains the sam e consonants as YWNH (Jonah). 3. So , rightly, Halpen and Friedman, 'Compositio n and Paronomasia', pp. 8586. 4. I n general, wayya' aminu ha s been grievously overinterpreted (e.g . Wolff , Obadiah an d Jonah, p. 150). I would understan d i t here in it s simplest sense, 't o consider trustworthy, reliable'. For discussion, see A. Jepsen, ' 'aman\ TDOT, I , (1977), pp . 293-309. Unfortunately, Jepse n also overinterprets in the present cas e (pp. 304-305). W . Rudolp h take s th e simple r view : Trot z de r ungeniigende n Ausrichtung de r Botschaft trauen si e [th e Ninevites] dem Bote n des unbekannte n Gottes un d nehmen die Warnung ernst' (Joel-Amos-Obadja-Jona [KAT , 13/2 ; GUtersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1971] , pp . 358-59). But even Rudolph feels compelled t o contrast Nineveh's receptivity to the divine word with Israel's deafness to it.

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th e Prophets Exodus Jona 'erek 'appayim 'erek werab hesed w we'emet w

h 'appayim rab hesed e niham 'al-haia'd

e

Instead o f bein g 'reliable ' ( >emet\l Jonah' s Go d 'renounce s evil ' (niham 'al-hara'a). The substitution is both intentional and polemical2— renunciation o f evil, fro m Jonah' s perspective , connote s unreliability . And th e prophet' s characterizatio n o f Go d seem s t o b e accurat e i n context. The possibility tha t God' s word i s not truthful gives hope to the Ninevites (3.9 ; mi-yddea'); th e certainty tha t it is not moves Jonah to despai r (4.2-3 ; yada'ti). 3 Th e paradox her e i s disorienting; Jonah' s sure knowledg e tha t Go d wil l spar e Nineve h i s take n fo r unbelief , while Nineveh's hop e in a false God manifests a true faith. After stakin g ou t their basi c position s concernin g God' s reliability , both th e Ninevites and Jonah take action. A s Ackerman ha s observed , Jonah an d th e Ninevit e kin g ca n b e construe d a s 'antitypes'. 4 Th e following paralle l plo t summaries wil l extend and amplify that point: Nineveh (Jon. 3.5-10) Jona

h (Jon . 4.2-6 )

The Ninevites fast and mourn. Jona

h prays; he demands to die.

Jonah's word reaches the king; the Jona h leaves the city; he sits down king gets up (wayyaqom) fro m hi s (wayyeseb). throne The kings puts on sackcloth Jona h erects a SuKKd, an d sits (wayKaS SaQ), an d sits (wayyeseb) (wayyeseb) i n its shade, in the dust. 1. I a m assumin g tha t 'tnn an d >e met ar e cognate . Se e Jepsen , 'a/nan' , pp. 309-10 . 2. So , rightly , Cohn, Da s Buch Jona, p . 99 n . 2 . Dozema n ('Inner-Biblica l Interpretation') unaccountably misses this point altogether. 3. I follow the opinion of Eliezer de Beaugency that, at the time of his utterance in 4.2-3 , Jona h 'di d no t kno w o f [th e Ninevites' ] repentance ' (Kommentar z u Ezechiel und de n XI I kleinen Propheten [ed . S . Poznariski; Warsaw : Mekiz e Nirdamim, 1909] , p. 15 9 [ad Jon. 4.1]). He cannot, therefore, hav e been ascribin g God's mercy to that repentance. Rather , 'i t turns out that I struggled an d broke my body an d had my strength exhausted alon g the way for nothing, for I realized tha t you would renounce the evil even without repentance' (idem, ad Jon. 4.3) . 4. 'Satir e and Symbolism', pp. 239-40, following Magonet, Form and Meaning, pp. 19-20 .

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The Ninevites mourn, fast, and turn away from thei r wickedness (ra'a). The Ninevites pray; they hope to live. God sees (r'h) wha t the Ninevites Jona have done. happe God decides not to do the evil (ra'a) Go that he had promised to do. Jona

h waits to see (r'h) wha t will n in the city. d provides a qlqayon to save h from hi s evil (ra 'a). Jonah rejoices .

This plo t summar y ma y b e abstracte d further , an d condense d int o three paralle l plo t elements : 1. Th e human character i s in a state of evil. 2. Th e human character act s to counter the state of evil. 3. Go d unilaterally reverses th e state of evil. Jonah impugn s God's reliability , builds himsel f a shelter, 1 an d then waits passively. Th e Ninevites, in contrast, believe God , and put on an extravagant displa y o f piet y a s the y attemp t t o aver t thei r fate . Th e point o f contac t betwee n th e respectiv e action s o f Jona h an d th e Ninevites (plo t elemen t 2 ) is the word play KSh SaQ(Qim) (3.6 , 8 ) // SuKKd (4.5) . Jona h 'sits ' (ySB) i n th e shad e o f hi s hu t whil e th e Ninevites 'repent ' (&vB). Ye t th e outcome i s th e same i n both cases: God rescues bot h Nineve h and Jonah from th e 'evil ' tha t besets them . The Ninevite s repent , an d Go d spare s them ; Jona h cavils , an d Go d 'saves' him too. We hea r nothin g about Nineveh' s reactio n t o God's reversal o f it s fate. Th e possibilit y envisione d in Jon. 3. 9 // Joel 2.1 4 seems t o hav e been realized. 2 A s fo r Jonah , his rescu e fro m evi l make s hi m happ y (4.6), and his story, too, seems to have reached a satisfactory resolution . And the n th e wor m turns . The followin g morning, Go d arrange s for th e demis e o f the qiqayon (4.7) . The su n beat s dow n o n Jonah' s head and , once again , the prophet wishe s to die (4.8). 3 Now it is tim e 1. Se e Cohn's important discussion of the contrast between Jonah' s sukka an d the God-given qlqayon (Das Bitch Jona, pp . 87-88); als o Ackerman , 'Satir e and Symbolism', pp. 240-42; Lacocqu e and Lacocque, The Jonah Complex, pp. 87-90. I am sympathetic to the efforts of Ackerman and the Lacocques t o find allusions to the Temple here , especially i n the light of Isa. 4.5-6. 2. See Dozeman, 'Inner-Biblica l Interpretation', pp. 213-16. 3. I t does not seem t o occur to Jonah that he might return to his sukka, perhap s

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for Go d t o teac h hi m a lesson . Bu t wha t i s tha t lesson? 1 Th e usua l view is well summarized by Darr: 2 ...God remonstrate s thi s prophe t [sic], wh o cares mor e fo r infallibl e prophecy and mechanica l justic e tha n for merc y in the fac e of wholehearted repentance. If Jonah pitie d the plant (himself?), which he had no part in creating, should not God feel pity for a repentant cit y with many thousands of human and animal inhabitants?

Although tha t widel y proffered vie w embodies a valuable teaching , I do not think that it is the lesson o f Jonah, for at least thre e reasons . First, eve n assumin g tha t Jona h di d resen t hi s propheti c 'los s o f face', 3 ther e i s no t th e slightes t indicatio n tha t h e begrudge d th e Ninevites thei r salvation , no r doe s h e expres s an y opinio n abou t th e proper divin e respons e t o huma n initiative. 4 Jonah' s praye r i n ch . 2 manifests th e ethos o f personal religion : on e cries ou t and hopes tha t God wil l respond (2.3) . Acts of piety serv e a s offerings of thanks, no t as attempts t o win God's favo r in a time of crisis (2.10). 5 Secondly, Go d neve r say s tha t h e wa s mercifu l t o th e Ninevite s because o f their repentance. That is an inference derived fro m readin g because it s shade (set) wa s lacking in redemptive power (massit). 1. Cf . the anonymous Bible critic cited by Augustine, Epistulae 102 , 3 0 (apud Giancarlo Rinaldi, Biblia Gentium [Rome: Libreria Sacre Scritture , 1989] , pp. 402403): "The n what is the purpose of the gourd which sprang forth abov e the disgorged Jonas? What was the reason for its appearance? Questions such as these I have see n discussed b y Pagans amidst loud laughter, and with great scorn.' 2. Darr, 'Jonah' , in Anderson (ed.), Th e Books of th e Bible, p . 382 . 3. Se e especially Bickerman ; also, e.g. , M . Steinberg, Th e Poetics o f Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading (Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1985) , p . 320.1 refrain fro m discussin g Steinberg's interpretation in detail becaus e I cannot share one of his basic premises: tha t the reader arriving at Jon. 3. 1 expects Nineveh t o be destroyed, and is shocked by the reversal (p. 319) . This reade r neve r did , not even a s a child . I am, i n general, uncomfortabl e with Steinberg's arrogation o f the epithet 'th e reader'; the first person woul d b e mor e honest. 4. Jona h is not portrayed as ruthless or homicidal—he acts t o save th e sailors , even though it seems to mean certain death for him (1.12). Jon. 1.1 5 is another verse like 3.10 , i n whic h i t i s possible , bu t no t necessary , t o infe r a cause-and-effec t relationship between the two clauses. 5. Cf . Elize r d e Beaugency , Kommentar, p. 15 8 (ad Jon . 2.2) : 'Ther e ar e prayers i n Scriptur e tha t are pleas, and other s tha t express praise an d thanks , fo r example, "an d Hanna h prayed" [ 1 Sam. 2.1], which consists entirel y of praise and thanks, an d this one [i.e. Jona h 2]'.

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7

Jon. 3.1 0 a s a statemen t o f caus e an d effect, 1 bu t tha t readin g i s no t necessarily correct . Jonah' s alternativ e i s t o asser t tha t i t i s i n God' s nature t o 'renounc e evil ' (4.2), 2 withou t explicating th e relationshi p (if any) between huma n action an d divine response. Thirdly, th e a fortiori reasonin g allegedl y foun d i n God' s state ments i n 4.10-11 makes n o sense. God is supposedl y saying , i n effect, 'if yo u (Jonah ) woul d spar e tha t insignifican t plant (fo r you r sake) , then naturall y I (God ) shoul d spar e al l those peopl e an d animal s (fo r my sak e [?])' . In thi s view , Jonah's self-absorption i s contraste d wit h God's magnanimity . The speciousnes s o f the analog y become s pain fully evident , however , whe n someon e (Abravanel , i n thi s case ) trie s to elucidate it: 3 God reprove d [Jonah ] an d go t t o the hear t o f th e matte r whe n h e said, 'You cared abou t the plant'. In other words, you cared abou t something that was not the work of your hands, that 'yo u did not work for and did not grow' , fo r somethin g tha t wa s considere d worthles s becaus e it 'appeared overnight and perished overnight'. If that is the case, then how can 'I not care about Nineveh, that great city', that wondrous work of my hands that is a great and mighty edifice, unlike the plant?

Is the idea tha t Go d likes the big things tha t he make s mor e tha n th e little things ? O r tha t peopl e hav e n o righ t t o griev e fo r th e los s o f good thing s tha t the y di d no t mak e fo r themselves ? Suc h notions , i n my view , represen t misreadings of th e relationship betwee n 4.1 0 and 4.11—not least th e preposterous ide a tha t God was responsible fo r th e construction o f Nineveh, an d might regret it s loss fo r that reason . AbravaneFs continuatio n confuse s th e issu e eve n further . H e ha s God say to Jonah: You cannot argue that you did not care about the plant for its own sake, but, rather, for the benefi t tha t it provide d yo u with , namely th e shade, because Nineveh provide s me with acknowledgement and glorificatio n that are like the shade.

At leas t Abravane l recognize s (a s most commentator s d o not) that th e story depict s th e plant not a s something worthless, but a s the agent of 1. Se e Bickerman , Four Strange Books, pp . 45-48; Fishbane , Biblical Interpretation, pp . 346-47. 2. Se e Eliezer de Beaugency, Kommentar, p. 159 (ad Jon. 4.2). 3. Fo r a moder n restatemen t o f Abravanel's position, see, e.g., A.J . Hauser, 'Jonah: In Pursuit of the Dove', JBL 10 4 (1985), pp. 21-37, esp. p. 37.

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Jonah's salvation (4.7). Nevertheless , he fails t o show that the Ninevites provide Go d wit h an analogous benefit, n o matter ho w man y of the m there are. The y ar e not, after all , agents of benefaction like the qiqayon, but beneficiaries o f divine mercy, lik e Jonah in ch. 4. When Jonah grieve s fo r the plant that had shade d him , Go d say s t o him, 'A s fo r you , yo u cared abou t th e plant, which yo u di d no t work for an d whic h yo u di d no t grow , whic h appeare d overnigh t an d perished overnight ' (4.10) . Th e poin t i s no t tha t Jonah' s carin g wa s trivial o r self-absorbed. I t is, rather, tha t God, th e one wh o did 'wor k for' an d 'grow ' th e plan t (s o to speak ) i n orde r t o giv e Jona h shad e and respite (4.6) , als o destroye d i t without compunction, thus reducing Jonah t o hi s previou s sorr y stat e (4. 3 / / 4.9) . Jona h care d abou t th e plant, and rightly so; God did not. Now Nineveh , like Jonah, has also bee n grante d respit e fro m 'evil' , but God's treatment o f Jonah is cold comfort for them. What God says to Jona h abou t th e 'grea t city ' i s clearl y paralle l i n constructio n t o what he had said about the plant: Jon. 4.1 0 Jon

'attd hasta wa 'al-haqqiqayon 'al-nin

. 4.1 1 >a

ni Id' 'dhus e weh

The universal assumptio n that 4.11 is interrogative ('Should I not care about Nineveh?' ) flie s i n th e fac e o f th e parallelis m wit h 4.10. Tha t assumption, apparently base d o n an exegetical a priori, represent s jus t one possibility; i t is neither necessar y no r inevitable. God' s utteranc e also ca n b e translate d a s a simpl e declarative : 'A s fo r me , I d o no t care abou t Nineveh' . Th e implicatio n would b e tha t Go d care s n o more abou t tha t huge cit y ful l o f ignoramuses and beasts tha n he ha d about the qiqayon. Thei r repentanc e means nothing to him, and he has kept his real reaso n fo r sparin g them (if, indeed, he had one) to himself. The Boo k of Jonah itself give s no grounds for choosing between th e interrogative an d declarativ e rendering s o f 4.11, sinc e i t simpl y end s here.1 M y preferenc e fo r th e latte r i s base d o n readin g Jona h i n th e light of Nahum. In the immediate contex t of Jonah, however, the point of th e ambiguit y is t o sugges t tha t God's treatmen t o f Nineveh, whe n scrutinized, migh t b e just a s unintelligible to th e huma n observer a s 1. A s th e Lacocques remar k concernin g th e 'open-endedness ' o f Jonah (The Jonah Complex, pp . 99-100), 'I t seems... that it is one of the important feature s o f the book that it does not bring the plot to a veritable end' .

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his treatment o f Jonah. 1 God buffets th e prophet about against his will, makes hi m prophesy an d then falsifies hi s word, rescues hi m from his pathetic emotiona l conditio n and then condemns him t o it once more . One can infer that Nineveh's situatio n is no less absurd, an d that it is, therefore, fraugh t with insecurity . Ill

The endin g o f Jona h leave s th e ultimat e fate s o f it s principa l actor s undetermined. What will become o f Jonah and Nineveh? Jonah seem s to be consigne d to death, sinc e the threat o f 4.7-9 ha s no t been coun tered. Jonah does no t react to God's word s in vv. 10-11 , nor does God state hi s intention s concerning the prophet . A s fo r Nineveh , nothing has occurre d t o disturb the apparent equilibrium attained in 3.10. The denouement of Jonah, in my view, takes place outside the book. The book's full significanc e emerges onl y in the ligh t of it s canonical setting—especially i n relation to the prophetic book s (Hosea-Nahum ) that are concerned primaril y with th e Assyrian crisis. Th e assemblag e begins wit h the first announcement of divine judgment against Israel , and ends wit h th e destruction o f Assyria . I propose that th e Book of Jonah (a s opposed , perhaps , t o it s constituen t parts) , wa s neve r intended t o be read apar t fro m tha t canonical context. An intertextual reading o f the book is, therefore, both valid and necessary . The prophet s wh o addres s th e Assyria n threat struggl e mightil y to understand th e nature of God's wrat h and love, an d Jonah contribute s to that discussion by wa y o f interpretation and elaboration. 2 First an d foremost, on e note s five midrashic adaptations of the attribut e formulary in Exodu s 34. The followin g ar e the relevant texts (all except fo r 1. S o already Eagleton , who comments tha t 'God' s mercy i s indeed a kind o f absurdity' ('J.L . Austi n an d th e Book o f Jonah', in Schwart z [ed.] , Th e Book an d the Text, p . 236) . 2. I t should b e obvious tha t I am not interested in the historicity o r the literar y history o f th e component s o f th e 'Boo k o f th e Twelve', but i n th e wa y tha t the y function togethe r as parts of a unified collection . See, provisionally , D. Schneider, 'The Unity of th e Book o f the Twelve' (Ph D dissertation , Yal e University , 1979) ; much mor e wor k need s to b e done . I a m awar e o f tw o ne w work s o n th e topic , neither of which wa s availabl e t o me when I was writing this paper : P. House, The Unity of th e Twelve (JSOTSup , 97; Sheffield : JSOT Press, 1990); J. Nogalski, 'The Use of Stichworter as a Redactional Unificatio n Technique within th e Book of th e Twelve' (Doctoral dissertation, University o f Zurich, 1991) .

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the Nahu m excerp t cite d accordin g t o NJPSV , wit h th e allusio n t o Exod. 34.6- 7 emphasized i n each case): 1. Take words wit h you an d retur n to the Lord . Sa y to Him: 'Forgive al l guilt (kol-tissa' 'awori) and accept wha t is good. Instea d o f bulls we will pay [the offering of] our lips'... I will heal their affliction, generously will I take them back in love; for my anger has turned away from the m (Hos. 14.3,5). 2. Rend you r hearts rathe r tha n you r garments, an d turn back t o the Lor d your God. For He is gracious and compassionate, slow to anger, abounding in kindness, an d renouncing punishment. Wh o knows bu t He may turn and relent, and leave a blessing behind for meal offering an d drink offering t o the Lord your God (Joel 2.13-14)? 3. '.. . Let everyone tur n back fro m hi s evil way s and from th e injustice of which he is guilty. Who knows but that God may turn and relent? H e may turn back fro m hi s wrath, so that we do not perish.' God saw what they did, how they were turnin g back fro m thei r evil ways. And God renounced th e punishment H e ha d planne d t o bring upon them, and di d no t carry i t out. This displeased Jonah greatly, an d he was grieved. H e prayed t o the Lord , saying, ' O Lord ! Isn' t thi s just wha t I sai d whe n I wa s stil l i n m y own country? That is why I fled beforehand to Tarshish. For I know that You are a compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger, abounding in kindness, renouncing punishment' (Jon . 3.8-4.2) . 4. Who is a God like You, forgiving iniquity an d remitting transgression (nose' 'awon w e'ober 'al-pesa'); wh o has not maintained His wrath forever against the remnant of his own people, becaus e H e loves graciousness! He will take u s back i n love; He will cover u p our iniquities, You will hurl all our sins int o the depths o f the sea. You will keep faith [ 'emet\ with Jacob , loyalty [hesed] t o Abraham, as You promised o n oath to our fathers in days gone by (Mic. 7.18-20). 5. The Lord is a passionate, avenging God; the Lord is vengeful and fierce in wrath. The Lor d take s vengeanc e upo n his enemies, he rages agains t hi s foes. Th e Lord i s slow t o anger an d o f great forbearance ('erek 'appayim ugedol-koah), but the Lord does not remit all punishment (w enaqqeh Id' fnaqqeh) (Nan . 1.2-3a).

The 'historical ' questio n o f the Book o f Jonah—what will become of Jonah/Israel and Nineveh/Assyria—is subsumed in the canonical contex t (where the historical realit y of Assyria is not an issue) to a theological question: wha t moves Go d to shape huma n destiny for good o r for ill? Exod. 34.6- 7 serve s a s a fixed point of reference fo r variou s answer s to that question . The firs t tex t cite d abov e belong s t o th e sublimel y equivoca l con-

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elusion of Hosea (chs. 13-14). The Israelites are utterly guilty and have forgotten Go d (13.1-6). God, therefore, will slaughter them (13.7-11). He spared them despite previous iniquity (13.12-15a) , but now he will destroy the m (13.15b-14.1) . Th e peopl e ar e admonishe d t o return (14.2-4), an d God declares, finally , tha t he will redeem the m becaus e of hi s lov e for them (14.5-9). Th e tension between God' s justic e an d his lov e is manifest—divine ange r is motivated b y human sin; divine love, o n th e contrary , ma y o r ma y no t b e contingen t upo n human action. Th e restoratio n prophesie d i n Hos . 14.5- 9 ma y neve r hav e taken place, bu t th e text does no t blame that failure on the absence o f repentance. The contingen t character o f salvatio n i s take n up i n Joe l 2.12-14 . Israel doe s no t want a god who is 'reliable ' (a s in Exod. 34), bu t on e who 'renounce s punishment' . Reliabilit y means th e inevitable fulfil ment o f a n oracle o f destruction (Joel 2.1—'Th e day o f the Lord ha s come!'); i t i s essential , however , that Go d be willin g to revers e hi s decree. Firs t Joe l suggest s that such reversal might b e effectuated by repentance (2.14) , then he tries t o demonstrate that it certainly is, th e beginning of 2.19 strongly implying caus e and effect. Joe l 2.1 9 looks like a midrash on Hos. 2.24 1 tha t seek s t o counter Hosea's vacillation and unclarity. In order t o accomplish that, Joel explicates th e restora tion envisione d b y Hose a i n term s o f a causal lin k between Israel' s repentance and God's mercy . That causality is put to the test by the Book of Jonah, with Nineveh serving a s th e tes t case . Th e ver y use o f Nineveh, together wit h th e plain unreality of the city's repentance (animals in sackcloth),2 indicates the hypothetica l thrus t o f th e story . A singl e questio n wit h thre e mutually exclusive answers brings the problem of Jonah to a head:

1. Not e th e us e of 'nh an d th e sequenc e 'grai n an d win e an d oil' denotin g restoration in bot h texts . The context o f Hos. 2.2 4 (vv . 18-25 ) suggests unilatera l divine action ; i n Joe l 2.19 , restoratio n i s God' s respons e t o al l th e fastin g an d praying i n vv. 15-17 . 2. Th e penitent beasts of Jonah represent the same kind of literary play a s the big fish, namely th e literalization of such poeti c turns of phrase as Joel 1.20a , 'The very beasts of the field cry out to you'. One might also imagine a midrashic play on Exod. 34.7aa, taking '"lapim to mean 'beasts ' instead o f 'thousands'.

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Question: Should God spare repentant Nineveh? Answer 1—th e answer of Joel: yes,because the God who 'renounces evil' reverses his decree for the sake of those who repent Answer 2—th e answe r o f Jona h th e prophet : no , becaus e th e Go d wh o 'renounces evil' is not being 'true ' to his word. Answer 3—th e answer of the Book of Jonah: God does as he pleases, and it is folly to try and justify or rationalize his behavior.

The autho r o f Jona h recognize s th e erro r o f Joel , wh o ha s merel y substituted on e mechanisti c vie w o f Go d fo r another . Naturall y on e would lik e Go d t o forg o destructio n an d wor k salvatio n a t ever y opportunity, but tha t is not the way things are. I f an oracle o f doom i s reversible accordin g t o some formula , then , logically, s o is a promise of restoration—th e contrar y vie w o f th e Jewis h traditio n notwith standing. An d any formul a that requires Go d to be just in a mechani cal wa y i s likel y t o wor k agains t Israe l i n th e lon g run ; th e Exil e i s proof o f that . On th e other hand , the position o f the prophet Jona h (the characte r as distinct from th e autho r of the book) i s als o untenable . It is just a s erroneous to say that God cannot revers e his decree as it is to say that he must. And thus , as the Lacocque s realized , th e Ninevites hold th e only theologicall y respectabl e position , o n th e slipper y groun d o f maybe. If we recontextualize the views of Joel and Jonah within the Assyrian crisis, w e ar e compelle d t o dra w tw o absur d conclusions : Go d mus t save th e hate d Ninevite s becaus e the y hav e repented ; and , h e mus t destroy hi s beloved Israe l because their demis e has been prophesied , yet they have not repented. Absur d conclusions, obviously, are derive d from fals e premises . Th e incomprehensibl e endin g o f th e Boo k o f Jonah—Nineveh save d an d Jona h condemned—i s th e reductio a d absurdum of a false theology. God cannot be constrained by a mechanistic formula , no r can he be predicated b y an y se t o f attributes. Such formula s and attribute s con stitute n o mor e tha n vagu e guidelines , tentativ e groping s toward s a n understanding of God's character. Israel' s hope, i n fact, abides i n their untruth, i n th e extent t o which God's capriciou s an d unrequited lov e will motivate his behavior (th e point, after all , of Hosea). The dark sid e of tha t view is tha t God's destructiv e wrath might be just as arbitrar y and unconstrained, as in the case of the qiqayon. On e hopes an d pray s for God' s love, while recognizin g tha t nothing is certain.

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And tha t is the point of Mic. 7.18-20, whic h provides the real reso lution o f th e Boo k o f Jonah . Again , as i n Jonah , the focu s i s o n th e meaning o f th e divin e attribute s rob hesed we' emet. Jona h (th e character) intimate s tha t insofar a s God allow s hi s hesed t o alte r hi s course o f action , h e is no t a God of ' emet. Micah, lik e th e autho r of the Book o f Jonah, recognizes divin e caprice a s a boon fo r Israel. God annuls Israel' s punishmen t entirely ou t o f hesed; neithe r repentanc e nor act s o f expiatio n ar e require d (Mic . 7.18) . Go d simpl y tosse s Israel's sins into the sea, Mic. 7.19 explicitly alluding to Jon. 2.4 . And God's lov e i s no t a t odd s wit h his truth . Rather, ' emet and hesed ar e one and the same thing; thus the parallelism o f Mic. 7.20 . Just a s Go d save s Israel , h e als o wipe s ou t Nineveh . Th e bizarr e conclusion o f th e Book of Jonah is, finally, turned topsy-turvy with a vengeance b y the Book o f Nahum. Where hi s enemies ar e concerned , then, Go d i s no t ra b hesed, but g edol-koah, 'fierc e i n wrath ' (Nah . 1.3).1 H e doe s no t car e abou t Nineveh , an d h e doe s no t remi t th e punishment o f those he hates. God's wrath is just a s inexplicable and uncontrollable a s his love , bu t that , too, i s par t o f wha t i t mean s fo r him to be freely and truly God.

1. Not e th e intertextua l allusion s o f Nah . 1.3- 4 t o th e tempes t languag e o f Jon. 1-2 .

JONAH: A BATTLE OF SHIFTING ALLIANCES Timothy L . Wilt

ABSTRACT Jonah's first chapter contains many elements of ancient Near Eastern battle accounts. The whole book has several lexical similarities with the holy war account in Joshua 10.1-27 an d i s structurall y paralle l t o it . However , ther e ar e als o ke y semioti c oppositions between th e two accounts, including th e role reversals in Jonah wher e insider become s adversary, outsiders become allies, and victory i s expressed in terms of mercy rather than massacre. Thus, Jonah ma y be viewed as the terminus ad quern of the transformatio n o f the war oracles that bega n i n the second hal f o f th e eight h century.

Introduction Much has been writte n about the literary parallels betwee n Jona h and other propheti c literature , ke y Tora h narratives , an d th e Psalms. 1 Further appreciatio n o f Jonah's literar y richnes s an d message may be gained throug h considering its similarities to biblical an d other ancient Near Easter n battle accounts and its parallels in literar y structur e an d lexical reference s wit h th e particula r accoun t o f a battle recorde d i n Josh. 10.1-27 . Compariso n with th e Joshua narrative makes th e ironic reversals i n Jonah's depictio n of human relationships with the divin e warrior eve n mor e poignant—inside r become s adversary , outsider s become allies , an d victor y i s expresse d i n term s o f th e warrio r go d YHWH's merc y rathe r tha n massacre. Thus , Jonah may b e viewe d a s the terminu s a d quer n o f th e transformatio n of th e wa r oracle s tha t began in the second half of the eighth century. Battle Motifs in Jonah In thi s section, w e focus o n the elements i n the first chapter o f Jonah that ar e commo n t o biblica l an d othe r ancien t Nea r Easter n battl e 1. E.g . Lacocqu e 1981 : 10-16 ; Magonet 1976 : 65-84 ; Sasson 1990 : 168-201 .

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reports: flight , divin e use of celestial weapons, seeking o f divine guidance, terror , confusion , crying ou t fo r deliverance , an d offerin g o f vows and sacrifices. Although each o f these elements coul d be referre d to i n othe r kind s o f narratives , thei r ensembl e i n a tex t o f sixtee n verses strongl y suggests th e battle setting. Jonah's Flight as a Prelude to Battle At th e outse t o f th e narrative , YHW H commission s Jona h t o g o an d prophesy agains t Nineveh , bu t instea d h e flee s (n~D ) i n th e opposit e direction. I n th e Hebre w scriptures , th e tw o word s mos t ofte n trans lated b y the Englis h 'flee ' ar e rro and 013. The forme r refer s t o flight before physica l violenc e break s out , wherea s th e latter refer s t o flight after a n initial outbreak of violence. Thus , for example, Davi d usually flees (ma) from Sau l before there i s combat between them; 1 only once does he flee (013) from Saul , afte r Sau l throws his spea r a t him ( 1 Sam . 19.10). Though th e perso n wh o flee s (m:i ) ha s no t ye t engage d i n ope n conflict, she/h e flees because o f bein g i n a n oppressiv e situatio n and/ or, b y fa r mos t frequently , becaus e of being in danger of being killed. 2 Naturally enough, the one from who m one flees is the one responsibl e for th e oppression an d the threat to life. Whil e the fleer might wis h to have a more amicable relationshi p with the oppressor (a s David would wish t o hav e wit h Sau l i n 1 Samuel), th e oppressor' s action s d o no t allow fo r this . While Jonah migh t have wished for a more comfortabl e relationshi p with YHWH , YHWH's command disallow s this. Jonah, hi s lif e threat ened i n vie w o f tha t grea t an d evi l powe r t o whic h th e oppressiv e YHWH would send him, must run if he is to save his life. There seem s no mor e reaso n t o accept Jonah' s after-the-fac t explanation t o YHW H of wh y he fled (4.2) tha n to accept Jacob's explanatio n to Laban (Gen . 1. 1 Sam. 19.12, 18 ; 21.1; 21.10; 22.17; 27.4. 2. Fligh t because of a n oppresive situation: Hagar fro m Sara h (Gen. 16.6-7), Jacob from Laba n (Gen. 31), Israel from Egyp t (Exod. 14.5) . Flight becaus e of threa t t o th e fleer' s life : Jaco b from Esa u (Gen. 27.43) , Jacob fro m Laba n and hi s sons (implied b y Gen. 31.1-2, 7b , 29a) , Mose s fro m Pharaoh (Exod . 2.5) , Jotha m fro m Abimelec h (Judg . 9.21) , Davi d fro m Sau l (1 Sam. 19-27) and fro m Absalo m (2 Sam. 15.14), Absalom from Davi d (2 Sam. 13), Hadadfrom Joab (1 Kgs 11.12) , Jeroboam from Solomo n (1 Kgs 11.40) , Uriah from Jehoiaki m (Jer . 26.21), and Zedekiah and his soldiers fro m th e Babylonians (Jer. 39.4) .

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31.31) o f hi s fligh t whic h contrasts wit h his previou s explanatio n t o Rachel and Leah (Gen . 31.4-II). 1 If th e oppresso r choose s t o pursue the fleer and is abl e t o catch up , the stag e i s se t for a confrontation whic h ma y result in either reconciliation (e.g . Gen . 31.43-55 ; 1 Sam. 24 , 26 ) o r furthe r conflic t (e.g . Exod. 14 ; Jer. 26). Jonah is pursued and a battle ensues. Divine Use of Celestial Weapons In severa l ancien t Nea r Easter n traditions , on e deit y wa s both go d of war an d go d o f th e storm. 2 Accordingly , th e stor m an d element s associated wit h storms wer e commonly used b y non-Israelite deitie s in earthly battles , a s the y wer e b y YHW H (Weinfel d 1984) . I n Jonah , YHWH's weapon , wind , i s th e sam e instrumen t he used agains t th e Egyptian army during the exodus (14.21 ; 15.8 , 10) . Seeking Divine Guidance Oracles wer e sough t t o determin e whethe r o r no t on e shoul d g o t o 1. Awarenes s of the many traditions about prophets' fearfu l respons e to and/or resistance o f YHW H (e.g . Exod . 3.6-4.14; Isa. 6; Jer. 1.4-8 ; 20.9), the persecutio n of prophets wh o speak out against evil and/or announce judgment (e.g. 1 Kgs 13.4 ; 18.4a; 19.2 ; Jer . 1.1-2 ; 20.10 ; 26; 37.14-15 ; Amo s 7.11-13), an d prophets ' fligh t from dange r (e.g . 1 Kgs 17.3 ; 18.4b-14 ; 19.3 ; Jer . 26.21 ) make s i t natura l to assume tha t Jonah flees out of fear of his task. Explici t reference t o fear is reserved for developmen t of the characterization of the sailors' respons e t o YHWH's actions and revelatio n which has been pointed out, e.g., b y Alexander (1988: 106-109) and Magonet (1976 : 106-109) . Thes e observation s are evidence agains t Sternberg' s (1985: 318-20) position tha t a narrative gap must be filled within the narrative itself, leading him to take at face value Jonah's explanation for his flight. Of the gap in ch. 1, where Jonah's reaso n fo r fleeing is not given, Sternberg says: 'Wh y does Jonah flee...? Th e narrato r does no t say, but apparently only becaus e th e reaso n i s self evident: Jona h is to o tender-hearte d to carry a messag e o f doo m t o a grea t city ' (p. 138) . This explanation of what the reader would infer seems far-fetche d i n view of the absence o f biblical accounts of prophetic tenderness toward s wicked, pagan cities. 2. Kan g 1989 : 26 , 32, 37, 50, 54, 68, 77, 96. With regard t o who might have been th e go d o f th e sailor s wit h who m Jona h travelled , Sasso n ha s thi s t o say : '... any sea tempest... must include heavy black clouds, lightning , and thunder: one and al l weapons o f a storm god.. . the sailors wer e likel y Phoenicians an d as such would hav e worshiped..."Baa l (is ) Heaven " a s thei r mai n god...Thi s god' s propensity fo r shipwreckin g thos e h e despises is...cite d in... a treat y betwee n Assyria's Esarhaddo n and the king of Tyre...' (Sasso n 1990 : 118) .

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war o r respon d t o th e aggressio n o f a n adversary, 1 o r o n how a wa r should b e fough t (Judg . 20.18 ; 2 Sam . 5.23) . Lot s wer e on e o f th e ways in which this divine word could be obtained. 2 While th e oracle s would normall y b e consulte d befor e th e onse t o f a battle, ther e coul d also b e consultatio n durin g th e cours e o f a battle. 3 I n Jonah , th e sailors, strugglin g fo r thei r lives , see k a divin e wor d b y castin g lot s and thereb y lear n vi a Jonah tha t the y hav e bee n caugh t up i n a battl e with a divinity. Terror Reference t o divinel y inspire d terro r wa s a commo n componen t o f ancient Near Easter n battle reports. 4 In Jonah, the sailors feare d (IK-PI ) the stor m fro m th e outset , but , upo n learnin g tha t Jonah wa s fleeing from th e go d o f th e sea , fea r turne d to terror (rftr u HK T INTI) . Confusion and Panic The terror fel t by those losin g a battle becaus e o f a divinity's intervention coul d b e bu t a prelude t o confusio n an d pani c an d self-inflicted loss.5 Althoug h th e technica l wor d nn n use d t o refe r t o divinelyinspired confusion does not occur in Jonah 1 , there ar e several image s of confusion : th e ragin g o f th e se a i s ever-increasing (vv . 4 , 11 , 13) ; the ship, n o more controllabl e tha n Sisera's chariots whic h YHW H put into confusio n (Judg . 4.15), comes clos e t o breaking apar t (v . 4); and the sailor s cr y ou t t o thei r god s i n fea r an d throw carg o into th e se a (v. 5). Alon g with thes e explicitl y stated element s o f confusion, ther e is als o th e situationa l element o f disarra y i n whic h all y turn s int o

1. Non-Israelit e traditions: Kang 1989 : 42, 57, 98; Biblical records: e.g. 1 Sam. 14.36-37; 23.2 . 2. Kan g 1989: 57 ; 1 Sam. 14.18, 36-37; 14.41-42 . 3. Kan g 1989: 57 , 79; perhaps Josh. 10.8 . 4. 'Victor y i n battle is alway s attributed to th e terrifyin g powe r o f th e god s (ANET, 28 Ib); this has a paralyzing effect upo n the opponents, leaving them in confusion an d weakness... (ANET, 289b)' (Jone s 1989 : 301) . Vo n Rad (1991: 46-47) lists several reference s to an enemy's terror stemming from YHWH' s alliance wit h Israel: e.g . Exod . 15.14-16 ; 1 Sam. 4.7-8. 5. Th e Egyptia n god Seth wa s the god of confusion a s well as the god of wa r and o f the storm (Kang 1989: 96). Som e examples (from th e list of von Rad 1991 : 48-49) of biblical reference s to divinely inspired confusion i n a battle situation are : Exod. 23.27; Josh . 10.10 ; Isa. 5.11.

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adversary—the on e wh o shoul d b e wit h YHW H i s fleein g fro m him, thus th e captain and the sailor s wh o sough t alliance wit h Jonah (v . 6) must distance themselves fro m him , thereby becoming YHWH' s allies . Of course , th e sea settin g itsel f i s the most importan t imag e o f no t only confusion but chaos, as reflected in ancient Near Eastern traditions of a supreme god' s battle agains t watery chaos. 1 But the superiority of YHWH to neighboring gods is indicated in Jonah . YHWH , god of the heavens, i s no t simpl y on e wh o struggle s agains t an d defeat s chaos; rather, h e i s the make r o f th e se a and, a s the narrato r shows , he i s as able t o manipulate tha t principal element o f chao s (chs . 1-2 ) a s he is able to manipulate elements on the dry land (ch. 4). Crying out for Deliverance In biblica l narratives , whe n th e Israelite s cr y ou t (pi n o r pus) t o YHWH, i t i s almos t exclusivel y in th e contex t o f militar y conflict. 2 The cr y ma y g o u p afte r a n extended period o f oppression 3 or it ma y go up in the midst of battle. 4 The sailors in Jonah are like those o f this latter situation , in which their battle seem s doome d unles s th e divinity intervenes, or rather, in this case, unless the divinity ceases fire.5 Offering of Vows and Sacrifices in the Wake of Victory In preparatio n fo r battle , soldier s woul d undergo purification rituals, and mak e vow s an d sacrifices. 6 Th e sailor s o f th e Jona h accoun t 1. 'Yam.. . Baal's "fundamental" opponent... is the princ e o f th e sea , an d th e sea... is the primordial element of chaos' (Gr0nbs k 1985 : 31) . Before creating th e world, the Babylonian Marduk must battle against Tiamat, who is a 'personificatio n of the sea and its powers' (Jacobse n 1968 : 105) . 2. Th e Jonah accoun t is the only one in which non-Israelites are referred t o as calling out (pin or pas) to a divinity. In Judges, the cry to YHWH is always followed by hi s raisin g u p a person t o delive r them i n victorious battl e agains t a military opponent. 3. E.g . Judg . 3.9, 15 ; 4.3; 6.6 , 7 ; 10.10 . 4. Exod . 14.10 , wher e thos e i n fligh t ar e pursue d b y th e Egyptia n army ; Isa. 7.8, 9 , wher e YHW H respond s t o th e cr y b y usin g thunde r a s a weapon ; 1 Chron. 5.20 ; 2 Chron. 13.14 ; 32.30. 5. Cf . the curse i n the treaty between Esarhaddo n and the King of Tyre: 'Ma y Baal... raise an evil win d against you r ships... may a strong wave sink the m in the sea' (ANET*, 534 , cite d in Sasson 1990 : 118) . 6. Biblica l reference s i n von Rad 1991 : 42 ; other ancien t Nea r Eastern refer ences in Kang 1989 : 62 , 63.

WILT Jonah: A Battle o f Shifting Alliances 16

9

obviously ha d n o occasio n t o d o suc h befor e thei r encounte r wit h YHWH an d th e prophet . Bu t i n grea t fea r o f YHWH , the y offere d sacrifices an d made vows after th e sea became calm. 1 Jonah and Joshua 10.1-27 We ma y g o beyon d th e identificatio n of variou s similaritie s betwee n Jonah 1 and othe r battl e narrative s an d compar e th e boo k o f Jona h with on e specifi c battl e narrative . Jona h parallel s th e accoun t o f a battle in Josh. 10.1-2 7 in lexical references, semiotic relationships an d narrative structure . Lexical Parallels The mos t strikin g lexical similarit y betwee n th e tw o storie s i s thei r use o f "ma . Althoug h thi s i s th e mos t frequentl y use d qualitativ e adjective i n th e Hebre w Scriptures , Jon . 1.1-2. 1 an d Josh . 10.1-2 7 stand apar t fro m al l other narrativ e passages i n the Hebre w scripture s in bot h th e numbe r of occurrences o f thi s adjective an d th e variet y of lexical reference s whic h it modifies . A list of the modifie d reference s can be mad e t o prefigure other observations that will be mad e abou t the parallels between these two passages: Joshua 10 Jonah Key city: Gibeo Heaven-sent weapon: (hail-

1

n (v. 2, twice) Nineve h (v. 2) ) stones (v. 11 ) win d (v. 4) storm (vv . 4, 12) s (vv . 17 , 27) fis h (2.1 )

Tools of confinement: rock Result of YHWH's intervention: defea t (v. 10 ) fea destruction (v. 20)

r (vv. 10 , 16)

Chart 1 : Occurrences o/bru

^ita migh t b e a s appropriatel y labelle d a 'leitmoti f o f th e Joshu a account a s i t ha s bee n wit h regar d t o th e Jona h narrative; 2 YHW H 1. Reference s to ANE post-battle sacrifices are to be found i n Jones 1989 : 30 1 and Kang 1989 : 49 . 2. Thi s is a key theme in the hortatory passages of Deuteronomy. Note especially 4.32-38, where there is a cohesive densit y of Vita occurrences (five , in referenc e to the exodus event, deeds accompanying it, YHWH's fire, YHWH's strength, and the nations driven out by Israel) similar to that in the two narrative passages that we are

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battles wit h grea t means , fo r grea t people , an d wit h grea t result s (Lacocque 1981 : 8 ; Sasson 1990 : 72) . Other lexica l parallel s betwee n th e tw o narratives , reflectin g similarity in plot, ar e found i n the following verbal references : Semantic domain Joshua

10 Jonah

flight oi attack (naa ) (vv casting dow n -pv

l (vv . 11 , 16 ) m . 4, 10 , 20, 26) (4.7 (vv . 11, 27) "n

downward descent (IT) (vv fearOrv) (v

. 11 , 27) (1.3 . 2) (1.10,16

a (1.3 , 10 ; 4.2) ,8 ) o (1.4 , 5 , 12 , 15)

•pa (2.4 )

, 3 , 5; 2.6 ) )

Chart 2: Predicative Parallels

Despite th e obviou s parallel s here , th e iron y involve d i n th e Jona h narrative is indicate d b y considerin g the tw o account s with regard t o the agents and objects associated wit h these events. In th e Joshu a account , YHWH , Joshu a an d Israe l ac t i n harmon y against th e enemy . Thus , i t i s the y (o r on e o f the m o n behal f o f th e others) wh o 'strike' and 'cast down', and it is the enemies wh o fear fo r their lives , tak e flight , an d ar e force d downward . Bu t th e rebelliou s Jonah flee s downwar d and i s the n cas t downwar d like th e five kings who fle d an d were cas t downward , o r a t least ground-ward , int o th e cave. When the y lear n wit h who m Jonah is allied , the sailor s experienc e terror a s di d th e kin g o f Jerusale m whe n h e learne d o f Gibeon' s alliance wit h Israel . Bu t wherea s th e non-Israelite s resis t an d ar e slaughtered throug h th e chose n representative s o f YHWH , th e non Israelites i n the Jonah account are saved through ridding themselves of YHWH's chosen representative . Parallels in Text Structure The two narratives have parallel structure s at various levels. Th e simi larities o f structur e a t the overal l tex t leve l reinforce s th e impressio n of similarit y i n genre . Th e similaritie s a t lowe r level s enabl e furthe r appreciation o f the contrast between how things stand between YHWH , his inside r representatives , an d outsiders now, i n the time of Jonah' s original postexili c audience , an d how the y stoo d then, when YHW H and his people fough t togethe r in holy wars against pagan outsiders . considering. Also, DeuL 9.1-2 refers to great nations, great cities and great people .

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1

High-Level Parallels The basic structur e of both accounts is: Joshua 10 Jonah Setting 10.1-5 a 1.13 Battle 10.5b-l l 1.4-1 6 Miracle report 10.12.14 1.17-10.01 Closure of primary battle account 10.1 5 2.1 0 Follow-up and lesson 10.16-2 6 34 Closure 10.2 7 4.1 1 Chart 3: Text-Level, Structural Parallels

The narrativ e begins b y settin g the stag e fo r the conflict s t o occur . A report i s the n given o n how th e battle is fought an d who th e victor is. In bot h accounts , th e divine use o f a common elemen t o f natur e (hai l in Joshua , win d i n Jonah ) is show n t o hav e bee n a ke y facto r i n th e battle. But th e repor t o n th e battl e whic h involved a relativel y common place divin e weapo n (se e th e sectio n o n celestia l weapons , above ) i s followed b y referenc e t o a muc h les s common , perhap s uniqu e (se e below), manipulatio n o f natur e that underscore s th e exten t t o which YHWH has been involve d in the battle. The Joshua narrator comment s directly o n thi s intervention , exultin g i n th e greatnes s o f Joshu a a s well as of YHWH, while the Jonah narrator depicts Jona h as producing the psalm o f praise. Following thi s interlude the narrative tension is diminished, bu t th e extent t o whic h YHW H give s victor y i s demonstrated , an d a n objec t lesson accompanied b y a moral is given. Lower-Level Parallels Lower-level comparison s o f th e text s furthe r revea l parallel s i n structure, bu t th e differenc e i n th e wa y tha t th e structura l slot s ar e filled indicates a considerabl e contras t i n perspectiv e o n th e variou s aspects o f YHWH' s alliances . I n th e followin g w e wil l conside r th e most salien t parallel s withi n each o f th e basi c segment s diagramme d above. Th e appendi x contain s a n eve n mor e detaile d outlin e o f th e parallel texts .

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Setting. The setting s of both accounts may be outlined as follows. Joshua JO Jonah Inciting moment 10.1Call for allied action 10.3Response to the call 10.5

2 1. 4 1. a 1.

1 1 2 3

Chart 4: Setting Components

In bot h storie s th e incitin g moment, th e even t tha t set s th e stag e fo r the narrative' s conflicts , i s th e receptio n o f a wor d concernin g a n adversary, a great (n^m ) city. 1 The reception o f the word concernin g the grea t cit y cause s grea t fear . Th e Joshua narrato r state s thi s reaction explicitl y (v . 2a); th e Jona h narrato r shows thi s reactio n b y referring t o Jonah's fligh t (a s noted above) . The cal l fo r allie d actio n i s a n adversary' s respons e t o th e fearfu l word in Joshua, bu t i t becomes par t o f the fearfu l wor d to th e insider Jonah. Th e Jerusale m kin g Adoni-Zede k call s ou t t o hi s allies , fou r other kings , fo r hel p i n attackin g thos e allie d wit h the Israelit e god ; YHWH entrust s hi s all y Jona h wit h th e divin e word o f judgment t o attack Nineveh, whose evil reflects their non-alignment with YHWH. In Joshua , th e fou r king s respond t o Adoni-Zedek' s cal l just a s h e had desired , an d th e stag e i s se t fo r a battl e i n whic h the distinctio n between allie s an d adversaries i s clear-cut. Jonah also move s out—bu t to flee in the direction opposite t o where he has been calle d t o go. The kings' unifie d actio n takes the m up (n*?i?) ; Jonah's rebellio n take s hi m down (TV ) on a descent tha t will not end until he is at the 'root s of the mountains' (1.3 , 3 , 5 ; 2.6) . Thus , i n th e Jona h account , a n initia l alliance turns into a civil war and a battle agains t the rebel is necessi tated before the battle agains t the original adversary continues. The Battle. The followin g chart indicate s th e similaritie s o f th e tw o battle accounts. 1. Th e Joshu a narrato r underscore s th e greatnes s o f Gibea h b y modifyin g i t twice wit h n^r u i n th e tw o clauses explainin g Jerusalem' s grea t fear . I n Jonah , Ninevah will be referred t o as nbn:(n) -i^(n) three more times (3.2, 3 ; 4.11). These are the only places in the Hebrew Scriptures where there is repeated reference t o a specific cit y as rftru. I n Moses' Deuteronomic exhortation t o the children of Israel, there are three references to nhn: ara) a s part of the image of the imposing task of the conquest, possible for the Israelites only because YHWH is fighting for them (1.28 ; 6.10; and, especially , 9.1).

WILT Jonah: A Battle o f Shifting Alliances 17 The Battle Joshua Attack 10. Call for help 10. Response 10. Oracle 10. Battle scene 10.9-1 Deaths and calm 10.

10 Jonah 5 1.4 6 1. 7— 8 1.7-1 1 a 1.4-1 1 Ib, 1 5 1.1

3

1 a 6

5

0 5

Chart 5: Battle Components

In Joshua, the battle begins when the five kings lay siege against isolated Gibeo n whos e onl y hope is tha t the people in league wit h YHWH will respond t o their call for help. But in Jonah the battle begins when YHWH hurl s hi s weapo n agains t th e on e wh o i s suppose d t o b e i n league wit h him bu t wh o has mad e th e sailor s unwittin g allies i n his only battl e tactic , flight . Th e sailor s soo n se e that they hav e n o hop e but to call for help, divin e help. The Gibeonite s sen d t o thei r swor n all y t o gai n deliverance ; th e captain goe s t o his iner t ally in th e ship' s hol d s o that 'w e might not perish'. I n both accounts, those callin g for help begin their addresse s by denouncin g inaction an d the n tel l wha t must b e don e an d why. While the Gibeonites ' ple a i s give n only in terms o f human, military assistance, th e captain of Jonah's shi p realizes that the battle fo r their lives involves a divine element. Wha t he does not realize , however , i s that the god whom he is ordering Jonah to 'cal l out to' (*? « mp ) is the one wh o ha d ordere d Jona h t o 'cal l ou t against ' (*7j ; «~ip ) a paga n power, an d tha t his call for Jonah to work in allianc e with the sailors , who have already mad e frantic call s t o their gods (v . 5), is also a call to mak e goo d o f a divin e alliance agains t which Jonah has revolted , thereby enmeshin g the sailors in the battle. Joshua, in respec t o f his alliance , responds t o the Gibeonit e cal l a s the four king s had responded t o the Jerusalem king' s call. I n contrast, no mention is made of Jonah's response: how can he call out to the one from who m he i s fleeing ? Rather , the scen e shift s t o th e sailor s wh o must resort to divination. In both accounts , the divine word concerning the battle comes afte r the battl e ha s alread y begun . But whil e the Joshu a account portray s YHWH as speaking directly to Joshua, the sailors mus t first throw lots , then interrogat e Jona h fo r furthe r clarification . The wor d t o Joshu a from YHW H i s 'd o not fear'; th e word to th e sailors fro m Jona h is an ambiguous ' I fear' and the sailor s in tur n 'fea r a grea t fear' . Joshu a

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need no t fea r becaus e YHW H ha s pu t th e enemy 'i n thei r hands' ; bu t the sailor s hav e plenty of reason t o fear since they now recognize tha t Jonah's presenc e ha s put the m in the hands of the on e who mad e th e sea a s wel l a s th e dr y ground , an d tha t thei r allianc e wit h Jonah — which they refuse to take lightly (1.11-14)—ha s brought them int o the midst o f a civil war , an d o n th e wron g side. Indeed, th e intensit y of the sailors ' fea r upo n learnin g o f thi s uncertai n allianc e (Jonah i s fleeing ye t claim s t o fear/worshi p YHWH ) is lik e tha t o f the kin g of Jerusalem wh o 'feare d greatly ' whe n h e hear d o f Gibeon' s allianc e with Israe l (v . 2). While ther e i s les s correspondenc e betwee n th e sequenc e o f elements i n th e battle scene s (th e fifth component o f Char t 5 ) than in what ha s been observe d u p t o thi s point, ther e ar e severa l referentia l parallels. We have alread y mentione d th e images of confusio n i n th e Jonah account. The Joshua account records th e classic elemen t o f holy wars i n th e Nea r East : th e militar y panic/confusio n (a&n ) sen t fro m God. In Jonah, however, sinc e YHW H is battling against an individual, rather tha n the group with whom Jonah finds himself, ther e is no nee d to ad d an y more confusio n t o th e sailors ' pligh t tha n what is alread y present simpl y from th e intensity of their battle agains t the storm . Th e image of the raging se a and the plunging ship correspond t o Joshua' s more prosaic reference t o the 'grea t attack'. More salientl y paralle l ar e th e accounts o f the attempte d fligh t an d the divin e cut-off. 1 Th e armie s o f th e fiv e king s fle e fro m OJQ& ) th e Israelite soldiers, thus , as shown by the divine sanction i n v. 8 and the agent o f 'confuse ' an d 'attack ' i n v . 9, awa y from YHWH . Similarly , Jonah i s fleein g fro m Cos 1™) YHWH. 2 Th e directio n o f th e fligh t i s downward, i n bot h narratives . Thoug h thi s migh t b e a n incidenta l detail in the Joshua account, it is vested wit h theological significanc e in Jonah (Magonet 1976 : 17 ; Sasson 1990 : 80 , 187 ; Wolff 1986 : 112) . Then come s a classi c attac k fro m heaven : th e divinit y take s a n element o f the sky and hurls it down upon the fleer. His weapon i s n o 1. Tha t Jonah's flight was not simply a prelude t o the battle but also an integral part of it may be signalled by the participial for m of rro in v. 10 , rather than the per fect, which coul d have signalled tha t he had fled but now recognized such flight to be impossible. Th e participia l for m coul d b e take n t o indicat e tha t hi s fligh t i s a n ongoing process . 2. Thi s sam e prepositiona l phras e i s use d i n referenc e t o fligh t i n battl e i n 2 Chron. 19.18 .

WILT Jonah: A Battle o f Shifting Alliances 17

5

skimpy one: whether hail-stones from heave n or wind , it is 'ma, 'great' . In bot h accounts , focu s o n the agen t o f th e fusillade, a s wel l a s hi s opposition t o thei r attemp t t o flee , i s provide d b y th e frontin g o f YHWH t o sentence-initia l position. 1 Thoug h YHW H ha s bee n referre d to by nam e twic e i n th e Joshu a accoun t (bot h time s a s subjec t o f th e clause) an d thre e time s i n th e Jona h account , thi s i s th e firs t tim e i n both account s tha t hi s nam e occur s i n th e sentence-initia l position . Indeed, it is the first time that any subject appears in that position. The climati c par t o f th e Joshu a accoun t end s wit h a commen t o n how man y die d fro m th e hailstones cas t dow n by YHWH . That o f th e Jonah accoun t end s wit h depictio n o f Jona h bein g cas t dow n t o hi s apparent deat h i n th e se a b y th e sailor s (v . 15 ) bu t als o b y YHW H (2.4). Vers e 1 6 shows tha t thi s on e deat h wa s al l tha t wa s sought : all others survive d an d worshippe d th e on e wh o wa s th e sourc e o f th e threat t o their lives . The Fantastic Event. I n bot h accounts , th e narratio n slow s dow n t o report an d commen t o n a fantastic , unique 2 miracle : th e stoppin g o f the su n in Joshua an d the deliverance vi a a fish in Jonah. Th e presen tation o f these events ma y be compared in several respects (see Char t 6, below) . The ke y semioti c oppositio n i s betwee n th e reference s t o element s associated wit h the region o f God's dwellin g place an d lif e an d thos e associated wit h th e regio n o f death . Th e positiv e sign s o f th e Joshu a account underscor e th e glor y o f th e Israelit e victory ; th e negativ e signs underscore the depth o f the prophet's plunge away from God . 1. Josh . 10.lib : nVr u DM^ N nrr^v -prior i mm ; Jon . 1.4 : n'mrnr i 'ra n m m nvr'rN. 2. Th e references t o the divine castin g down of hail (Josh . 10 ) or wind (Jonah ) have man y parallel s i n biblical an d ancien t Nea r Easter n literatur e (a s shown, fo r example, in Weinfeld 1984) . But there ar e few, if any, parallels t o the stopping o f the sun and the salvation via a fish. The only near-parallels that Weinfeld (1984 : 146-47) suggests, concerning th e stopping o f the sun miracle, ar e the reference i n Hab. 3.11 , which ma y be borrowing th e image fro m th e Joshua account, and a wish expressed in th e Iliad tha t 'th e sun set not.. . until I have cast down... the hall o f Priam'— which i s not followed b y a report tha t the sun did actually stop . Ben-Yosef (1980 : 113 ) point s ou t tha t thoug h 'th e fish, or water-monster, swallows a man' is a folk moti f foun d i n various part s of the world, 'From the point of view o f the element of a benevolent fish.. . th e story of Jonah is unique, especiall y in the cultural milie u where i t originated' (m y emphasis).

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Battle situation: Witness:

Joshua 10

Jonah 1.17-2.10

YHWH against enemy of Israel (outsiders) Israel

YHWH against prophet of Israel (insider ) None but the victim/ delivered one Fish, roots of mountains, Sheol, and so fort h (down, negative, association wit h death) Salvation of rebel 'I called out to... YHWH' 'He heard my voice'

Natural elements referred to :

Sun, moon, heaven (up, positive, associatio n with God's abode)

Purpose: Call to God: God's response :

Defeat of enemy 'Joshua spoke to YHWH' YHWH heard a human voice Victory

Result:

Deliverance

Chart 6: Referential Components o f th e Fantastic Events

Thus, thoug h the fantasti c events i n both battles occu r for th e benefi t of thos e originall y leagued wit h YHWH, the first is a great victor y for, and witnesse d by , th e Israelit e natio n and thei r leaders , wherea s th e second i s a hidde n ac t o f deliveranc e o f a rebe l wh o finall y surren ders. However, a key link between the ignominious rebel an d the great holy-war commander is that they both called out to YHWH and YHW H heard thei r voice . Follow-up an d Lesson. Thoug h th e greatnes s an d victoriousnes s o f YHWH's wor k i n battl e ha s bee n shown , th e battl e doe s no t end . Joshua command s hi s troops , 'Don' t stop!' , an d Jonah i s onc e agai n commanded b y YHW H t o d o wha t had prompte d hi s rebellion : th e pursuit of the enemy is to continue. However, ther e i s quite a difference i n strategy . The Israelite s wer e to attac k thei r enemies fro m th e rear an d prevent the m fro m enterin g their cities . I n contrast , Jonah , equippe d wit h YHWH' s word , i s t o walk into the midst of the enemy's city . The Israelite soldiers ' contin uance, i n keeping wit h their orders , results i n an overwhelming defea t of the enemy. Jonah's weapon— a word of judgment fro m hi s warrio r God—overwhelms th e enem y bu t wit h th e resul t tha t the y believ e God, cr y ou t t o hi m fo r mercy , and , through their humble surrender , avert massiv e destruction . I n th e wak e o f thes e decisiv e display s o f YHWH's power and fearfulness, a lesson is given. Apart fro m thes e genera l parallel s i n plot , ther e ar e als o severa l unflattering, synonymou s parallels betwee n th e prophet Jona h and th e

WILT Jonah: A Battle o f Shifting Alliances 111 five king s o f th e Joshu a account , an d severa l antithetica l parallel s between th e Ninevite kin g and the five kings that reinforc e th e irony involved in the depiction o f the prophet's response t o YHWH. Jonah an d th e Five Kings. Jonah' s attemp t t o fle e fro m YHW H b y descending into the darkness of the ship's hold and sailing over the sea is simila r t o th e attemp t o f th e five kings i n th e Joshu a narrativ e t o hide in the darkness of a cave. For both, the place of refuge becomes a prison. YHWH' s me n impriso n th e king s b y blockin g th e cav e wit h great stones ; th e sailors , workin g in harmony wit h YHWH, cas t Jonah into the sea which surrounds and imprisons him (2.6-7). In bot h accounts , th e prisoner s ar e brough t ou t o f thei r confine ment: the kings are brought out at Joshua's command ; Jonah is belche d out a t YHWH's command . The kings ' emergenc e fro m thei r prison is only temporar y an d fo r th e sak e o f being humiliated and kille d a s a sign o f what YHWH wil l do t o all Israel' s enemies . Jona h i s brought out o f hi s priso n a s on e reconcile d wit h YHW H (2.7 , 9 ) an d who , on YHWH's behalf, is to proclaim Joshua-style destruction. However, th e carrying ou t o f his tas k will result in a sign of what, to quot e Joshua , 'YHWH wil l do to all your enemies'—if the y repent—but thi s sign of YHWH's merc y i s fo r Jonah a sourc e o f distress 1 tha t will make hi m wish for the same end as the five kings. The Five Kings an d th e Ninevite King. Th e fiv e enem y kings , surrounded b y th e Israelites , ar e forced t o the groun d an d humiliated (v. 24). I n contrast, the Ninevite king, his people surroundin g the lone representative o f YHWH, voluntarily humiliates himself, taking off hi s royal robes and lowering himself from hi s thron e into the dust (3.6) . In both accounts, a series of commands follows the royal humiliation . Joshua command s th e Israelite s t o assum e attitude s of psychologica l strength i n vie w o f thei r allianc e wit h YHWH (v . 25). Th e Ninevit e king command s his people to weaken themselves throug h fasting and, more importantly , t o refor m (3.7-8) . Joshu a command s th e Israelite s in ful l confidenc e of th e destructio n of enemies tha t results whe n one battles i n allianc e wit h YHW H (v . 25). Th e Ninevit e kin g ca n onl y hope (inv' a 'wh o knows? ) tha t th e adversary' s annihilatin g ange r may give way to compassion (3.9) . 1. m n i s translated as 'anger' i n most translations, but Sasson (190: 270, 273 75) argues for translating it as 'dejection' .

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In bot h Joshu a an d Jonah' s proclamations , th e announcemen t of destruction is unconditional. However, while Joshua promised tha t nM mrp nfoy 1* (v . 25), Jona h found tha t the LOR D ntou K ^ wha t he sai d h e would. After Joshu a humiliates the kings, exhorts his people t o strength and promises victor y ove r thei r enemies , h e strike s (rim ) th e king s an d kills the m (literally : cause s the m t o die) . Afte r th e Ninevit e kin g humbles himsel f an d exhort s hi s peopl e t o d o th e same , Nineve h i s spared. Instea d o f the enemy bein g struc k down , the vine whic h pro vides comfor t to the proclaime r of destructio n is struc k (roj ) and wirners, allowing the sun—that celestial elemen t whic h Joshua had so triumphantly commanded—t o strik e (ma ) th e prophet' s hea d an d make him wish that he would die (3.8, 9) . Closure. Bot h account s end with a reference t o a 'great ' (bru ) objec t which ha s been referre d t o earlier i n th e narrative. 'Th e great stones ' in th e Joshua accoun t ar e used t o seal the tomb of the five kings, an d they stand 't o this day' as a witness to the great alliance of YHWH with Israel. I n the Jonah account, YHWH chides Jonah for his concern ove r the insignifican t vin e in view of YHWH's concern fo r th e 'grea t city' , a formidable adversar y turne d ally. Conclusion Jonah i s lik e a narrativ e negativ e o f Joshu a 10 . Th e structur e i s basically th e same , bu t th e blac k an d white s o f th e earlie r narrativ e are reverse d i n th e late r one . Joshu a an d Israe l ru n u p t o defen d a great cit y i n respect o f its call, an d they defeat their enemies throug h the powerfu l interventio n of th e divinit y wit h whom the y ar e allied . Jonah run s away fro m a great cit y in disrespect of his call, but is cut off b y th e powerful intervention of the divinity , who ha s becom e his adversary. Joshua ascends for battl e and commands the great light s of heaven. Jona h descend s an d i s entrappe d i n th e dept h o f Sheol . I n Joshua, th e pagan king s are humiliated a s a demonstration o f YHWH's power. I n Jonah, th e king humbles himself bu t is save d a s a demon stration of YHWH' S grace . This narrativ e manipulatio n o f th e structur e an d reference s o f a battle repor t ma y b e viewe d a s a developmen t consisten t wit h th e transformations o f th e wa r oracl e fro m th e eighth-centur y prophets '

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insistence tha t YHW H wa s no w battlin g agains t Israel 1 dow n t o th e early-sixth century transformation in which 'the primary intent of this literary mode...[becomes ] th e preservation of th e peopl e o f Israe l i n the impending crisis which challenges their very existence' (Christensen 1975: 282) . However, b y the time the Jonah narrative receives it s final form, the crisis i s no t impendin g bu t realized . The peopl e hav e alread y bee n swallowed u p an d sen t t o a grea t city . The y hav e survive d bu t no t without anger/dejection . Th e Jona h narrativ e suggest s that , thoug h there ma y b e dismay a t the escape of the great cit y from judgment, i t is a n occasio n fo r growin g in understandin g o f ho w extensiv e i s th e grace tha t delivered the m from th e hell to which their flight fro m Go d led them .

BIBLIOGRAPHY Alexander, T.D . 1988 Jonah: A n Introduction an d Commentary (Tyndal e Ol d Testamen t Commentaries, 23; Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press) . Ben-Yosef, LA. 1980 'Jona h and the Fish as a Folk Motif, Semitics 7 : 102-17 . Christensen, D.L . 1975 Transformations o f th e Wa r Oracle i n Ol d Testament Prophecy (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press) . Gr0nbsk, J.H . 1985 'Baal' s Battl e with Yam— A Canaanit e Creation Fight', JSOT 33 : 2744. Jacobsen, T . 1968 "Th e Battle between Mardu k an d Tiamat' , JAOS 88 : 104-108 . Jones, G.H . 1989 'Th e Concep t o f Hol y War' , i n R.E . Clement s (ed.) , Th e World o f Ancient Israel: Sociological, Anthropological and Political Perspectives (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press): 299-321. Rang, S.-M . 1989 Divine Wa r i n th e Ol d Testament and i n th e Ancient Near East (New York: de Gruyter) . Lacocque, A. 1981 Th e Jonah Complex (Atlanta: John Knox). 1. 'Amo s has taken th e earlier speech of a war oracle... and transformed i t into a judgment speec h against Israel ' (Christense n 1975 : 71-72) ; Th e traditio n o f holy war [is ] i n its reversed form. The concept was so familiar in Israelite thinking tha t the judgment implie d b y its total reversa l coul d not be missed' (Jones 1989: 318) .

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Magonet, J. 1976

Form and Meaning: Studies in Literary Techniques in the Book of Jonah (Bern : Herber t Lang ; Frankfur t a.M. : Peter Lang) .

Sasson, J.M. 1990 Sternberg, M. 1985

Jonah (Ne w York : Doubleday) . The Poetics of Biblical Narrative: Ideological Literature and the Drama of Reading (Bloomington , IN: Indiana Universit y Press) .

Rad, G. von 1991

Holy Wa r in Ancient Israel (trans, an d ed . M.J . Daw n and J.H. Yoder ; Grand Rapids : Eerdmans) .

Weinfeld, M. 1984

'Divine Interventio n in Wa r in Ancien t Israe l an d i n the Ancien t Nea r East', in H . Tadmor an d M. Weinfeld (eds.), in History, Historiography and Interpretation (Jerusalem : Magnes) .

Wolff, H.W. 1986

Obadiah an d Jonah (trans . M . Kohl ; Minneapolis: Augsburg) .

APPENDIX Structural Parallels of Joshua 10.1-27 and Jonah Setting

a. Incitement: a fearful word Receptor: Response: Reason: b. Call for allied action Call to move out : Desired action: Reason for action: c. Response to the Call

Battle d. Commencement of battle

Joshua 10

Jonah

10.1 It was (vri) when the king of Jerusalem heard They feared greatly Since Gibeon was a great city ... greater than Ai.

1.1 It was (vn) the word of YHWH to Jonah Nineveh, the great city...

10.3-4 Adoni-Zedek to four kings Come up to me Help me that we may attack Gibeon

1.2 YHWH to Jonah Get up, go to Nineveh Call out against her for thei r evil has risen before me

10.5a And they gathered... and they went up

1.3 And Jonah got up—to flee.. . and he went down

10.5b They attacked Gibeon... and fought...

1.3b-4a YHWH hurled a great wind upon the sea...

WILT Jonah: A Battle of Shifting Alliances e. Call for hel p Going for help: Message— Inaction i s inappropriate: Move! What to do: Why:

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10.6 The Gibeonites sent to Joshua ... to say

1.6 The ship's captain went to Jonah and said

Don't withdraw your hand Come up ! Save us , help us for all the kings have gathere d against us

How can you sleep! Get up! Call out to your god perhaps God will show us favor and we will not die

f. Response

10.7 So Joshua wen t up... along with all his soldiers

g. Divine word Method o f obtaining:

10.8

Speaker: Message:

YHWH said to Joshua 'Don't fear, fo r I have put them in your hand'

Response:

[Israel proceeds ]

1.7-10 They cast lots and the lot fell on Jonah [Jonah] said t o them 'YHWH... I fear, the one who made the sea and the dry ground' The men feared a great fea r

10.9-1 la YHWH panicked them They attacked them with a great attack

1.4-11 [Several images of confusion ] a great stor m (vv . 4, 11 , 13) ship about to break u p (v. 4)

... they fled from Israel.. .

He got up to to flee from YHWH (v. 3) and descended to Joppa (v. 3) He was fleeing from YHW H (v. 10 ) But YHWH cast down a great wind on the sea (v. 4)

h. Battle scen e Confusion: Powerful attack :

Attempted fligh t

Divine cut-off:

along th e descent to Beth Horon But YHWH cast down on them great stones

i. Death and calm

10.1 Ib, 1 5

1.15-16

Miracle Report

10.12-14

1.17-2.10

Closure of Primary Battle Report

2.10 10.15 Joshua and all Israel returned to YHW H spoke... and the fish their camp spa t Jonah onto the dry land

Follow-Up and Lessons a. Don't stop!

10.19 Don't stop! Pursue your enemies... Don't allo w them to enter their cities for YHWH has given your enemies int o your hand

3.2-5 Get up, go to Nineveh... Call out to ('?/) it... Jonah began t o enter the city... He called out... 'In forty day s Nineveh will be destroyed'

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b. Resul t

10.20 3.5 a Joshua and the Israelites Th e men of Nineveh believed attacked them with a great God.. . attack

c. Of royal adversaries Royal humiliation :

10.22-25 they brought the kings they put their feet on the kings' necks (Joshua to Israel) Do not be afraid Do not be discouraged Be strong Be courageous

Commands:

Reason:

Final Blow:

Thus YHWH will do to all your enemies

10.26 Joshua struck the kings

and killed them Closure

3.6-10 the king got off his throne he sat in the dust (v. 6) (King to Nineveh) Do not taste anything Do not eat; do not drink Cover yourselves with sacks Call out to God Turn from evi l and violence Perhaps God will relent and have compassion God felt sorry about the destruction he had said he would do and did not do it 4.7-8 a worm struck the vine over Jonah's head (he sun struck Jonah's bead Jonah said: 'It's better that I die'

4.11 10.27 great stones stand to this day YHWH: should I not have compassion for that great city? (as a memorial to YHWH's power)

JONAH'S POEM our OF AND WITHIN ITS CONTEXT Athalya Brenne r

ABSTRACT This study i s addressed to the nature of the links between the Jonah narrative and the poem embedde d withi n i t (2.3-10). The poe m i s examined ou t o f its narrationa l context, collated wit h it s biblica l intertexts , an d re-examine d withi n th e framin g narrative. Its compositional status vis-a-vis the prose narrative is then considered and compositional integrity argue d for. The poem is read (following Mile s and Carroll) as a parody and satire. Finally, the convergence of literary technique s is read as a means for producin g a didacti c messag e throug h humour : merc y an d grac e shoul d b e privileged over justice.

The proble m o f th e functio n an d authenticit y o f Jonah's poe m (Jon . 2.3-10) is a perplexing one . Wha t is i t doin g there , embedde d i n th e middle o f a prose narrative ? I s i t a n insertion , or a n integra l par t o f the origina l composition ? A t an y rate, wha t is it s functio n withi n it s context, especiall y since th e pious attitude s supposedl y expresse d in it by Jonah are in stark opposition t o his quarrelsome behaviou r throughout th e narrativ e (Carrol l 1987 : 12) ? Until quite recently mos t scholars viewe d th e poem a s inappropriat e on variou s grounds , a pastich e o f quotation s from th e Psalte r badl y fitted into its present context . Lately, however, the trend has changed . For example, Magonet (1983 : 39-54) argues tha t th e poem i s authen tic an d original ; tha t it s man y echoe s o f th e Boo k o f Psalm s ar e deliberate [misjquotation s (bu t se e Hurvit z 1985) ; tha t th e poem' s apparent incongruity disappears whe n its 'pious ' nature is perceived a s ironic; an d tha t the poem fits in well with th e overall structure , intent and psychology of the book. In another recent treatment Lacocque and Lacocque (1990: 94-113) once mor e affirm th e authentic statu s o f the poem an d analys e i t a s a journey o f Jonah's sel f 'Fro m Nothingness into Being ' (th e nam e o f th e chapte r dealin g wit h th e Jona h poem , p. 94). I n view of this change in scholarly opinion, and because o f the

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convincing reassessment o f the book of Jonah as a parody/satire (Mile s 1976; Carrol l 1990) , I would like to explore th e poem onc e more . The Poem out of Context It i s eviden t that , overtly , th e poe m i s a prayer , orthodo x i n tone , beseeching Go d for a metaphorical 'rescu e from a pit' (Mile s 1975) . The praying subject-in-the-text describe s hi s situatio n (or hers—there are n o gende r marker s i n th e text , whic h i s delivere d i n th e firs t person singular) . She/h e wa s desolate : desolatio n an d despai r ar e expressed metaphoricall y i n terms o f abyss—'Sheol', death an d water imagery. No specifi c source for thi s despair i s voiced, apar t fro m th e centrally place d an d unmetaphorica l complaint—the subject' s spatia l separation fro m God' s plac e o f worship , whos e exac t locatio n i s unspecified (v . 5). In spite of the physical separation between Go d and worshipper, th e praye r reache s it s destinatio n (v . 8). No w i t seem s that th e subjec t i s insid e th e Temple , gratefu l fo r th e presen t releas e and promising to repay the previously unmentioned vows to YHWH. The Sheol and drowning-in-water images stand in spatial and qualitative oppositio n t o God's plac e of worship. The reunion of worshipper and worshipped effect s a solution to the former's problem . Therefore , both (metaphorically expressed) proble m and setting seem t o be cultic rather tha n physical o r social . B y th e end o f th e poe m th e real com plaint ha s becom e apparen t throug h the effected solution : th e ability (in th e present, fo r th e Hebre w tens e syste m allows th e interpretatio n of th e verb s i n v . 1 0 in th e presen t tense ) t o b e nea r Go d onc e mor e ends the crisis. Verse 9 too, although problematic (see below), suggest s a cultic Sitz im Leben for Jonah's psalm. The Poem and its Intertexts It i s i n Psalm s 6 9 an d 8 4 that on e find s characteristi c wate r an d pi t imagery i n the Psalter. Mile s (1976: 174-75 ) show s that even i n thos e psalms suc h imagery is not nearly as dense as in the prayer attribute d to Jonah. Generally speaking , then, Jon. 2.3-10 offer s th e most articu late an d extravagant use of water and pit imagery in biblical poetry . A more detaile d analysi s of expressions an d combinations produce s the following observations. Disregardin g th e problematic v . 9 for th e time being , eac h vers e o f th e Jonah poem ha s a n identical o r closel y

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parallel counterpar t i n th e Psalms . Her e i s a lis t o f correspondence s which is by no means exhaustive: Jonah Psalms = 2.3 = 2.4 = 2.5 = 2.6 = 2.7 = 2.8 = 2.9 2.10 =

22.3 42.8 31.2 113.3 30.1 42.7 31. 107.22

, 5 ; 31.23; 118.5; 130. 1 ; 88.8, 1 8 3 ; 69. 2 0 ; 77.4, 12 ; 107.5; 142.4 , 23-31 ; 143. 4 7 ; 116.1 7

To these individual parallels w e may add Psalm 1 8 = 2 Samuel 2 2 on grounds o f similarit y i n imagery , ton e an d choic e o f metaphors. Fo r the proble m o f v . 9, a s wel l a s th e shift s i n th e so-calle d quotations, one shoul d consult Magonet's work, where it is claimed tha t the shift s are deliberat e an d methodical, in th e service o f charting Jonah's roa d towards accepting his mission. Turning fro m imager y t o othe r intertextua l matters , wha t ca n b e gleaned fro m othe r biblica l poem s similarl y and dissimilarl y embed ded withi n a narrationa l pros e context ? Th e embedde d Son g o f Miriam (Exod . 15 ) and Son g o f Debora h (Judg . 5) ar e indee d poem s of thanksgivin g and praise fo r divin e salvation too. Bot h link up with their context s b y subject matter ; the y contain quasi-historica l account s of event s previousl y narrate d i n prose . Jonah' s psalm , however , ha s no direc t dimensio n o f historicit y o r persona l history ; thu s it s lin k with th e surroundin g prose contex t is les s apparent . Anothe r differ ence i s th e following : the Son g o f Debora h doe s no t contai n specifi c cultic elements. Th e secon d par t of the Son g o f the Sea , lik e Jonah' s poem, doe s hav e affinitie s wit h a culti c shrine ; however , it s affinit y with th e prose accoun t is problematic (Childs 1974 : 243-53). What abou t the Davidi c psalm embedded i n 2 Sam. 2 2 ( = Ps. 18) ? Placed withi n the contex t o f addend a ( 2 Sam . 21-24 ) tha t ar e only loosely connected t o the narrational contex t (2 Sam. 20 on the one side and 1 Kgs 1- 2 o n the other side), David' s psalm has no overt biogra phical significance—just lik e Jonah's 'psalm'. The nex t intertex t i s Hannah' s praye r ( 1 Sam . 2.1-10) , whic h i s perhaps th e closest parallel t o Jonah's. Significantly , Yalkut Shim'oni even quote s Hannah' s prayer withi n th e treatmen t o f Jonah's prayer . In both instance s the poems constitut e a plot break. The lin k betwee n prose an d poe m i s thematically , overtly , problematic , i n tha t th e

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occasion invite s thanksgiving after (se e above ) a n event of salvation, the chang e i n styl e introduce s variety , an d a suspensio n o f tensio n occurs on the plo t level. The content s of the poem , nevertheless , do not correspon d closel y t o tha t of th e pros e narrative . Th e similarity , inasmuch a s i t exists , lie s i n th e correlatio n betwee n poeti c imager y and stor y event. Thus the correlation i s overt but superfluous, in both cases base d o n catch-phrase s rathe r tha n on tru e congruity . Finally , the language of both poems differ s fro m tha t of its prose surroundings and i s more aki n to that of the Psalm s (cf . Hurvitz 1985) . It is there fore no t surprising that scholarly debate s concerning the integrity and dating o f Hannah' s praye r vis-a-vi s it s pros e fram e closel y paralle l those concerning Jonah's prayer. The Poem within its Framing Narrative The Jona h poem certainl y breaks th e ongoin g movement of th e plo t advanced by the (prose) narrative. The embedding o f a poem is obviously a change in style. As in the passages cite d above and others, th e change i s firs t an d foremos t a multifunctiona l literar y device . I t enhances th e tensio n whil e allowin g for a respite . I t introduce s a variety o f poetic expression. In short, it is a 'filler' . Beyon d this, does the poe m d o anythin g fo r th e stor y line apart fro m functionin g a s a n orthodox intermission? Isolated fro m th e narrationa l flo w tha t surrounds it, th e poe m ca n hardly b e perceived a s related t o the narrated situationa l contex t (th e belly o f th e male/femal e fish ) i n whic h Jona h find s himself . Th e problem was noticed already by the ancient Jewish sages and exegetes. They wen t to great lengths in order to tie details of the poem wit h the foregoing narrativ e o f 1.1-2.2 . Th e borderlin e betwee n peshat an d derash i s perforc e trodde n here , a s fo r instanc e i n th e cas e o f th e difficult v . 9. The vers e is linke d to ch. 1 : 'the preservers o f vanities ' are understoo d t o b e th e heathe n sailors who , after seein g YHWH' s glory, 'forsak e thei r forme r attachment'—so eve n Rashi , Kimh i an d Ibn Ezra. I n short , th e attempt s to relat e th e poe m biographicall y t o Jonah are more than a trifle forced . Ibn Ezra, however , raise s anothe r importan t questio n whic h ha s been referre d t o briefl y earlier . Wherea s th e superscriptio n o f th e poem has Jona h pray inside the belly of the female fish (2.2), and th e conclusion state s tha t God mad e th e (male! ) fis h spout him ou t afte r

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the praye r ha d bee n uttere d an d hear d (2.11) , th e languag e o f th e poem enclose d b y thes e tw o statement s expresse s th e jo y o f th e praying subjec t a t a salvatio n effected in th e past/presen t rathe r tha n the future . I n other words , ther e i s n o correlation betwee n th e situa tion of the fictional Jonah and the language of the praying T whic h is put int o his mout h in th e psalm; an d the seams connectin g prose and poetry (2.2 , 10 ) exacerbate th e incongruity. Ibn Ezra indeed explains this as an apparent incongruit y only, since the propheti c min d regards th e prayer a s having been answere d eve n before salvatio n i s accomplished . Th e sam e argumen t ofte n crop s u p in moder n biblica l scholarshi p too : fo r instance , i n orde r t o explai n peculiarities o f the Hebrew tense system in the so-called propheti c style and genres. Withi n the framework of the present discussion, th e usage of the perfect tense for designating future time is thus excused. Needless to say, such explanations are not truly inspired by linguistics as much as by ideology , b y the wis h to harmonize an d glos s ove r extralinguistic difficulties. I n th e cas e o f Jonah's prayer , th e 'tense-time ' questio n emphasizes th e alienated position of the poem within its context. The Compositional Status of the Poem The argument s fo r th e poem's independent statu s withi n the framing narrative can be summarized as follows. e Sitz im Leben o f th e poe m i s culti c an d linke d t o a specific, althoug h unnamed, place o f worship. 2. Th e water/pi t imager y i s motivate d b y genr e an d conven tionalized metaphorization , no t by Jonah's actua l situatio n in the story . 3. Othe r instances of embedded psalms, notably Hannah's prayer, exhibit th e practic e o f linkin g a genera l psal m o f thanks giving to a specific narrationa l context by overt verba l mean s and through superficial content associations . 4. Th e incongruit y o f th e prose-poe m link s i s poignantl y expressed i n th e incompatibilit y o f th e ver b tense s i n th e poem, a s against those in the verses that frame it . 1. Th

What, then , i s th e 'original ' natur e of th e poem? O n the on e hand, i t can b e viewe d a s a n insertio n fro m anothe r an d olde r source , a n import fro m th e stoc k o f a well-known genre (cf . th e parallels i n th e

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Psalms). Accordingly , Jonah's praye r shoul d be classifie d as an addi tion, a piou s interpolatio n whos e valu e fo r th e plo t pe r s e doe s no t exceed th e literary consideration s outlined above. I find this evaluation difficult t o accept, since the unquestioning piety and orthodox ideolog y of th e poe m ar e i n star k contras t t o Jonah's behaviou r outsid e it. Le t me b e frank : i f th e poe m i s indee d a n additio n conditione d b y piety and th e conventio n o f embeddin g poetr y a t seemingl y appropriat e spots, thi s particular poe m i s no t wel l chosen . I t damage s th e credi bility of the book and its anti-hero, Jonah the refusenik. Wh y would an author, or a n editor, thu s interfere wit h his/her ow n literary creation ? Was not she/he aware of the incompatibilities, an d the superficiality of the seams combinin g poem and prose narrative? Or was he/she willing to forg o th e difficultie s simpl y fo r th e sak e o f introducin g a multi functional literar y device ? Onc e more , suc h a hypothetica l solution, such a presumed authoria l or editorial choice, has serious flaws. On the other hand, if the poem is regarded as a compositionally and originally integra l part of the stor y line, another view emerges. The n the question s a reade r ma y pos e shif t slightly . Assumin g tha t a n author/editor ha s deliberatel y create d th e prose/poem contradictions , what aim s wer e i n mind ? In othe r words , why di d th e autho r switch genres an d religious attitude s in midstream, so to speak? Personally , I prefer thi s perspective , fo r I ten d t o tur n t o a solutio n base d o n authorial o r editoria l naivet y onl y a s a las t resort , an d ther e i s n o compelling reaso n t o resor t t o tha t i n th e presen t case . A t th e ver y least, th e incompatibilities here see m to o pronounced to be explained away. Hence, authorial intentionality should be reconsidered . Let u s retur n t o the languag e of th e poem. Unlik e the languag e o f the pros e narrative , i t i s fre e o f Aramaism s and highl y conventional. Consequently, shoul d it be characterized a s relatively archaic o r just archaisticl Doe s th e languag e of th e poem predat e tha t o f th e pros e narrative? Methodologically , both evaluations of the linguistic data at first appear t o be equally valid. Convention implies conservatism and makes dating , eve n relativ e dating , uncertain—contra Mile s (1975 ) and others who postulate a relatively earlier date for the poem. Drawin g on a contemporary, no t necessarily older , stoc k thesauru s o f a genre explains the linguistic difference betwee n poem an d prose narration as adequately a s a theor y o f a n earlie r datin g fo r th e poem . I n short , viewing the poem a s a conscious imitation of genre and religious atti tude seem s t o b e a cogen t possibility . I wil l therefor e explor e thi s

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possibility i n th e hope tha t such a viewing will plausibly account fo r the poem' s statu s withi n its framin g (prose ) wor d contex t an d situa tional (plot) context. The Poem —A Parody and a Satire Let u s assum e tha t th e poe m i n Jon . 2.3-1 0 i s no t onl y a consciou s imitation bu t als o a humorous , self-consciou s one . I n tha t case , i t should be classified as a parody o f its generic kind . I believe that this interpretation clarifie s some o f th e poem's centra l feature s an d fits in with the tenor of the prose sections . The imagery o f the poem i s extremely extravagant . Th e water meta phors finall y ad d up t o a n inflated hyperbole , quit e removed fro m th e poem's central issue (separatio n fro m Go d an d the cultic shrine). An d yet, they finally amount to an inadequate aping of Jonah's actua l situation. Sheol, referred to in term s of a monster, is more horrifi c tha n the male/female/male fis h o f the prose narrative , a primaeval sea-dragon . The abundance and concentration of both metaphors constitute a veritable floo d (Mile s 1975 ) o f primordia l images . Suc h a concentrate d cluster (not e how many psalms were listed for the purpose o f comparison with this one!) exceeds ordinary poetic convention, or naive generic correspondence. Th e convention s are al l there , bu t ar e overdon e t o the poin t o f absurdity . Hence, th e resul t i s parody— a consciou s (!? ) imitation o f a literar y genr e whic h conveys , throug h exaggeration , comedy, an d humour , criticism o f th e sourc e genr e an d th e accepte d literary an d ideological norm s that inform it. Miles (1975 : 174-75 ) make s a n additiona l soun d point. Wate r an d abyss imager y i s ordinarily just that—imagery . I t refers t o situation s by metaphorizin g them int o something else, int o some equivalents . I n Jonah's case , however , th e metaphors ar e no metaphors. Rea d within the framing prose, they refer to the (extralinguistic) 'rea l thing'. Jonah is i n th e monster' s belly ; turbulent wate r i s al l over hi s head . Unlik e the imager y i n simila r psalms , th e metaphor s i n Jonah' s praye r ar e rendered invali d because , withi n th e story , the y ceas e t o functio n a s metaphors. Factualit y and image cancel each othe r out. The result i s a ludicrous parody o f the true believer's complaint: wil l the same meta phors still be meaningful whe n the metaphorized situatio n materializes ? Returning t o th e fram e narrativ e tha t immediatel y follow s th e prayer, i t is worth noting that God does no t answer Jonah's praye r b y

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word of mouth. The silenc e towards Jonah is especially conspicuous, since God communicates with the fish (a male fish once more; the Jewish exegetes mad e muc h of the frequen t change s o f th e fish' s gender). I s this not ludicrous? Jonah has spoken s o eloquently, delivere d a speech replete wit h erudite knowledg e o f conventionalized prayer , ye t that is not deemed worthy of a direct divin e reply! In obedienc e t o th e divin e word, th e fis h 'vomits ' Jona h ont o dr y land. 'Vomit ' is a strong word, evocative, derisivel y imaginativ e i n its reference t o th e digestiv e tract . Ca n w e reall y clai m tha t w e fee l sympathy towards the unfortunate messenger Jona h at this juncture, or do we laugh at him? Imagine the filth, to quote the Jewish sage s again! It is plain that the man is satirized, th e folly o f his behaviour exposed , his just deserts meted out to him. Let me repeat. Th e possibilit y tha t th e poem is a parody—critical and humorous, a comical presentation of genre and fictional character— could no t have been s o defined i n isolation . Ha d there no t been othe r indications o f genr e parod y (th e prophet' s call , th e reluctanc e t o comply, the conflic t betwee n prophe t and king , the God and prophe t dialogue) an d satir e (th e angr y prophet, hi s unusually pliant foils and target audience—foreig n sailors , foreig n city, foreig n king) , I would have been happ y to consider the prayer as an imagined sincere expres sion o f a person i n distress. A little incongruous perhaps, a conventio n borrowed fo r th e purposes o f insertion into a specific fictional context from a more genera l on e but, nevertheless, wel l grounded in biblica l traditions and biblical attitudes . As things stand, though, such an interpretation seems to me less than plausible. Medium and Message Stylistically, th e poe m introduce s a variet y o f for m int o th e Jona h story. Compositionally , it allows for a break and heightens the dramatic tension (Jona h remain s i n th e bell y o f th e fis h fo r th e duration ; w e readers remain i n suspense) . Hebre w genre s o f poetr y an d prophec y are parodized. Angr y Hebrew prophets , togethe r wit h quick t o repen t foreigners and , by implication, the famously obstinate 'Hebrews ' wh o seldom liste n t o thei r prophets ' cal l t o repent—al l ar e satirized . Th e question w e finally face is: what is the didactic aim of the entertainin g Jonah story ? Wha t messag e doe s th e humou r serv e apar t fro m entertaining?

BRENNER Jonah's Poem ou t o f an d within it s Context 19

1

Jonah is a reluctant messenger, albeit , an d despite himself, a success ful one . A s i t transpire s (ch . 4) , hi s reluctanc e stem s fro m a rigi d sense of justice. He does not want the foreigners t o escape their fate , the consequences o f their wicke d behaviour . Jonah , apparently , ha s a precise lega l min d and believe s i n divinel y meted retribution . It transpires tha t h e i s more extreme , mor e legall y 'just ' tha n the Go d wh o dispatches him . I n contradistinction , YHWH i s extremel y mercifu l towards al l creatures . Th e conflic t betwee n th e tw o coexisten t divin e attributes, justice and mercy/grace (Hebre w hesed\ cf . Exod . 20.5- 6 = Deut. 5.9-10 ; Exod . 34.6-7 ) i s th e subjec t matte r o f th e story . I n th e Jonah story , th e tw o attribute s ar e spli t betwee n th e tw o literar y personae. Jonah embodies the attribute of plain (absolute) justice; God embodies th e attribut e o f (relative ) mercy/grace . I n th e las t vers e of the book God says something like 'Ho w can I not forgive the Ninevites (= everyone) whe n they are s o lost, whe n they are s o numerous, when they ar e (like ) cattle? ' I n othe r words , huma n folly i s recognize d b y God (o r s o our autho r claims) fo r wha t it is . YHW H therefor e make s allowances. H e i s prepare d t o forgive , to b e on th e sid e o f lif e rathe r than rigi d principle whe n lif e i s a t stake . Th e flimsies t excuse—eve n repentance motivated by threat, the kind of repentance whose sincerity is questionable—suffices for Go d t o abando n hi s 'Sea t of Justice' an d proceed to his 'Sea t o f Mercy' (Yalkut Shim'oni, after Pirke deRabbi Eliezer). In the book o f Jonah, God's wor d is the final word. In the end Jonah is rendere d silent . I find it difficul t t o agre e wit h the Lacocque s tha t Jonah has acquired a 'self; his selfhood is one of expediency, it seems , rather tha n ideolog y an d recognition . Jona h does , however , lear n t o keep quiet when all else fails. Thu s the end is possibly an open end; he who appeale d t o God directly only when threatened b y fish and water , who sorrowe d s o energetically when the qiqayon plan t died an d could protect him no longer, perhap s remains unconvinced when God applies to hi m th e sam e treatmen t tha t woul d hav e awaite d th e equall y frightened gentiles . So, b y th e en d o f th e story , huma n foll y i s onc e mor e exposed . Within th e narrative , n o perso n ha s bee n immun e fro m it : prophet , sailors, foreigners , th e Hebre w communit y that created th e stor y an d adopted i t int o it s literar y canon , an y reade r an d an y write r o f th e established genre s utilized. Only God, whose superior wisdom dictates benevolence rathe r tha n huma n (sometime s hypocritical ) justice , i s

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depicted a s unperturbed by persona l and seemingl y theological considerations. And therein lies a lesson. To be truly huma n i s to partake of divinity no t only through orthodox sentiment (see th e poem). To b e in God's image (Gen. 1.26-27; 5.3), to be sanely judgmental, is to forsake legalis m and become understandin g and merciful. Jonah , prayer and all , remains the butt of the story. His example is certainly not one to b e followed. W e readers, d o we mostly behave like the messenger or like his dispatcher? Let us ponder this, but not without smiling.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Brenner, A . 1979 "Th

e Languag e o f Jona h a s Criterio n fo r th e Datin g o f th e Book' , Beth Miqra 79 : 396-40 5 (Hebrew) .

Carroll, R.P . 1987 'Lampoonin g th e Prophets : Tw o Burlesque s o n Prophecy ' (unpub lished pape r read a t the SB L Internationa l Meeting, Heidelberg , 1987) . 1990 'I s Humou r als o amon g th e Prophets?' , i n Y.T . Radda y an d A. Brenner (eds.) , O n Humour an d th e Comic i n th e Hebrew Bible (Bible an d Literature Series, 23 ; Sheffield : Almon d Press): 169-89 . Childs, B.S . 1974 Tlie Book of Exodus (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminste r Press). Hurvitz, A. 1985 'Original s an d Imitation s i n Biblica l Poetry : A Comparativ e Examination o f 1 Sam. 2.1-1 0 an d Ps . 113.5-9' , i n A . Kor t an d S. Morschause r (eds.) , Biblical an d Related Studies Presented t o Samuel Iwry (Winon a Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns): 115-21 . Lacocque, A. , an d P.-E . Lacocqu e 1990 Jonah: A Psycho-Religious Approach t o th e Prophet (Columbia : University o f South Carolina Press). Magonet, J. 1983 Form an d Meaning: Studies i n Literary Techniques i n the Book o f Jonah (Bibl e an d Literatur e Series , 8 ; Sheffield : Almon d Pres s [1976]). Miles, J.A. 1975 'Laughin g a t th e Bible : Jona h a s Parody' , JQR 65 : 168-8 1 ( = O n Humour an d th e Comic, 203-15) .

THE REDACTIONAL SHAPING OF NAHUM 1 FOR THE BOOK OF THE TWELVE James Nogalski

ABSTRACT This paper introduces a seldom recognized catchword phenomenon in the Book of the Twelve as one clue to understanding its unity and its growth. Nan. 1 is then discussed a s an example of how the recognition and evaluation of this technique both aids the interpretation of the text and furnishes insight into the growth of the Book of the Twelve.

1. Th e Unity o f th e Book o f th e Twelve Ancient source s provid e incontrovertibl e evidence tha t th e Boo k o f the Twelve wa s not only transmitted on a single scroll, but counted a s a singl e book, no t twelve. Jesus ben Sirach, LXX , Qumran, Josephus, 4 Ezra 14 , Baba Bathra 13b-15 a and Jerome al l attest t o the commo n transmission o f thes e writings. 1 Sir . 49.1 2 supplie s th e earlies t con crete reference t o 'Th e Twelve', meaning that they were alread y con sidered a corpus by th e beginning of the secon d centur y BCE. 4 Ezra 14 relates Ezra' s inspire d rol e i n th e restoratio n o f th e 2 4 canonica l books, an d Josephu s (Apion 1.40 ) count s 2 2 books. Whil e thi s dis crepancy create s som e uncertaint y over th e precise identit y o f thes e books, neithe r tota l ca n be reached unles s the Boo k o f th e Twelv e i s counted a s a singl e book . Jerom e state s thi s unit y explicitly i n th e introductory remark s t o his translatio n of the prophets. 2 Baba Bathra 1. Se e further th e discussions i n Dale Schneider, Th e Unity o f th e Book of th e Twelve (Ph D dissertation, Yal e University, 1979), pp . 1-4 ; J. Nogalski, Th e Us e of Stichworter as a Redactional Unification Technique in the Book of the Twelve (ThM Thesis , Baptis t Theologica l Seminary , Riischlikon, Switzerland , 1987) , pp. 2-3 . 2. 'Incipi t prologus duodecim prophetarum', Biblia Sacra Vulgata, II (Stuttgart:

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13b-15a categorizes th e Twelve differently fro m th e remaining books in th e Ol d Testament wit h regar d t o th e spac e betwee n th e writings, and whe n listin g th e orde r o f th e biblica l books , i t refer s t o 'th e Twelve', an d doe s no t refe r t o th e prophecie s containe d withi n by name. Th e remainde r o f th e evidenc e i s mor e indirect , bu t never theless helps demonstrate conclusively that the mino r prophet s hav e a long history which places them in a common transmission. Modern scholarshi p ha s for th e most part ignored thi s evidence, o r merely give n i t toke n acknowledgment . Th e fe w wh o d o trea t th e question ten d to regard th e writings as though they had entirely sepa rate transmissio n histories , implyin g that onl y th e fina l for m of th e individual writin g was incorporate d int o th e large r corpus. 1 Onl y a handful o f scholar s trea t th e growt h o f th e individua l writing s in connection with the context of the Book of the Twelve.2 Wiirttembergische Bibelanstalt, 1969) , p . 1374. Jerom e say s 'unu m libru m ess e duodecim prophetarum'. 1. See , fo r example, th e theories of H. Ewald, Die Propheten des Alten Bundes erklart (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2nd edn, 1868), pp.74-82; F. Delitzsch, 'Wann weissagt e Obadja?' , Zeitschrift fiir lutherische Theologie und Klrche 1 2 (1851), pp . 92-93; U . Cassuto, 'Th e Sequenc e an d Arrangemen t of th e Biblica l Sections', Biblical an d Oriental Studies, I (Jerusalem : Magnes , 1973) , pp . 5-6 ; C. Kuhl, Die Entstehung de s Alten Testaments (Bern: Francke, 1953) , pp. 217-18 ; H.W. Wolff, Dodekapropheton. II. Joel und Amos (BKAT , 14/2 ; Neukirchen : Neukirchener Verlag , 1977) , pp . 1-2 ; W . Rudolph , Haggai—Sacharja 1-8— Sacharja 9-14—Maleachi (KAT , 13/4; Giitersloh : Giitersloher Verlagshaus, 1976), pp. 297-98. Se e also the dissertations b y Schneider and A.Y. Lee, Th e Canonical Unity o f th e Scroll o f th e Minor Prophets (Ph D dissertation, Baylo r University, 1985). Most recently, th e wor k by P . House (The Unity o f th e Twelve [JSOTSup , 97; Sheffield : JSO T Press , 1990] ) applies a 'New Literary Critical' approach , and makes the assumption of one literary form programmatic for his treatmen t 2. C . Steuernagel (Lehrbuch de r Einleitung in das Alten Testament [Tubingen : Mohr, 1912] , pp . 669-72) believe s section s o f Nahum an d Zech. 9-1 4 wer e adde d after othe r sections of their respective writing s were already part of the canon. Two scholars attempte d redactional hypotheses t o explain common transmission which affected th e shape o f the writing s in the Twelve: K . Budde, 'Ein e folgenschwer e Redaktion des Zw61fprophetenbuchs',Z4W 3 9 (1921), pp. 218-29; and R.E. Wolfe, The Editin g of the Book o f the Twelve', ZAW 5 3 (1935), pp. 90-129. However , the efforts o f both Budde and Wolfe were seriously marred by the assumptions of the old source-critical school , an d have not received favorabl e treatment in subsequent commentaries. Mor e promisin g are the observations o f Blenkinsopp, Weimar an d Bosshard: J. Blenkinsopp, Prophecy and Canon (Notre Dame: Notr e Dame Press, 1977), pp. 106-108; P. Weimar, 'Obadja : Ein e redaktionskritische Analyse', BN21

NOGALSKI Th e Redactional Shaping ofNahum 1 19

5

A phenomeno n i n th e Boo k o f th e Twelv e exist s tha t ha s no t ye t been give n the attention i t deserves, namely , the presence o f words a t the en d o f on e boo k tha t reappea r a t th e beginnin g o f th e next . Occasionally, scholar s hav e note d tha t catchword s play a role i n th e order o f som e o f th e writings , but th e definition , exten t an d implica tions o f thes e catchword s remain s virtuall y untreated . Th e exten t o f these catchword s i s considerable . Anywher e from fiv e t o twenty-fiv e words appear i n tandem between adjacen t writings. The consistency of this phenomenon i s even more intriguing, in that those places where it breaks dow n (Jon . 4 ; Zech . 14 ) illumine othe r phenomena . Jona h 4 does no t exhibi t th e catchword s lik e th e endings of th e othe r books , but th e long note d secondar y hym n i n Jona h 2 doe s contai n catch words t o Micah 1 . Additionally, If Jonah is removed fro m considera tion, a stron g connectio n exist s betwee n Obadia h an d Mica h 1 . Th e end o f Deutero-Zecharia h present s a secon d inconsistenc y i n thi s catchword phenomenon. Yet while Deutero-Zechariah doe s no t exhibit the phenomenon, th e end of Proto-Zechariah manifests a strong wor d connection t o Malachi 1 . Both of these inconsistencie s therefor e rais e the questio n whethe r thes e section s wer e place d int o a n existin g connection. Three possible explanation s can b e offere d fo r th e Stichwort con - nections. Eac h optio n must be evaluated fo r every 'connection ' sepa rately, although some generalizin g helps to clarify th e character o f the connections. The three options are: (1985), pp. 94-99; E. Bosshard, 'Beobachtunge n zum Zwolfprophetenbuch', B N 40 (1987), pp. 30-62. Blenkinsopp notes that a number o f the writing s hav e received substantial additions wit h an eschatological character. Blenkinsopp i s not unique in noticing thes e additions , bu t he describes the m a s a common characteristi c i n the literary history of the Book of the Twelve. Blenkinsopp lists several of these additions, including Amo s 9.11-15, Obad. 16-2 1 an d Zeph. 3.9-20. Weimar briefly con siders the question of the growth o f the Twelve from th e perspective of Obadiah. H e argues that Obadiah must be viewed in light of several redactional levels across the Book o f th e Twelv e whic h poin t t o a commo n history . Weima r mention s on e progressive level o f redaction o n the prophetic collectio n whic h produce d literar y 'Querverbindungen' throug h the aid of'Stichwortentsprechungen'. H e suggests tha t at this level the 'collection' took the shape of a 'book'. Bosshard documents a strong correlation between the ordering of the writings i n the Book o f the Twelve and th e structuring theme s and motifs of Isaiah. His observations most certainl y point i n the direction of a common tradent , and, taken e n bloc, present a striking phenomenon tha t should be considered carefully .

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1. Accident. Thi s option is the least satisfyin g in most instances , because th e phenomenon appears to o frequently, an d becaus e the existence of broader organizin g principles (chronologica l order o f the superscriptions, similarity to Isaiah) demonstrates a thoughtfu l orderin g of most of the writings. 2. Collection. This option argues that a compiler recognize d th e similar wording , and placed th e completed work s next to one another. Thi s mode l represent s th e mode l traditionall y espoused o r presume d fo r th e growt h o f th e Boo k o f th e Twelve. I t is difficul t t o exclud e fo r ever y catchword , since one editoria l techniqu e appear s t o have incorporate d previ ously existing material into new contexts. Nevertheless, clos e analysis of th e text often lead s to th e conclusion that on e o r both of the books receive d significan t additions in light of the neighboring book, or in light of themes and motifs within the larger corpus . Man y times th e mos t significan t word s i n a connection appear i n passage s lon g noted a s 'secondary ' o r 'tertiary' in their respective contexts . One logical assumption is that the secondary portion was added to unite two or mor e works. 3. Redaction. Thi s optio n provides th e best mode l fo r treatin g the text s as a whole. It asks whether the appearance o f thes e catchwords, particularl y i n thos e passage s whic h ar e liter arily suspect , shoul d be approached a s deliberate change s t o the tex t i n vie w o f th e contex t of th e Book of th e Twelve . Indeed, significan t catchword s ofte n tak e on considerabl e importance whe n viewe d a s par t o f larger , programmatic work o n th e propheti c texts . Th e intentiona l reworkin g o f material fro m a n expanded literary contex t often provide s a plausible explanation for troublesom e synta x and pericopes. The recognition of variou s techniques for unitin g these texts helps to explain a large numbe r of the common words . Such techniques include redactional notes withi n existing contexts , incorporation o f pre-existin g material , fre e composition , redactional frame s an d superscriptions . Man y word s an d phrases traditionall y treated a s text-critical problem s tak e on greater significanc e whe n viewe d fro m a redactiona l an d literary perspective .

NOGALSKI Th e Redactional Shaping o f Nahum 1 19

7

2. Nahum 1 as Example A cursor y treatmen t o f Nahum 1 will exemplify this catchword tech nique. The phenomenon itself i s readily demonstrable , sinc e Nahum 1 shares a t least thirtee n differen t word s with Mic. 7.8-20. ' The words , both nomina l an d verbal , rang e fro m thos e whic h ar e relativel y common, suc h as 'river', to those whic h are quite uncommon, particu larly i n prophetic literature , suc h a s Bashan an d Carme l i n th e sam e context. The chapte r ma y b e safel y divide d int o thre e sections : th e super scription (1.1) ; th e semi-acrosti c theophanic hym n (1.2-8) ; an d th e remainder o f th e chapte r (1.9-14) . Clos e inspectio n o f th e Hebre w suffixes an d addressee s i n th e las t sectio n mak e i t difficul t t o vie w these verses a s an inherent unity. The remainder of the chapter ca n be further divide d int o fou r subsections : th e literar y transitio n fro m th e poem t o the Nineveh material (1.9-10); the accusation against Nineveh that originall y opened th e corpus (1.11) ; a reworke d oracl e o f relie f for Zio n (1.12-13) ; YHWH' s announcement o f the imminen t burial of the king of Assyria (1.14). There ar e goo d reason s fo r arguin g tha t a redacto r ha s expande d earlier materia l i n l.ll-12a , 14 . Recent studies on the composition of Nahum arrive a t the conclusion that Nahum did not obtain its final form until th e postexili c period. 2 Ther e i s stron g evidenc e tha t th e poe m (1.2-8) and its transition (1.9-10) are postexilic accretions. The remainder o f th e chapte r (1.11 , 12-14 ) blend s wit h 2.1- 3 (Eng. 1.15-2.2 ) 1. Thos e word s i n common between Nah . 1 and Mic . 7.8-20 are: 'enemies ' (Nah. 1.2 , 8 ; Mic. 7.8, 10) ; 'anger ' (Nah . 1.3, 6; Mic. 7.18); 'dust ' (Nah . 1.3 ; Mic . 7.17); 'sea ' (Nah . 1.4 ; Mic . 7.12); 'rivers ' (Nah . 1.4; Mic . 7.12); 'Bashan ' (Nah . 1.4; Mic. 7.14); 'Carmel ' (Nah . 1.4; Mic. 7.14); 'mountains ' (Nah . 1.5 ; Mic . 7.12); 'land' (Nah . 1.5 ; Mic . 7.13); 'inhabitants ' (Nah . 1.5; Mic. 7.13) ; 'day ' (Nah . 1.6 ; Mic. 7.11); 'passin g over' (Nah . 1.8; Mic. 7.18); 'darkness ' (Nah . 1.8; Mic. 7.8) . 2. Se e especially J . Jeremias (Kultprophetie und Gerichtsverkiindigung i n dec spaten Konigszeit Israels [WMANT, 35; Neukirchen: Neukirchener Verlag, 1970]) , who argues there was a pre-exilic core to Nahum which received a postexilic expan sion; and the more radical view s of H. Schulz (Das Buch Nahum: Eine redaktionskritische Untersuchung [BZAW , 129 ; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1973]) , who views th e entire book as a postexilic composition. Most recently K. Seybold (Profane Prophetic: Studien zum Buch Nahum [Stuttgarte r Bibelstudien, 135 ; Stuttgart : Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1989]) date s th e unit s differently tha n Jeremias , bu t agree s wit h him insofar as he also finds evidence of a pre-exilic core and exilic and postexilic additions.

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and expand s a n earlie r structure . Th e earlie r structur e include d a parallel cor e inside a redactional frame. Chapters 2- 3 manifes t a welldocumented parallel structure . The rol e o f 1.11 , 12 a and 1 4 as redac tional fram e for th e early corpu s has no t been noted , ye t its functio n as inclusio wit h 3.15b-17, 18-1 9 i s readil y demonstrabl e a s note d i n the followin g chart (wher e A = th e earl y redactiona l fram e an d B = the parallel core): A1 1.

1 l-12a: The numerical strength of Nineveh will not deliver it from destructio n A2 1.14 : The preparation of the grave of the king of Assyria B 2.4-14 : (Eng. 2.3-13) Firs t description of Nineveh's destruction B' 3.1-15 : Second description of Nineveh's destructio n A1 3.16-17 : The numerical strength of Nineveh will not deliver it fro m destruction A2 3.18-19 : Mocking funeral dirg e at the grave of the king of Assyria

The late r accretion s (1.12b , 13 ; 2.1-3 ) blen d allusion s an d quote s from Isaia h 5 2 as promises t o Zion and Judah. 1 Similar Isaiani c allusions i n th e literar y transitio n in 1.9-1 0 rais e th e likelihoo d tha t th e redactional han d responsible fo r thes e allusion s is th e sam e on e tha t incorporated th e semi-acrosti c poe m i n 1.2-8. 2 Al l of these observa tions, whe n taken together, reinforc e the belief tha t the semi-acrostic poem i n Nah . 1.2- 8 wa s a pre-existin g hymn tha t ha s bee n redac tionally incorporate d int o the corpus. Th e fac t tha t the catchwords t o Mic. 7.8-20 appear in the hymn deserves consideration. The semi-acrosti c poe m i s broke n i n fou r places . Eac h o f thes e places contain significant words , which also appear in Micah 7, raising the question o f whether this repetition is intentional. Recent literatur e tends t o relativiz e the acrosti c elements. A general consensu s exist s that regards th e hymn as never having extended beyond the first half of th e alphabet . A reactio n t o earlie r theorie s o f radica l emendatio n attempting to reconstruct the entire poem along acrostic lines , a s well as an increasing respect fo r the integrity of the MT, has cause d textua l corruption t o al l but disappea r as a n explanation for th e brea k i n th e acrostic characte r o f th e poem . Th e textua l corruptio n mode l ha s 1. Nah . 2.1 quote s Isa . 52.7 . I n additio n t o th e herald formul a of Isa. 52.7 , Nah. 1.12-1 3 contains other allusions to Isa. 5 2 as well. There Zio n is admonished to shake her bonds from he r neck (Isa. 52.2; cf. Nah 1.13), and reference is made to the oppression/affliction o f Assyria (Isa. 52.4; cf. Nah. 1.12). 2. Compar e Nah. 1.9-10 with the anti-Assyrian polemic in Isa. 10.15-19 .

NOGALSKI Th e Redactional Shaping o f Nahum 1 19

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virtually bee n replace d b y a widel y atteste d opinio n tha t th e hym n should be understood as only loosely semi-acrostic in nature. 1 The presuppositions of this relativization shoul d be challenged. Th e presuppositions, whic h ar e sometime s state d explicitly , concer n th e style o f th e poe m an d th e natur e of composition . Proponent s believ e the acrosti c techniqu e i s onl y one o f severa l stylisti c devices Nahu m uses, and that he was so creative that he was not slavishly boun d to one single devic e suc h as an acrostic pattern . Thi s relativizatio n assume s the acrosti c poe m a s it stands in the MT represents th e author' s wor k in its pristine state. I n response t o these assumptions, it should be noted that th e firs t assumptio n treat s th e creatio n o f acrosti c poetr y to o casually. The creatio n o f suc h poetry require s considerabl e delibera tion and creativity . I t is highly improbabl e tha t a poet would deliber ately choos e t o write a poem tha t is nearly acrostic . B y contrast , a n acrostic onc e recorded i s a subtle device which could readily b e overlooked o r ignored by someone desirin g the poem fo r another purpose . The secon d presuppositio n does no t conside r full y th e possibility tha t the inconsistencies in the acrostic ar e deliberate change s to the poem . Indeed whe n viewe d fro m thi s perspectiv e (withi n the fram e o f th e catchword phenomenon) , thes e inconsistencie s tak e o n considerabl e significance. In th e cas e o f Nah . 1.2-8 , thi s relativizatio n is unwarranted . Th e breaks i n th e acrosti c patter n can be explained plausibly as deliberat e alterations t o a pre-existing poem. Th e easiest disruptio n to explain is the presenc e o f th e i in th e • • line . Someone incognizan t of th e acrosti c nature of the poem woul d have readily added th e i to conform the text to more typica l syntax. The additio n o f th e tw o bicol a betwee n th e K an d a line s ca n b e explained fro m th e contex t o f th e Boo k o f th e Twelve. Nah . 1.2b-3 a introduces thematic elements that run counter to the main body o f th e acrostic poem , namel y th e dela y o f YHWH' s vengeance . Thi s dela y functions meaningfull y whe n one understands Nahum's position in the Book o f th e Twelve . Nahu m function s a s representativ e o f th e prophetic messag e durin g the Assyria n oppression. I n additio n t o th e 1. Suc h as J. De Vries, The Acrosti c of Nahum in the Jerusalem Liturgy' , VT 16 (1966), pp. 476-81; and R. Smith, Hosea-Micah (WBC , 32; Waco, TX : Word Books, 1984), pp. 71-72. By way of contrast, see D.L. Christensen, The Acrosti c of Nahum Reconsidered', Z4W87 (1975), pp. 17-30. Christensen offer s a reconstruc tion based on syllable count that too nearly approaches the old emendation attempts.

200 Among

th e Prophets

basic theme (destruction of Nineveh), its position following Micah and preceding Habakku k i s appropriat e fo r thi s function . Th e dela y i n 1.2b-3a b y n o mean s reflect s th e lac k o f fait h tha t YHW H woul d overthrow Assyria . O n the contrar y it i s better understoo d a s a theo logical reflectio n upo n historica l reality . YHW H wil l ultimately brin g judgment upon his enemies. I n addition, the phrases i n this expansion quote and adapt Joel 2.1 3 and 4.21. The redactor ha s worked differently i n the t line . Those no t opting for th e flexibilit y o f a loos e acrosti c devic e hav e bee n satisfied with either one of two suggestions for emendation, bu t both pose consider able difficulties. 1 I t makes good sense t o suppose tha t a redactor either changed th e firs t hal f o f th e n lin e o n th e basi s o f Mic . 7.1 4 o r inserted a n entirely ne w lin e int o the context . Th e pairin g o f Carme l and Basha n is not common, appearing only twice elsewhere (Isa . 33.9 ; Jer. 50.19) , bot h time s i n th e contex t o f Assyria n oppression . Thi s makes it difficul t t o believe tha t the two words appea r accidentall y i n adjacent passage s i n th e Boo k o f th e Twelve , particularl y i n ligh t of the fact that Nah. 1.4 breaks the acrostic pattern. Other stylisti c observations distinguis h thi s half-verse from th e remainder of the poem. 2 1. Th e presence of V^nt* breaks the acrostic, leading to the argument that V?1?! was original. However, LXX never translates "T^T with oXiyoco, but does use oXiyoto with y?aK (Joe l 1.10,12) . The second verb, e^eXucev, does not necessarily impl y another text, sinc e it can be used fo r ^Q K (cf . Isa. 38.14) . Th e Vulgat e likewise use s tw o different word s ('infirmatus' and 'elanguit'), but this likely relates to the two differen t subjects. Some , e.g . D.L . Christensen (Transformations o f th e Wa r Oracle in Old Testament Prophecy: Studies i n the Oracles against th e Nations (HDR ; Missoula , MT: Scholars Press, 1975], pp. 168-69) , hav e suggested tha t the verb was originally 3«i, but it is difficult t o perceive how these consonants could have been confused to the point of becoming V^DK, and it could not easily explain the reading in LXX. 2. I n addition to the acrostic interruption , several observation s se t this line apart literarily, making plausible the suggestion that this entire line has been substituted for one that did not adequately serv e th e redactor's purpose . First , thi s line is the only line i n the entire poe m containin g no referenc e to YHWH . Secondly , th e entitie s Carmel, Bashan and Lebanon are not intrinsic to Old Testament theophani c material. Thirdly, the passiv e us e o f "^DK stand s out fro m th e active verb s elsewher e i n th e hymn, giving this line a situational character, rather than one that depicts th e reaction to YHWH's appearance. Fourthly , the reference to the withering of Bashan, Carme l and Lebano n tak e u p literar y tradition s appearing elsewhere . Scholar s typicall y interpret th e witherin g o f thes e thre e area s onl y via tradition s associatin g thes e regions wit h fertility. However, thi s interpretation ignores two essential element s o f the metaphor: the political and the literary.

NOGALSKI Th e Redactional Shaping ofNahum 1 20

1

Three possibl e explanation s present themselve s fo r th e T line. Th e most commo n explanation argues for th e presumed dislocation o f *isb from elsewher e i n th e sentence . Simultaneousl y most argu e that th e form wa s originall y VJD 8?. Th e proble m wit h this proposa l i s tha t i t offers n o rea l explanatio n a s t o ho w th e wor d becam e transposed . More likel y i s a grammatical correction . Th e ver b i& u i n the qal can take a direct objec t without a preposition, an d be used in the sens e of 'to stan d before'. 1 A late r han d unaware of th e acrosti c coul d ver y conceivably have added th e preposition to conform to more common constructions o f "\ns. A third alternative suggests th e insertion o f th e phrase 'al l its inhabitants' in the preceding line could have accounte d for th e dislocatio n an d th e chang e from ns 1? to "•)&*?. Th e deletio n o f the phrase , an d the change to ns^, improve s th e parallelism. 2 The presence 'al l it s inhabitants ' ca n b e explaine d in ligh t of Mic . 7.13 , where th e phras e appear s i n simila r form . Thi s suggestio n i s les s probable than the simple grammatical change, but still well within th e realm o f possibility . Thus, not only can all four interruptions of the acrostic be explained as deliberat e changes , bu t a t leas t tw o an d possibl y thre e ar e bes t understood as the work of a redactor operatin g from a broade r literar y perspective. This broader perspectiv e demands brief treatment . 3. The Function ofNahum within the Book of th e Twelve A brief surve y of Nahum's structur e and literar y history confir m tha t its position an d function i n th e Boo k of the Twelve has been create d with considerable deliberation . Th e selection o f Nahum in its curren t position, a s alread y noted , coincide s wel l withi n th e historicall y oriented literar y framewor k of th e Boo k o f the Twelve , eve n thoug h it does not contain the typically Deuteronomistic superscriptions statin g the chronology , whic h themselve s probabl y represen t a n earlie r corpus.3 1. Fo r example , Gen . 19.27 ; Jer . 48.11 ; Hab . 3.11 ; Exod . 33.9 ; Josh . 20.4 . Many of these constructions also have theophanic elements present in the context. 2. Th e phrase would then have read originally, 'And the land is lifted u p before him (vMta) , and the world before him (vjB 1?)'. 3. Compar e Hos . 1.1 ; Amos 1.1 ; Mic. 1.1 ; Zeph. 1.1 . Similar Deuteronomistic superscriptions that lack reference t o the ruling king(s) appear in Joel 1.1 , Jon. 1.1 , Hag. 1. 1 an d Zech . 1. 1 ar e relate d stylisticall y t o on e another , an d probabl y

202 Among

the Prophets

The structur e of Nahu m i n it s expande d form, whic h incorporates the semi-acrostic poem, fits a structural pattern beginning in Micah and extending through Habbakkuk. This pattern helps explain the selection of th e theophani c hym n i n it s curren t position . Micah , i n it s lates t structural development , begin s wit h a theophani c portraya l (1.2-5) , and ends with a lament (7.1-7 [8-20]). Nahum also commence s wit h a theophanic portraya l an d conclude s wit h a wo e oracl e an d mockin g lament. Habakkuk starts with a compositional lament and finishes with a theophani c portraya l whic h share s vocabular y an d outlook , t o a certain extent, to Nahum 1. The inserte d redactiona l allusion s to Joel in Nah. 1.2b-3 a coincid e with th e sam e phenomeno n in Nah. 3. 1 Sab, 16b , an d indicat e a con siderable probabilit y tha t Nahum entered th e corpu s simultaneousl y with, or subsequently to, Joel. Th e dating of Joel in the Persian perio d (at least i n the form containing Joel 4) suggests tha t the Nahum corpus entered th e large r corpu s afte r 400 , an d no t close r t o th e tim e o f Deutero-Isaiah. In summary , the catchword phenomenon is one facet that should be borne i n mind whe n treating the writings of the Book o f the Twelve . In th e cas e o f Nahum , thi s phenomeno n simultaneousl y afford s a rationale fo r th e presenc e o f th e acrosti c poe m an d unlock s insights into the interruption of the acrostic pattern.

experienced similar transmission histories. They als o date the prophet's message by reference to the reign of a specific king.

INDEXES INDEX OF REFERENCES OLD TESTAMENT

Genesis 1 1.26-27 2.4-9 2.7 3 5.3 9.25 9.5 10 10.2 10.3 10.7 12.3 14.18 15.1 16.6-7 18 19.5-9 19 19.27 27-43 28.18 31 31.1-2 31.4-11 31. 7b 31.29a 31.31 31.43-55 35.8 35.14 37.25 43.11

134 192 96 134 88 192 95 124 117 118 118 118 65 122 123 165 98 98 98 201 165 122 165 165 166 165 165 165 166 123 122 124 124

Exodus 1.16 2.5 3.3 3.6-4.14 14 14.5 14.10 15 15.8 15.10 15.14-16 15.19 17.15 19.4 20.5-6 23.27 24.12 25.26 25.31 26 26.1 26.11 26.15 26.19 26.21 26.25 26.27 26.32 26.36 27 27.2-4 27.9 28.6-22 28.6

136 165 74 166 166 165 168 185 107 107, 123 167 107 120 58 191 167 120 121 122 121 120 121 120 121 121 121 121 121 120 121 121 120 121 120

28.13 28.18 28.39

31.18 33.9 34 34.6-7 34.6 34.7 34.22 35.11 35.28 36.20 37.29 39.11 39.28 39.33 40.5 40.18 40.19 40.26

121 122 120, 121 122 123 122 122 122 122 122 122 120 201 159, 161 160, 191 148 161 122 120, 121 122 120 122 122 120 120 121 120 121 121

Leviticus 2.1 2.6 2.11 4.7

122 122 124 123

29.1 29.12

29.13 29.40 30.23 30.24 30.25

31.11

Among the Prophets

204 5.15 8.2 8.9 9.2 10.9 14.4 14.49 16.3 16.5 20.24 21.20 23.13 24.17

122 122 121 122 122 120 120 122 122 124 122 122 124

Numbers 3.36 4 4.6 4.11 4.13 4.31 7 7.15 8.4 9.6 9.7 15.5 15.7 15.10 15.38 19.6 19.11 19.13 21.8-9 21.9 28.14 31.7 31.40 31.46 31.55

120 121 120 121 121 120 122 122 121 124 124 122 122 122 120 120 124 124 120 121 122 57 124 124 124

Deuteronomy 1.7 1.28 3.11 3.25 4.13 4.32-38

117 172 120 117 120 169

5.9-10 6.3 6.10 7.1 9.1-2 9.1 11.9 11.24 21.18 22.21 22.24 23.1 26.9 26.15 27.5 27.20 28.23 28.26 28.48 28.63 30.9 32.11 32.18 32.39 33.2 33.25 33.29 Joshua 1.4 3.10 5.1 6.19 6.24 9.1 10 10.1-27 10. 1-5 a 10.1-2 10.2 10.2a 10.3-4 10.4 10.5 10.5a 10.5b

191 124 172 96 170 172 124 117 14 98 98 50 124 124 120 50 120 56, 57 120 43,49 43 57, 58 73 135 75 120 123

117 96 45 120 120 117 175, 176, 178 164, 169, 180 171 172 169, 170 172 172, 180 170 173 172, 180 180

24.11

171 173, 181 173, 181 167, 173, 174, 181 173, 181 174 167, 169, 170 169, 170 173, 175, 181 171, 181 171, 173, 181 171 170 169 181 169, 170, 182 182 111 177, 178 170, 182 169, 171 182 117 117 117 201 96

Judges 3.3 3.9 3.15 4.3 4.15 5 5.4 5.8 6.6-7 6.11-24 6.37 9.15 9.21 10.10

117 168 168 168 167 185 75 122 168 74 124 117 165 168

10.5b-ll 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9-1 la 10.9 10.10

10.11 lO.llb 10.12-14 10.15 10.16-26 10.16 10.17 10.19 10.20 10.22-25 10.24 10.25 10.26 10.27

11.17 12.7 13.5 20.4

205

Index of References 20.18

167

Ruth 2.12 3.9

58 50

1 Samuel 1.14 2.1-10 2.1 2.6 2.10 4.7-8 14.18 14.41-42 16.1 16.13 17.5-6 17.5 17.12 17.38 17.44 17.46 19-27 19.10 19.12 19.18 21.10 22.17 23.2 24 26 27.4

122 185 123, 156 135 123 167 167 167 123 123 121 123 58 121 56 56 165 165 165 165 165 165 167 166 166 165

2 Samuel 1.21 1.23 2.6 5.23 13 15.14 20 21-24 21.10 22 22.3 22.31 22.36

122 56 136 167 165 165 185 185 56-58 185 123 123 123

23.3

123

1 Kings 1-2 1.39 1.50 2.28 5.13(4.33) 5.13 5.20 5.23 5.28 6.7 6.18 6.20 6.30 7.2 7.14-16 7.36 7.47 7.48 8.64 10.1 10.4 10.10 10.13 10.17 10.21 11.12 11.40 12.18 13.4 14.26 14.27 17.3 17.17-24 18.4a 18.4b-14 19.2 19.3

185 123 123 123 56 117 117 117 117 120 120 121 121 117 121 120 121 121 121 118 118 118 118 117, 123 117 165 165 121 166 123 123 166 135 166 166 166 166

2 Kings 5.7 12.6-13

135 120

14

14.9

146, 147, 149 117

14.24 14.25-27 14.26-27 14.26 14.27 16.14 17 17.7-18 18.4 19.21 19.23 19.31 19.32 22.5 25.17

145 145 147 148 146 121 148 98 121 56 117 56 122 120 121

I Chronicles 1 117 118 1.5

22.14 22.16 25.5 29.2

118 118 118 120 168 124 122 120 123 121 121 120 120 123 120

2 Chronicles 1.5-6 2.6 2.7 2.13 2.15 3.5 3.6 3.14 4.1 6.13 7.7 9.1

121 120 117 120 117 119 120 120, 121 121 121 121 118

1.6 1.9 1.32 4.21 5.20 5.21 9.29 15.27 16.27 18.8 22.3

206 9.3 9.9

9.12

9.16 9.20 13.14 19.18 25.18 26.14 32.30 34.10

Among the Prophets 118 118 118 117, 123 117 168 174 117 123 168 120

Ezra 3.7 14

117, 120 193

Nehemiah 4.10

123

Esther 1.6 4.11 6.1 8.15

120 136 121 120, 121

Job 6.19 10.16 12.7 14.26 24.19-20 28.2-8

28.18 31.34 35.11 38.39-41

39.21 40.10 41.7

117 58 56 123 105 56 124 44 56 56 43,49 123 123

18.31 18.36

19.6 21.6

22.3 22.5 24 28.7 29.4 29.5-6 29.5 30.4(3) 30.10 31.7 31.23 33.20 35.2 35.9 36.8(7) 40.17 42.7 42.8 45.4 45.5 46.3-4 46.3 47.10 48.8 50.9 51.20(18) 57.2(1) 57.5(4) 57.7(b) 59.12 61.5(4) 63.8(7) 66.15 68.3 68.4

68.16 Psalms 2.2 3.4 7.11 8.6 17.8 18 18.3

107 123 123 123 58 185 123

68.23 69 69.2 69.3 69.15 70.5 72.10

72.15

123 123 43,49 123 185 185 74 123 123 117 120 135 185 185 185 123 123 43 58 43 185 185 123 123 107 107 123 107. 117 122 56 139 139 139 123 58 58 122 45 43 117 117 184 185 106 106 43 117, 124 117

72.16 76.4

76.13 77.4 77.12 79.2 84 84.10 84.12

86.13 88.6(5)

88.8 88.18 89.19 89.28 90.16 91.4

92.13 93.4 96.6 97.5 102.16 102.22(21)

104.1 104.16 107.5 107.22 110.2 111.3 113.3 115.9 115.10 115.11 116.17 118.5 118.27 119.14 119.114 119.162 120.5 124.4-5 124.7 128.5 130.1 131.2 132.17 133.2 135.15

117 122 107 185 185 56 184 123 123 135 133 185 185 123 107 123 58 117, 120 107 123 45 107 56 75 117 185 185 123 123 185 123 123 123 185 185 123 43 123 43 117 139 139 56 106, 185 73 123 122 121

Index o f References 20 135.21 5 138.4 10 142.4 18 142.23-31 18 143.3-4 7 143.4 18 144.2 12 145.5 12 145.12 12 147.12 5 148.10 5 148.11 107 149.9 12

6 1.5-8(9 7 1.55 1.505 1. 8 1. 5 1. 3 1. 3 1.10-1 3 1.1 6 17,26,3 6 1.11-1 1.1 3 1.1

)1 63 62 63 7 14,2 8 18.3 9 13,9 51 0 13

3 5.1 2 16,25,27 , 7 29,3 2 5 5.12 a1 6 3 5.12b-13 a1 5 5 5.1 3 16,26,2 9 3 5.1 6 29,3 2 8 5.18-1 9 15-1 7 3 5.1 8 15,16,25 , , 14, 16, 3 7 2 5.1 9 15-17,23 , 5 29,3 7 25,27,29 , 1 122 32,3 6 43 7 5.2 0 15,16,26 , 1.15 3 32 9 Proverbs 1.16-2 0 13,1 4 5.2 1 15,26,2 9 2.7 12 3 1.16-1 71 6 5.2 2 15,27,2 8 5.15-20 5 0 1.1 6 13,3 7 5.23-2 41 5 6.11 12 3 1.1 73 7 5.2 33 7 9.13-18 5 0 1.1 8 13,1 6 5.2 4 14,16,17 , 24.7 12 4 1.19-2 0 14,2 6 25,26,32 , 24.34 12 3 1.1 9 14 , 17, 18, 3 7 30.5 12 3 23 , 25-27 5.29-3 05 7 1.20 13,14,1 7 6.1-1 3 18,21,22 , Canticles 1.2 19 7 24,26,30 , 1.5 11 7 2.245 2 35,36,4 0 3.9 11 7 2. 25 2 6.17 19,22,24 , 4.4 12 2 2. 35 6 25, 28,29, 4.6 11 7 2.783 2 36,3 7 4.8 11 7 2.1 0 12 3 6. 1 19,22,2 4 4.11 11 7 2.1 3 11 7 6. 3 19,22,3 7 4.15 5 0 2.1 9 12 3 6. 42 2 5.15 11 7 2.2 1 12 3 6. 5 19,21,22 , 7.5 11 7 3. 81 4 24,25,3 7 8.5 7 4 4. 35 6 6. 62 4 4.4 5 6 6. 7 21,22,2 9 Isaiah 5. 51 6 6. 8 19,21,22 , 1-39 12,13,37 . 5.8-2 4 14,16-18 ,2 7 39,40 24-26,28 - 6.9-1 3 12,24,2 5 1.2-20 13,16-18 , 33,37,4 0 6.9-1 0 23,28,35 , 24-27,29, 5.8-1 0 15 36 30,32,33, 5. 8 16,2 5 6. 9 12 , 18, 19, 37, 40 5. 9 16,25,2 7 21,23,2 5 1.2-4 12,1 4 5.11-1 71 5 6.1 0 18,19,23 , 1.2-3 1 4 5.11-1 2 16,27,28 , 25,33,35 , 1.2 13,14,2 13 23 7 1.3 16,25,2 7 5.11-12 a1 5 6.11-1 31 8 1.4 13,14,16 , 5.1 1 27,16 7 6.11-1 22 5 17,25,37 5.12-1 3 15,1 6 6.1 3 12 3

7

208 Among 7.1-9 7.1-6 7.8-9 8.1-4 . 8.5-8 8.6-8 8.6-7 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.17 9.2 9.7 10.1-4 10.5 10.6 10.12 10.15-19 10.18 10.32 10.34 11.15

13-23 13.2 13.5 14 14.1 14.8 14.9-11 14.9 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.15 14.18 14.19 16.10 17.1-6 17.4-5 17.7-8 17.7 17.12 17.13 18.2 18.3 18.6

th e Prophets 45 47 168 51 42, 51 49, 50, 52 51, 52 42-46, 4852 44, 45, 49 50-52 33 43 47 15 149 47 56 198 44 56 117 107 105 120 149 106 141 117, 120 125 107 107, 121 107 37, 107 107, 110, 116 107 107 122 45 33 30-33, 41 31 107 107 107 120 56

21.5 21.11-12 22.1-8a 22.6 22.8b-14

22.8b-ll 22.8b 22.11 22. lib 22.12-14 22.12-13 22.13

22.14 23.2-3 24.23 24.33 27.8 28.1-29

28.1-8 28.1-4 28.1 28.2-4 28.2 28.5 28.7-8 28.7 28.9-29 28.9-13 28.9-11 28.9-10 28.9 28.9a 28.9b-10 28.11-13 28.11

28.12 28.13 28.14-22 28.14

122 105 16 122 16-18,24, 25, 27, 3033,40 16 31 16, 17, 27, 29, 31, 32 31 16 38 16, 27, 28, 122 16, 17,27 107 56 56 107 19, 24, 2628, 30, 35, 36, 40 19, 21,27 37 27 19, 20 19, 20, 38 37 27-29 27, 32, 38 22 19,21,22, 36 20 20 19-21, 26 19,20 19, 20 20 19-22, 28, 34 19, 20, 26 20, 28 19, 20, 22, 37 19, 22, 38

28.15 28.17 28.17b-18

28.17b-19

28.18 28.19 28.21 28.22 28.22a 28.23-29 28.26 28.27-28 28.29

29.7 29.8 29.9-16

29.9-12 29.9-11 29.9-10 29.9a 29. 9b

29.9 29.10 29.11 29.13-16 29.13-14 29.13 29.14-16

29.14 29.15-16

29.15 29.16 29.17-21 29.17-18 29.17 29.18-19 29.18 29.19-21 29.19 29.20-21 29.20

19, 27, 30, 38 19, 38 38 21 19, 22, 27 19-21, 27 21, 22, 27 19,21,22, 27, 38 21 19,21,22, 27 19,21,26 21 19,21,22, 27 57 57 22, 24, 28, 30, 35, 36, 40 22, 28 36 36 23 23 35 23, 35 22, 28 22 22 22, 29, 30 22 22, 29, 30 22, 29 22, 29, 30 22, 29 34-36, 39, 40 36 34, 35, 117 31, 34 35 35 35 34 38

Index o f References 20 29.21 29.22-24 29.22 29.23 29.24 30.1-7 30.1 30.1-2 30.3-7 30.3-5 30.3 30.5 30.7 30.8-17 30.8-14 30.8 30.9-16 30.9-11 30.9 30.10-14 30.10-11 30.11 30.12 30.13-14 30.13 30.14 30.15-17 30.15

30.16 30.17 30.18-26 30.18-19 30.19 30.20-21 30.20 30.22 30.26 30.28 31.1-3 31.4-5 31.5 31.8-9

37 30-33, 4 0 31, 3 3 32 31, 3 2 17 14, 17 , 29, 38 17 17 33 33 33 28 17, 18,24 , 27, 30-33 , 40 17 17 29 28, 3 2 14, 17 , 18 , 26 17 17 17 17 17 17,22 33 17 17, 18 , 26 28 27 18, 3 3 30-33, 39 , 40 33, 3 4 56 33 33 37 25, 3 3 107 24 55-59 73 39

31.9 32.1-8 32.1-2 32.3 32.4-8 32.4 32.6-8 32.6-7 32.6 32.7-8 33.7 33.9 33.17-24 33.17-19 33.17 33.18 33.19 33.20-21 33.20 33.21 33.22 33.24 34 34.3 34.6 34.8 35 35.1-7 35.1-2 35.1 35.2 35.3-4 35.4 35.5-6 35.5-6a 35.5 35.6 35.6b-7 35.8-10 35.8 35.9 37.22 37.24 37.32 37.33 38.13-14

56 34, 35 , 37, 39,40 34, 3 8 34-36 34 35, 3 6 38 35 36, 3 8 38 37 39, 1 17, 20 0 34, 36 , 38 40 34 36 35 20, 3 4 34 37, 5 6 38 34, 3 6 34, 36 , 3 7 39 45 122 39 35, 3 9 36 34 43 35, 117 , 12 3 34 39 34, 36, 41 34 35, 3 9 35 34 34 37, 3 8 39 56 117 56 122 56

9 38.13 48.14 40-66 40-55 40.8 40.9 40.10 40.16 41.18 41.27 42.1 42.6 42.7 42.14 42.18-20 42.19 43.8 43.24 44.14 45.23 46.3-4 48.1 48.8 49.1-6

49.1 49.2 49.3 49.4 49.5 49.6 49.8 49.13-14 49.14-15 49.15 49.23 50.1-3 50.2 50.4-9 50.4-5 50.6-9 50.7 50.8 50.9 50.10

58 200 78, 8 1 13 63 56, 7 0 75 117 73 56 68 68 64, 6 8 72, 73 , 79, 81 64 68 64 65, 12 2 120, 12 3 77 73, 8 1 77 14 60, 62, 67, 68 62, 6 5 63, 68 , 70 64, 6 7 64, 65, 68, 69 64, 6 7 64, 65, 67, 68 68 80 81 73 70 70 107 60, 6 6 66 65 67 68 67 68

210 50.11 51.2 51.4 51.6 51.9 51.10 51.12-16 51.13 51.14 51.16 52

52.1 52.2 52.4 52.7 52.8

53 54.7-8

54.12 52.13 52.14 52.15 53

53.1 53.2 53.3 53.4 53.5 53.8 53.10 53.11 53.12 54.16 55.10-11 57.8 59.16 59.17 60.13 61

62.5 62.11-12 63 63.1-6 63.1-2 63.1 63.2 63.3-6

Among the Prophets 67, 68 71 68 68 71 106 70

68, 6 9 69, 70, 76 68, 7 0

198 56

56, 19 8 198

70, 19 8 75 81 72 124

69, 7 1 70

70, 7 1 60, 62, 69, 70 71 71 69 68 71 69

69, 7 1

69 69 124 63 97

78, 7 9

123 117 71 43,49,51 80 72,76

72, 73, 79 79 74-77, 7 9

74, 76, 77 77

63.3 63.4 63.5 63.6 63.9 63.10 64.9(10) 65.5 65.19 66.7-9 66.9 66.10-14 66.10-11 66.10 66.13 66.19 Jeremiah 1.1-2 1.4-8 1.5 1.9-10 1.10 1.13-14 2.20 2.34 3.2 3.6 3.13 3.19 3.20 3.24 7.31 7.33 8.22 9.9(10) 9.12 10.9 12.4 12.8-9 12.9 15.3 16.4 18 18.7-9 18.7-8 18.14

77 80 78-80 81

72, 8 0

81 56

50

72, 79 , 81 42, 43, 49, 50,52 49 44,50,51 73 118 166 166 68 70

68, 13 7

133 76,97 97 97 97 14 96 97 97 97 56, 5 7 124 56 14 120, 12 1 56 56 56 56 56 151 68 150 117

18.17 19.5 19.7 20.9 20.10 22.6 22.20 22.23 25.23 25.38 26.18 26.21 27.11 32.35 32.41 33.22 34.20 37.14-15 39.4 46-5 1 46.3 46.4 46.9 46.11 48.11 48.12 48.25 48.33 49.19 49.36 50.2 50.19 50.44 51.1 51.7 51.8 51.12 51.40 51.35

107 97 56 166 166 117 117 117 118 58 166 56 165, 16 6 141 97 43 43 56 166 165 105 122 123 122 124 201 76 123 122 58 107 120 200 58 107 122 124 120 122 56

Lamentations 1.15 1.17 2.10 2.13 3.10 4.12

77, 7 9 56 56 56 58 107

26

Index o f References 21 Eiekiel 1.7 3.1-3 9.2 9.16 11.1-13 11.4-12 16.1 16.2 16.3

16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 16.10 16.12 16.14 16.15 16.16 16.17 16.18 16.19 16.20 16.21 16.22 16.23 16.24 16.25 16.26 16.27 16.28 16.29 16.30 16.31 16.32 16.33 16.34 16.35 16.36 16.37 16.38 16.39

121 134 121 134 134 137

85, 87, 93 87, 93, 96 87, 90, 93,

95 87 87

85, 88 , 90 85, 87, 94,

96

50, 87, 92, 96, 10 1 88 88 88

87, 88, 93 85, 88, 93 88,94 88,94 88 88,93

88, 9 5 88, 8 9 87, 88 , 92 86, 89, 93 86

88, 8 9 88, 8 9 89

88, 8 9 86, 88 , 8 9

88 88 89 88

88, 89, 93 89, 93, 94 89, 90, 93,

97

89, 90, 94 90,97 90, 98

16.40 16.41 16.43 16.44 16.45 16.46 16.47 16.48 16.49 16.51 16.52 16.53 16.54 16.55 16.56 16.57 16.58 16.59 16.60 16.61 16.62 16.63 17.2 17.10 17.13-19 17.17 17.23 (LXX) 19.12 20.10-26 20.37 21.16(11) 23.3 23.6 23.8 23.10 23.11 23.12 23.24 23.47 25-32 25

25.12 25.13 26.1-28.19 26.6

1

90, 98 , UK ) 90, 10 0 90, 92, 93 90, 91, 93, 94, 10 0

26.7

91,93 91-93 91, 98 , 10 3 91,92,99

27.4

91,92

27.6

90 90,95

91 86,91,99

91 91 86

27

27.3

27.5-11 27.5-7 27.5

27.7 27.8-11 91,93 27.8 91-93 27.9-24 92,97 27.9 86, 92, 95, 27.9b-24 103 27.9b 92, 93, 95, 99, 100 , 103 27.10 85, 92, 93 117 27.11 27.12-24 107 27.12-23 97, 10 1 27.12 98 56 107 100 97 134 97 120 97 134 97 97 123 134 105 105 86 118 106 98

27.13 27.14 27.15 27.16 27.17 27.18 27.19 27.20

98 105-107,

114, 116 19, 123, 125, 13 6 106, 107, 114, 12 6 106, 107, 114, 11 5 116 114

116, 117, 119, 12 0 106, 117, 119, 120,

123 117, 119-2 1 114 107 115 107, 11 5 115 114 118, 122, 123 114, 11 8 114 116 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 12 3 115, 117, 118, 121, 124 115, 117-1 9 115, 118, 119, 123, 124 115, 119, 120, 122, 124 115, 122, 124 115, 118, 122, 12 4 115, 117, 118, 12 2 118

212 Among 27.21 27.22 27.23 27.24 27.25-26 27.25 27.26-27 27.26 27.27 27.28 27.29-36 27.29 27.32 27.33 27.33-34 27.34 27.34 27.35 27.36 28 28.12 28.133 28.17 28.19 29 29.5 29.21 30.18 31 31.3

31.6 31.12 31.13 31.14-17 31.15 31.16 32 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.22 32.26 33.10

th e Prophets 115, 117, 122 115, 117, 118, 120-22 115-18 115, 119, 120 107 114 115 106, 107 98, 106, 107, 115 107, 115 125 107, 116 106 107, 115 106 98 107, 115 107, 118 115 106, 136 107 120, 122 107 116 136 56 123 98 106 107, 117, 120 56 107 56, 58, 107 107 117, 125 107 136 107 98 56, 58 98 118 136

34.25 36.5 36.16-32 36.23-38 36.24-28 36.24 36.26-28 36.27 36.36 37.1-14

37.1-10

37.1-13 37.1b-8a 37.1-3 37.1-2 37.1 37.1b-2 37.2-6 37.2 37.3-10 37.3-8 37.3 37.3a 37.3b 37.4-8a 37.4-6 37.4

37.5-6 37.5 37.6

37.7b-8a 37.7 37.8 37.8b-10 37.9-10

37.9

97 86 134 140 140 140, 141 138 127, 139-42 137 127, 128, 134, 135, 137, 140 127, 129, 130, 135, 138 140, 141 129-31 129, 130 128 129, 132, 141 129-31 128 129-33, 138 128 128 131, 135 129, 130 130 129. 130 130 129-31, 133, 138, 141 131, 132 129-32, 136 132, 136, 141, 138, 140 131 128-30, 132 128, 130, 132, 141 129-32 128, 129, 133 128, 13032, 134

37.10

37.11-14 37.11-13 37.11

37.11b-13a 37.12-14 37.12-13

37.122 37.13b-14 37.14

37.15-23 37.16 37.19 37.211 37.24-28 37.24 37.26 38.4 38.5 38.6 38 7 38.133 38.155 38 20 394 39.17 39.18 40.3 43.15 43.23 43.25 44.7 44.17 44.21 45.13 45.24

128, 131, 132, 134, 141 128, 129, 131 139, 141 128, 129, 131, 133, 135, 136, 138, 139 135 129, 139, 141 128, 131, 132, 136, 138 132, 133 139 128, 131, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141 140 134 134 133, 134 140 140 97 98, 122 122, 123 117 98 98 98 56 56 56 122 121 123 122 122 97 124 122 122 122

213

Index of References 46.5 46.6 46.7 46.11 46.14

122 122 122 122 122

Daniel 2.38 4.12(9) 4.14(11) 4.21(18) 7.15-16 8.17 8.27 10.6

56 56 56 56 75 78 78 121

Hosea 1.1 1.2 2.2 2.18-25 2.18 2.23 2.24 2.25 4.3 4.13 4.18 5.14 6.5 11.10 13-14 13.1-6 13.7-11 13.7 13.8 13.12-15 13.15-14.1 13.15 14.2-4 14.3 14.5-9 14.5 14.6-8

201 97 96 161 56 73 161 70 56 123 123 58 137 58 161 161 161 58 58 161 161 107 161 160 161 160 117

Joel 1.1 1.10

201 200

1.12 1.20 2.1 2.12-14 2.13-14 2.13 2.14 2.15-17 2.19 3.5(2.32) 4 4.13 4.16(3.16) 4.17(3.17) 4.21

200 161 161 161 160 200 155, 161 161 161 56 202 79 56 56 200

Amos 1.1 1.2 3.4-5 3.14 4.11 5.6 6.4 6.13 7.9 7.11-13 7.11 9.11-15

201 56 56 123 98 148 147 147 146 166 146 195

Obadiah 16-21

Jonah 1-2 1.1-2.2 1.1 1.2 1.3

1.3b-4a 1.4-16 1.4-15 1.4-11 1.4

1.4a 1.5 1.6

1.7-10 1.10 1.11-14 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.15-16 1.15 1.16

1.17-2.10 2 2.1 2.2

2.3-10 2.3-4 2.3 2.4

195

151, 163, 168, 169 186 172, 180, 201 153, 169, 172, 180 170, 172, 180 180 171 173 181 151, 167,

2.5 2.6-7 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10

2.11 3-4 3.1 3.2-5

169, 170, 175 173 167, 170, 172, 173 151, 168, 173, 181 173 169, 170, 174 174 167 156, 169, 170 167 181 156, 170, 173, 175 169, 170, 175 171, 176, 181 156, 195 151, 169 156, 186, 187 183, 184, 189 145 185 107, 163, 170, 175, 185 184, 185 177 170, 172, 185 177, 185 184, 185 177, 184-86 152, 156, 171, 184, 185, 187 153, 187 144, 149, 152, 171 156 181

214 3.2-3 3.3-4 3.4 3.5 3.5-10 3.5-8 3.5a 3.6-10 3.6 3.7-8 3.8-9 3.8 3.8-4.2 3.9

3.10

4

4.1 4.2-6 4.2-3 4.2 4.3 4.5 4.6

4.7-9 4.7-8 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10-11 4.10

4.11

Micah 1

Among the Prophets 172 153 145, 15 3 153 154 147 182 182 155, 17 7 111 178 155 160 148, 151, 154, 155 , 177 145, 148 , 156, 157 , 159 168, 191 , 195 149, 15 3 154 154 148, 153, 157, 165, 170 154, 15 8 152, 15 5 153, 155 , 158 159 170, 18 2 151, 155 , 158 107, 151, 155, 15 7 158 157, 15 9 153, 157, 158 147, 148 , 157, 158, 171, 172, 182 195

1.1

1.2-5 1.4

2.9 3.10 3.12 4.2 4.8 7 7.1-7 7.8-20 7.8 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.17 7.18-20 7.18 7.19 7.20

Nahiim 1 1.1

1.2-8 1.2-3 1.2 1.2b-3a 1.3-4 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

.181 1.9-14 1.9-10 1.ll-12a 1.11

1.11 1.12-14 1.12-13 1.12

201 202 45 123 56 56 56 56 198 202 197, 198 , 202 197 197 197 197 197 197, 20 0 197 160, 16 3 163, 19 7 163 163

193, 197 , 201 197 197-99 160 197 199, 200, 202 163 163, 19 7 117, 197, 200 197 197 197 197 197, 19 8 197, 19 8 197 197 197 197, 19 8 198

1.12b, 1 3 1.13 1.14 2-3 2.1-3 2.1 2.4-14 2.4 3.8 3.1-15 3.15b-19 3.16-17 3.15ab, 16 b 3.18-19

198 198, 20 1 197, 19 8 198 197, 19 8 198 198 122 107 198 198 198 202 198

Habakkuk 2.17 3.3 3.4 3.11

117 75 123 201

Zephaniah 1.1 3.9-20 3.9 3.14 3.17

201 195 63 56 43, 49

Haggoi 1.1

201

Zechariah 1.1 1.14 1.17 4.10 6.1 8.3 9-14 9.9

14 14.12

201 56 56 123 121 56 194 56 117 117 195 57

Malaclii 1

195

10.10 11.1

Index of References

215

OTHER ANCIENT REFERENCES Apocrypha Sirach 49.12 19

3

New Testament John

15.133

Revelation 19.13-15 8 19.15 7 Josephus Apion 1.40 19

title, 11. 7- 9 10

p. 1 7 11 p. 33 , 1.58 110 p. 33 , 1.76 11 pp. 55-5 6 11

73 2 7

9

3 , 11 3 0 3

p. 64 , 11 . 2- 6 11 0

3

Rabbinic Literature b. B. Bat. 13b-15a 19 3 b. Ber.

Ancient Nea r Eastern Text s Amduat (Brcmner-Rhin d Papyrus, e d E . Hornung ) p. 2,

7a 14

6

b. Sab. 51a 14

6

T. d. Eliyy. 17 14

6

p. 6 4 10 9 0 p. 64, 1.6 11 p. 7 1 11 0 p. 7 4 11 3 p. 8 6 108 , 10 9 p. 9 8 11 0 p. 98 , 11 . 3-1 1 11 0 p. 10 1 11 3 p. 10 4 11 1 p. 11 6 10 9 p. 11 8 11 3 p. 12 1 11 1 p. 122 , 11. 4- 6 11 1 p. 12 5 10 9 p- 125 , 11. 11-1 2 11 1 p. 12 7 11 1 p. 127 , 11.5-8 11 1 p. 12 8 11 1 pp. 131-3 2 11 2 p. 132 , 11. 6-9 11 2 p. 13 2 11 2

pp. 139-4 0 11 2 p. 14 5 11 3 p. 15 4 11 4 p. 154 , 11 . 7- 8 11 4 p. 15 6 10 8 p. 16 7 11 0 pp. 180-8 1 11 3 pp. 180-81 , 11. 8-9 11 3 p. 181 , 11. 18-1 9 113 , 11 4 p. 18 4 11 0 p. 184 , 1. 5 11 3 p. 186,1 . 7 10 9 p. 18 9 109 , 11 3 p. 19 1 11 3 Baal 2.i (CML, pp. 40-43 ) 10 7 Descent of I star 11. 28-3 7 12 5

UT 68 12 129 12 137 12 2106.1-2 12 2102.6 11 UT 'nt 111 1-2 12

4 4 4 4 9 4

INDEX OF AUTHORS Abravanel, I. 145 , 149 , 15 7 Ackermann, J.S . 147 , 154 , 15 5 Alexander, T.D . 166 , 17 9 Alonso Schokel, L. 60 , 72, 74, 76, 81 Al-Qumisi, D. 15 0 Alshekh, M . 14 6 Alter, A . 14 7 Baltzer, D . 132 , 134 , 138-4 0 BartMlemy, D. 44 , 46, 52 Bartelmus, R . 13 9 Beaugency, E . de 156 , 15 7 Ben-Yosef, LA . 175 , 17 9 Bertholet, A . 13 8 Beuken, W. 49 , 52 Bickerman, E. 146 , 151 , 156 , 157 Blenkinsopp, J. 150 , 151 , 194 , 19 5 Bonnard, P.-E . 76-78 , 8 0 Bosshard, E. 194 , 19 5 Box, G.H . 74 , 75, 78 Braude. W.G . 14 6 Bredenkamp, C.J . 44 , 45, 52 Brenner, A . 70 , 19 2 Brock, S . 48 , 5 2 Brockington, L.H . 10 6 Brownlee, W.H . 4 6 Broylcs, C.C. 13 5 Brueggemann, W. 49 , 52 Budde, K . 45 , 52 , 19 4 Burden, J.J . 10 3 Burrows, M. 46 , 52 Calvin,J. 8 2 Carroll, R.P . 183 , 184 , 19 2 Cassuto, U . 19 4 Childs, B.S. 49 , 53, 148 , 185 , 19 2 Cheyne, T.K. 75 , 76, 79

Christensen, D.L . 179 , 199 , 20 0 Clark, D.R. 100 , 10 3 Clements, R.E. 13,44,45,49,53,61 , 64 Clines, D . 60-6 2 Cogan, M . 146 , 14 7 Cohn, G.H . 151 , 152 , 154 , 15 5 Cooke, G.A . 11 5 Craigie, P.C. 13 0 Daly, M . 7 3 Darr, K.P . 151 , 15 6 Davidson, A.B. 7 8 Delitzsch, F . 76 , 194 Dijk, H.J . van 106 , 107 , 114 , 118 , 119 , 124 Dozeman, T.B . 148 , 15 5 Duhm, B. 44 , 45, 53, 66, 74, 78 Eagleton, T. 147 , 15 9 Eichrodt, W. 94 , 96-98, 100 , 10 3 Elat, M . 11 8 Even-Shosham, A . 7 6 Ewald, H . 19 4 Exum, J.C . 5 6

Fey, R . 5 7 Finkelstein, L . 43 , 53 Fishbane, M . 89 , 90, 96, 101-103 , 128 , 129, 132 , 141 , 14 8 Fohrer, G . 57 , 13 8 Fox, M.V . 136 , 137 , 14 1 Fretheim, T.E . 14 9 Friedman, R.E . 145 , 15 3 Fuhs, H.F. 85 , 86, 88, 94, 96, 99, 101 , 103 Fullerton, K. 45 , 5 3

Index of Authors Gallico, P . 13 7 Garner, D.W . 94 , 10 3 Garscha, J . 138-4 0 Gershom, Lev i be n 14 6 Gese, H . 14 9 Gesenius, W. 43 , 53, 76 Geyer, J.B . 10 5 Giesebrecht, F . 44 , 45, 53 Good, E.M . 145 , 15 3 Gosse, B . 10 7 Gowan, D.E . 84 , 10 3 Graffy, A . 138 , 13 9 Greenberg, M . 85-92 , 94-98 , 103 , 10 4 Greenstein, E . 14 7 Gr0nba2k, J.H . 168 , 17 9 Halpern, B . 147 , 15 3 Hanson, P.D . 15 0 Mauser, A.J . 15 7 Hermisson, H.J . 65 , 67 Hitzig, F. 44,45,5 3 Ho'ffken, P . 130 , 132 , 134 , 14 1 Holladay, W.L. 43 , 53 Hossfeld, F . 134 , 135 , 138-4 1 House, P. 159 , 19 4 Hurvitz, A . 183 , 186 , 19 2 Illman, K.-J . 135 , 13 6 Irvine, S. 42,51,5 3 Jacobsen, T. 151 , 168 , 17 9 Jahn, G . 13 8 Jastrow, M. 49 , 53 Jepsen, A . 153 , 15 4 Jeremias, J . 19 7 Jones, G.H . 167 , 169 , 17 9 Kaiser, O . 20 , 44, 53, 57 Kang, S.-M . 166-69 , 17 9 Kapstein, I.J . 14 6 Kellermann, U . 97 , 10 4 Kermode, A . 14 7 Klein, H. 45 , 53 Kuan, J.K . 11 9 Klein, R.W . 13 7 KraSovec, J. 13 5 Kuhl, C . 19 4

217

Lacocque, A . 151 , 155 , 158 , 162 , 164 , 170, 17 9 Lacocque, P.-E . 162 , 183 , 19 2 Lack, R. 49 , 5 3 Lakoff, G . 14 5 Lambert, W.G . 5 9 Lang, B . 85 , 100 , 10 4 Lee, Y.A . 19 4 Leichty, E. 5 9 Lemke, W.E. 84 , 85, 104 , 13 0 Levenson, J.D . 14 7 Levine, B. 6 9 Licht, J. 147 , 14 8 Lindblom, J. 20 , 45, 53 , 137 Loades, A . 7 3 Lohfink, N . 15 2 Le Roux , J.H . 89 , 100 , 10 4 Lowth, R . 7 5 Luc, A . 94 , 101 , 103 , 10 4 McCarthy, D.J . 150 , 15 2 McFague, S. 72 , 73, 81 , 82 McKane, W. 12 4 McKeating, H . 87 , 10 4 McKenzie, J.L . 74 , 75, 78 Magonet, J. 146 , 150 , 154 , 164 , 166 , 174, 180 , 183 , 185 , 19 2 Margalit, B. 6 3 Marti, K . 45 , 5 3 May, H.C . 10 6 Mayes, A.D.H . 13 5 Mayo, J . 101 , 10 4 Meredino, R.P . 61 , 63, 67 Middleton, D.F . 7 3 Miles, J.A . 147 , 184 , 188 , 189 , 19 2 Newsom, C.A. 13 6 Nogalski, J . 159 , 19 3 Odeberg, H . 49 , 5 3 Paton-Williams, P. 6 4 Parunak, H . va n dyke 100, 101 , 104 , 128, 129 , 13 2 Presho, C. 100 , 10 4 Polk, T . 6 4 Preminger, A . 14 7 Prinsloo, W.S. 10 3

218

Among the Prophets

Rabenan, K . vo n 87 , 92, 100 , 10 4 Rad, G. vo n 167 , 168 , 18 0 Rembaum, J.E . 6 2 Rendtorff, R . 13,49,54 , 131 Rignell, L.C. 51,5 4 Rudolph, W. 43 , 54 , 153 , 19 4 Ruether, R.R . 73 , 8 1 Russell, L.M . 7 3 Sasson, J.M . 164 , 166 , 168 , 170 , 174 , 177, 18 0 Sawyer, J.F.A. 61 , 70, 78, 81 , 82 Schmidt, L . 146 , 15 0 Schneider, D . 159 , 193 , 19 4 Schoors, A . 5 7 Schroeder, O . 5 4 Schulz, H . 19 7 Selms, A . vo n 124 , 12 5 Seybold, K . 19 7 Skinner, J . 76 , 78, 80 , 82 Slotki, I.W . 8 1 Smith, G.A. 75 , 81 , 82 Smith, R.P. 58 , 19 9 Sperber, A . 47 , 5 4 Sperling, S.D . 15 0 Steck, O.H . 49 , 54 , 70 Sternberg, M . 156 , 166 , 18 0 Steuernagel, C . 19 4 Stewart, S. 144 , 145 , 15 2 Stuhlmueller, C. 61 , 74

Swanepoel, M.G . 95 , 10 4 Sweeney, M.A . 49 , 54 Tadmor, H . 146 , 14 7 Talmon, S . 14 0 Trever, J.C . 4 6 Trible, P . 73 , 81 Vermeylen, J . 49 , 5 4 Vries, J. de 19 9 Watkins, F.C. 12 7 Weber, R . 48 , 54 Weimer, P. 19 4 Weinfeld, M . 166 , 175 , 18 0 Westermann, C. 74 , 75, 79, 80 , 82, 129 Wevers, J.W . 86-88 , 90 , 98, 100 , 104 , 138 Whybray, R.N . 65 , 68, 74, 77, 78, 8 0 Wilcox, P. 6 4 Wildberger, H . 44 , 45, 54 , 57 Wolff, H.W . 145 , 147 , 150-53 , 174 , 180, 19 4 Wolfe, R.E . 19 4 Ziegler, J. 47 , 5 4 Zimmerli, W. 85 , 87-92, 95 , 100 , 102 , 104, 106 , 114 , 129 , 134 , 137 , 138-41

JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT Supplement Series 53 TH

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JEREMIAH'S THOUGHT IN TRANSITION

55 TH 56 TH 57

Jeremiah Unterman

E ORIGIN TRADITION OF ANCIENT ISRAEL: l. TH E LITERARY FORMATION OF GENESIS AND EXODUS 1-23

T.L. Thompson

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59 CREATIV

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62 TH

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63 SlIILOH

:

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Michael V. Fox

72 CIRCL

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81 ANTI-COVENANT : COUNTER-READING WOMEN' S LIVE S IN THE HEBREW BIBLE

Edited by Miek e Bal 8 2 RHETORI

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Dale Patrick & Allen Scult

83 TH 84 INT

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88 TH 89 TH

Alan J. Hauser & Russell Gregor y

E SYNTAX OF THE VERB IN CLASSICAL HEBREW PROSE

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9 3 JOSHU

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William T. Koopmans

94 WHA T DOES EVE Do TO HELP? AND OTHER READERLY QUESTION S TO THE OLD TESTAMENT

David J.A. Clines D SAVES: LESSONS FRO M THE ELISHA STORIE S Rick Dale Moor e 96 ANNOUNCEMENT S OF PLOT IN GENESIS Laurence A. Turner 97 TH E UNITY OF THE TWELVE Paul R. Hous e 95 GO

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102 TH E PRAYERS OF DAVID (PSALMS 51-72): STUDIES I N THE PSALTER, I I Michael Goulder 10 3 TH E SOCIOLOGY O F POTTERY IN ANCIENT PALESTINE : THE CERAMIC INDUSTRY AND THE DIFFUSION O F CERAMIC STYL E IN THE BRONZE AND IRON AGES Bryant G. Wood 104 PSAL M STRUCTURES : A STUD Y OF PSALMS WITH REFRAINS Paul R. Raabe 10 5 ESTABLISHIN G JUSTICE Pietro Bovati

106 GRADE D HOLINESS : A KE Y TO THE PRIESTLY CONCEPTION O F THE WORLD 107 TH

108 TH

Philip Jenson

E ALIEN I N THE PENTATEUCH Christiana van Houten

E FORGING OF ISRAEL:

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114 A

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115 I

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118 SEEIN G AND HEARING GOD WITH n IE PSALMS :

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119 TELLIN

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AN EXPERIMENT IN COMPARATIVE INTERPRETATION Edited b y David J.A. Clines & Tamara C. Eskenaz i

120 TH E REFORMING KINGS :

CULT AND SOCIETY I N FIRST TEMPLE JUDA H Richard H. Lowery 121 KIN G SAUL IN TI IE HISTORIOGRAPI i Y OF JUDAH Diana Vikander Edclman 122 IMAGE S OF EMPIRE Edited by Loveday Alexander 123 JUDAHIT E BURIAL PRACTICES AND BELIEFS ABOUT TI IE DEAD Elizabeth Bloch-Smit h 124 LA W AND IDEOLOGY IN MONARCI nc ISRAEL Edited by Baruch Halpern and Deborah W. Hobso n 125 PRIESTHOO D AND CULT I N ANCIENT ISRAEL Edited by Gary A. Anderson and Saul M. Olyan

126 W.M.L.D E WETTE, FOUNDER OF MODERN BIBLICA L CRITICISM: AN INTELLECTUAL BIOGRAPHY 127 TH

John W. Rogerso n

E FABRIC OF HISTORY: TEXT, ARTIFACT AND ISRAEL'S PAS T Edited by Diana Vikander Edelman 128 BIBLICA L SOUND AND SENSE: POETIC SOUN D PATTERN S IN PROVERBS 10-29 Thomas P. McCreesh, OP 129 TH E ARAMAIC OF DANIEL IN THE LIGI IT OF OLD ARAMAIC Zdravko Stefanovic 130 STRUCTUR E AN D THE BOOK O F ZECHARIAH Michael Butterworth

131 FORM S OF DEFORMITY : A MOTIF-INDEX O F ABNORMALITIES, DEFORMITIES AN D DISABILITIES IN TRADITIONAL JEWIS H LITERATURE Lynn Holden 132 CONTEXT S FO R AMOS: PROPHETIC POETIC S IN LATIN AMERICAN PERSPECTIVE Mark Daniel Carroll R. 133

THE FORSAKEN FIRSTBORN:

135

ISRAEL IN EGYPT:

A STUD Y OF A RECURRENT MOTIF IN THE PATRIARCHAL NARRATIVES R. Syre" n

A READING OF EXODUS 1 -2 G.F. Davie s 136 A WALK THROUGH THE GARDEN: BIBLICAL, ICONOGRAPHICAL AND LITERARY IMAGES OF EDEN Edited by P. Morris and D. Sawyer 137 JUSTIC E AND RIGHTEOUSNESS: BIBLICAL THEMES AND THEIR INFLUENCE Edited by H. Graf Reventlow & Y. Hoffma n 138 TEX T AS PRETEXT: ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF ROBERT DAVIDSON Edited by R.P. Carroll 139 PSAL M AND STORY: INSET HYMNS IN HEBREW NARRATIVE J.W. Watts 140 PURIT Y AND MONOTHEISM: CLEAN AND UNCLEAN ANIMALS IN BIBLICAL LAW Walter Houston 141 DEB T SLAVERY IN ISRAEL AND n IE ANCIENT NEAR EAST Gregory C. Chirichigno 142 DIVINATIO N IN ANCIENT ISRAEL AND ITS NEAR EASTERN ENVIRONMENT: A SOCIO-HISTORICAL INVESTIGATION Frederick H. Cryer

143 HOUSE S AN D THEIR FURNISHINGS IN BRONZE AGE PALESTINE : DOMESTIC ACTIVIT Y AREAS AND ARTIFACT DISTRIBUTION IN THE MIDDLE AND LATE BRONZE AGES P.M. Michel e Davia u

144 AMON G THE PROPHETS : ESSAYS ON PROPHETIC TOPICS Edited by P.R. Davies and D.J.A Clines